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Laguna University
Laguna Sports Complex, Bubukal Sta. Cruz, Laguna

MATHEMATICS
IN THE
MODERN WORLD
LEARNING LOG

Prepared by:
RACELIS, JOYCE ANN F.
BSA-1B
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Prof. Avelina E. Salomon

GE 3- Instructor

Learning Log
Table of Contents

Section Page

1 Mathematics in Our World 3

1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature
1.2 Fibonacci Sequence 4
1.3 Mathematics helps organize patterns 7
And irregularities in the world
1.4 Mathematics helps predict the behavior
of nature and phenomena in the world 8

2 Mathematical Language and Symbols 9

2.1 Characteristic of Mathematical language,

Precise, concise and powerful

2.2 Expression Vs. Sentence

2.3 Conversion in Mathematical Langugae 11

2.4 Four basic concepts: sets, functions,

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relations, binary operation

3 Problem Solving and Reasoning 23

3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

3.2 Intuition, proof and certainty 25

3.3 Polya’s 4 step of Problem Solving

Strategies

References 28

Section 1. Mathematics in our Modern World

Mathematics is the science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity and
arrangement. Math is all around us, in everything we do. It is the building block for
everything in our daily lives, including mobile devices, architecture (ancient and modern),
art, money, engineering, and even sports.

Since the beginning of recorded history, mathematic discovery has been at the
forefront of every civilized society, and in use in even the most primitive of cultures. The
needs of math arose based on the wants of society. The more complex a society, the
more complex the mathematical needs. Primitive tribes needed little more than the
ability to count, but also relied on math to calculate the position of the sun and the
physics of hunting.

1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature of Mathematics

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Mathematics is a tool. Play with it any way you want and see if you can make something.
Don’t worry if you break the tool, we’ll rebuild it, together.

Some scientist make some proof and understanding on which is mathematics was
present on nature. Early Greek philosophers attempted to explain order in nature,
anticipating modern concepts. Pythagoras, an ancient Greek philosopher, explained
patterns in nature like the harmonies of music as arising from number, which he took to
be the basic constituent of existence. On the other hand, Empedocles a Greek pre-
Socratic philosopher, to an extent anticipated Darwin's evolutionary explanation for the
structures of organisms. Plato argued for the existence of natural universals. He
considered these to consist of ideal forms of which physical objects are never more than
imperfect copies. Thus, a flower may be roughly circular, but it is never a perfect circle.

One of the things about Mathematics that we love the most is it’s uncanny ability
to reveal hidden beautiful patterns in our everyday life, the nature around us. These
patterns can be sequential, spatial, temporal, and even linguistic. There are connections
between things that don’t seem connected, but can be observed with the intellect of
math. Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These
patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled mathematically.
Natural patterns include symmetries, trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations,
cracks and stripes.

In short, we can say mathematics is the science of patterns.

Symmetries, means that one shape becomes exactly like another when you move it
in some way: turn, flip or slide. For two objects to be symmetrical, they must be the same
size and shape, with one object having a different orientation from the first. Examples:
butterfly, number 8, circle, square, honey comb. Trees and fractals, like many other things
in nature, the shapes of trees exhibit striking mathematical patterns. In fact, the verb
"branch" describes the mathematical process that produces the shapes. I notice that
branches are formed by a step-by-step process of splitting into smaller and smaller parts.
Examples of fractals are, snowflakes, trees branching, lightning, and ferns. Spirals, a
curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of circular shapes that revolve
around it. Examples of spirals are pine cones, pineapples, hurricanes and galaxies. The
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reason for why plants use a spiral form like the leaf picture above is because they are
constantly trying to grow but stay secure. Meanders, one of a series of regular sinuous
curves, bends, loops, turns, or windings in the channel of a river, stream, or other
watercourse. It is produced by a stream or river swinging from side to side as it flows
across its floodplain or shifts its channel within a valley. Examples. The meander of order
1 intersects the line twice: The meanders of order 2 intersect the line four times. Waves, a
disturbance that transfer energy through matter or space with little or no associated
mass transport. Example of it was mechanical wave like sound, ocean waves. Tessellation
is the tilting of a plane using one or more geometric shapes with no overlaps and gaps.
Examples of it are art, architecture, and origami. Cracks and Fracture occur due to the
development of certain displacement discontinuity surface within the solid. Stripe is series
of bonds or strips, often the same width or color along the length. Numbers are involved
in nature especially on the petals of a flower.

1.2The Fibonacci Sequence

The Fibonacci sequence is one of the most famous formulas in mathematics.

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Each number in the sequence is the sum of the two numbers that precede it. So, the
sequence goes: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on. The mathematical equation
describing it is Xn+2= Xn+1 + Xn.

The Fibonacci sequence exhibits a certain numerical pattern which originated as the
answer to an exercise in the first ever high school algebra text. This pattern turned out to
have an interest and importance far beyond what its creator imagined. It can be used to
model or describe an amazing variety of phenomena, in mathematics and science, art
and nature. The mathematical ideas the Fibonacci sequence leads to, such as the golden
ratio, spirals and self- similar curves, have long been appreciated for their charm and
beauty, but no one can really explain why they are echoed so clearly in the world of art
and nature.

The story began in Pisa, Italy in the year

1202. Leonardo Pisano Bigollo was a young man in his
twenties, a member of an important trading family of
Pisa. In his travels throughout the Middle East, he was
captivated by the mathematical ideas that had come
west from India through the Arabic countries. When he
returned to Pisa he published these ideas in a book on
mathematics called Liber Abaci, which became a
landmark in Europe. Leonardo, who has since come to
be known as Fibonacci, became the most celebrated
mathematician of the Middle Ages. His book was a
discourse on mathematical methods in commerce, but is now remembered mainly for
two contributions, one obviously important at the time and one seemingly insignificant.
Leonardo Fibonacci came up with the sequence when calculating the ideal expansion
pairs of rabbits over the course of one year. Today, its emergent patterns and ratios (phi
= 1.61803...) can be seen from the microscale to the macroscale, and right through to
biological systems and inanimate objects. While the Golden Ratio doesn't account for
every structure or pattern in the universe, it's certainly a major player.
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The Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it.

 The 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1)

 The 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
 And the 5 is (2+3),
 and so on!
Examples of Fibonacci patterns are flower petals, seed heads, pinecones, tree
branches, shells, spiral galaxies, hurricanes, faces, animal bodies, fingers, animal body etc.

1.3 Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the World

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Mathematics is everywhere and its function is to help organize pattern and

regularities in the world. For example, in the animal world (humans including)
symmetrical animals are regarded as the most attractive by both sexes. Another example
is the Fibonacci numbers are found in almost any flowers. Sunflowers have the seeds in
perfect Fibonacci order. 1 seed then 2 seeds 3 seeds 6 seeds 12 seeds 24 seeds and so on
in the flowers. This arrangement ensures maximum sunlight to each little seed in the
flower.

Pi has a great contribution in the formation of the nature and human invention. A
river flowing through a landscape has Pi in it. The straight distance from start to end
relates with Pi which measure the actual distance. The big pyramids have Pi in them. The
Egyptians didn't know Pi, but learned from experience. The formula is the height
multiplied with 2xPi. Divide the result with 4 which result to the length of the sides. It
gives the base you need to build as high as You can on a solid base with the given angle.
Other invention of human that uses mathematics is Google. The search engine of google
is based on an algorithm.
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1.4 Mathematics
Helps Predict the Behavior of Nature and Phenomena in the World

Using mathematical tools we can create models which correspond to what we can
measure and observe in the world of reality. Models that work really well, that predict
behaviors in the counterpart to the model which have not yet been observed, these are
taken as “laws of describing nature”. Occasionally, the mathematics of laws describing
phenomena not considered related reveal surprising unanticipated relationships.
Mathematics provide the framework within which our observations of the physical world
can be encoded. It goes beyond being merely descriptive when it exposes relationships
that integrate disparate subjects.

Mathematics can be used to explain how something recurs in nature. Mathematics is

used to explain why the Sun Set, where it went, and why it returned because it was easier
to count these events in numbers than put them into words. Similarly, formulas became a
way of using numbers to show how things in nature happen together or opposite one
another. Mathematics is helpful especially when seeking to explain the limitless feeling
one gets when contemplating the natural world that exists outside ourselves. The logic of
any idea that can be explained in words can be reinforced mathematically to reach and
persuade a larger audience about its concurrency with natural phenomena, its economic
applicability and its business potential.

Example:

Cloud seeding weather prediction

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Business forecast

Section 2. Mathematical Language and Symbols

Mathematics is written in a symbolic language that is designed to express

mathematical thoughts. English language is a source of knowledge, but it is not designed
for doing mathematics. This article describes how
mathematical thoughts, methods, and facts are

expressed in symbolism. That is, it emphasizes

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how to read and write mathematics.

2.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that
mathematicians like to express. It is: • precise (able to make very fine distinctions); •
concise (able to say things briefly); • powerful (able to express complex thoughts with
relative ease). The language of mathematics can be learned, but requires the efforts
needed to learn any foreign language. In this book, you will get extensive practice with
mathematical language ideas, to enhance your ability to correctly read, write, speak, and
understand mathematics.

2.2 Expression vs Sentence

Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining these words
into complete thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no exception. As a first step in
discussing the mathematical language, we will make a very broad classification between
the ‘nouns’ of mathematics (used to name mathematical objects of interest) and the
‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state complete mathematical thoughts).

Expression is a sentence fragment that stands for a single numerical value. On the
contrary, an equation is a sentence showing equality between two expressions.
The expression is simplified, through evaluation where we substitute values in place of
variables. Conversely, an equation is solved.

Expression

An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of
interest.

An expression does not state a complete thought;

it does not make sense to ask if an expression is true or false.

The most common expression types are numbers, sets, and functions.
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Numbers have lots of different names: for example, the expressions

55 2+32+3 102102 (6− 2)+1(6− 2)+1 1+1+1+1+11+1+1+1+1

all look different, but are all just different names for the same number.
This simple idea—that numbers have lots of different names—is extremely important in
mathematics!

Sentence

A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought.

Sentences have verbs.

In the mathematical sentence ‘3+4=73+4=7’ , the verb is ‘==’.

A sentence can be (always) true, (always) false, or sometimes true/sometimes false.

For example, the sentence ‘1+2=31+2=3’ is true.
The sentence ‘1+2=41+2=4’ is false.
The sentence ‘x=2x=2’ is sometimes true/sometimes false: it is true when xx is 22, and
false otherwise.
The sentence ‘x+3=3+xx+3=3+x’ is (always) true, no matter what number is chosen
for xx.

EXAMPLES:

22 is an expression
1+11+1 is an expression
x+1x+1 is an expression
1+1=21+1=2 is a (true) sentence
1+1=31+1=3 is a (false) sentence
x+1=3x+1=3 is a (sometimes true/sometimes false) sentence

2.3 Conversion in the Mathematical Language

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MATHEMATICS DICTIONARY

Word or Phrase Mathematical Operation

Sum, sum of, added to, increased by, more than, and, plus +

Difference, minus, subtracted from, decreased by, less, less than –

Product, the product of, of, multiplied by, times, per ⋅

Quotient, divided by, ratio, per ÷

Equals, is equal to, is, the result is, becomes =

A number, an unknown quantity, an unknown, a quantity x (or any symbol)

1.Twelve more than a number. 5.Two ninths of a number is eleven.

SOLUTION SOLUTION

12+x 2/9x=11

2.Eight minus a number. 6.Three more than seven times a number

is nine more than five times the number.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
8− x
3+7x=9+5x
3.An unknown quantity less fourteen.
7.Twice a number less eight is equal to
SOLUTION
one more than three times the number.
x− 14
SOLUTION
4.Six times a number is fifty-four.
2x− 8=3x+1 or 2x− 8=1+3x
SOLUTION

6x=54

2.4 Four Basic Concepts: Sets, Function, Relation, Binary Operation

SET

A set is a collection of well defined distinct objects, considered as an object in its own
right. For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered
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separately, but when they are considered collectively they form a single set of size three,
written {2, 4, 6}.

Some standard notations to represent sets :

N : the set of natural numbers

W : the set of whole numbers

Z or I : the set of integers Other frequently used symbols are :

Z+ : the set of positve integers Î : 'belongs to'

Z- : the set of negative integers Ï : 'does not belong to'

Q : the set of rational numbers $ : There exists, $ : There does not exist.

R : the set of real numbers

C : the set of complex numbers

REPRESENTATION OF A SET

There are two methods to represent a set.

 Roster method (Tabular form)

In this method a set is represented by listing all its elements, separating these by
commas and enclosing these in curly bracket.

If V be the set of vowels of English alphabet, it can be written in Roster form as :

V = { a, e, i, o, u}

If A be the set of natural numbers less than 7.

then A={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, is in the Roster form.

Note : To write a set in Roster form elements are not to be repeated i.e. all elements are

taken as distinct. For example if A be the set of letters used in the word mathematics,
then

A = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}

 Set-builder form
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In this form elements of the set are not listed but these are represented by some
common

property.

Let V be the set of vowels of English alphabet then V can be written in the set builder
form as:

V = {x : x is a vowel of English alphabet}

(ii) Let A be the set of natural numbers less than 7.

then A = {x : x Î N and 1 x £ <7}

Note : Symbol ':' read as 'such that'

Example:

(a) A={--- 3, 2, 1,0,1,2,3} (b) B = {3,6,9,12}

Solution : (a) A = {x : xÎ Z and3x3 -££ }

(b) B = {x : x = 3n and n Î £ N,n 4 }

 CLASSIFICATION OF SETS

Finite and infinite sets

Let A and B be two sets where

A = {x : x is a natural number}

B = {x : x is a student of your school}

As it is clear that the number of elements in set A is not finite (infinite) while number of
elements in

set B is finite. A is said to be an infinite set and B is said to be is finite set.

A set is said to be finite if its elements can be counted and it is said to be infinite

if it is not possible to count upto its last element.

Empty (Null) Set : Consider the following sets.

A={}
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x:xÎR and x + =1 0

B = {x : x is number which is greater than 7 and less than 5}

Set A consists of real numbers but there is no real number whose square is -1. Therefore
this

set consists of no element. Similiarly there is no such number which is less than 5 and
greater

than 7. Such a set is said to be a null (empty) set. It is denoted by the symbol void, f or { }

A set which has no element is said to be a null/empty/void set, and is denoted by f .

Disjoint Sets : Two sets are said to be disjoint if they do not have any common
element.

For example,sets A= { 1,3,5} and B = { 2,4,6 } are disjoint sets.

SUB- SET

Let set A be a set containing all students of your school and B be a set
containing all students of
class XII of the school. In this example each element of set B is also an element
of set A. Such a
set B is said to be subset of the set A. It is written as B A Í
Consider D ={1, 2, 3, 4,........}
E = {.....-3-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .......}
Clearly each element of set D is an element of set E also \ D E Í
If A and B are any two sets such that each element of the set A is an element
of the set B also, then A is said to be a subset of B.
Remarks
 Each set is a subset of itself i.e.A A Í .
 Null set has no element so the condition of becoming a subset is automatically
satisfied.Therefore null set is a subset of every set.
 If A B Í and B A Í then A = B.
 If A B Í and A B¹ then A is said to be a proper subset of B and B is said to be a
super set of A. i.e. A B Ì or B A É .
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POWER SET

Let A = {a, b}

Subset of A are f , {a}, {b} and {a, b}.

If we consider these subsets as elements of a new set B (say) then

B = {f,{a},{b},{a,b}}

B is said to be the power set of A.

Notation : Power set of a set A is denoted by P(A).

Power set of a set A is the set of all subsets of the given set.

UNIVERSAL SET

Consider the following sets.

A = {x : x is a student of your school}

B = {y : y is a male student of your school}

C = {z : z is a female student of your school}

D = {a : a is a student of class XII in your school}

Clearly the set B, C, D are all subsets of A.

A can be considered as the universal set for this particular example. Universal set is
generally

denoted by U.

In a particular problem a set U is said to be a universal set if all the sets in that
problem are

subsets of U.

Remarks

 Universal set does not mean a set containing all objects of the universe.
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 A set which is a universal set for one problem may not be a universal set for
another problem.

VENN DIAGRAM

British mathematician John Venn (1834-1883 AD) introduced the concept of diagrams
to

represent sets. According to him universal set is represented by the interior of a

rectangle and

other sets are represented by interior of circles.

For example if U= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {2, 4} and B = {1,3}, then these sets can be
represented as

Diagramatical representation of sets is known as

a Venn diagram.

DIFFERENCE OF SETS

Consider the sets

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B= {2, 4, 6}.

A new set having those elements which are in A but not B is said to be the
difference of sets A

and B and it is denoted by A-B.

\ A-B= {1, 3, 5}

Similiarly a set of those elements which are in B but not in A is said to be the
difference of B and
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A and it is devoted by B - A.

\ B - A = {6}

In general, if A and B are two sets then

A-B = { x : xÎ Ï A and x B}

B-A = {x : xÎ Ï B and x A }

Difference of two sets can be represented using Venn diagram as :

COMPLEMENT OF A SET
Let X denote the universal set and Y, Z its sub set where
X = {x : x is any member of the family}
Y = {x : x is a male member of the family}
Z = {x : x is a female member of the family}
X-Y is a set having female members of the family..
X-Z is a set having male members of the family..
X-Y is said to be the complement of Y and is usally denoted by Y' or Yc .
X-Z is said to be complement of Z and denoted by Z' or Zc .
If U is the universal set and A is its subset then the complement of A is a set of
those elements
which are in U which are not in A. It is denoted by A' or Ac .
A' = U-A = {x : x ÎU and x ÏA}
The complement of a set can
be represented using Venn
diagram as :
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Remarks

 Difference of two sets can be found even if none is a subset of the other but
complement of a set can be found only when the set is a subset of some universal
set.
 f = c U . (iii) Uc = f.

INTERSECTION OF SETS

Consider the sets

A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = { 2, 4, 6}

It is clear, that there are some elements which are common to both the sets A and
B. Set of these

common elements is said to be interesection of A and B and is denoted by A B Ç .

Here A B Ç = {2, 4 }

If A and B are two sets then the set of those elements which belong to both the
sets is said to be

the intersection of A and B. It is devoted by A B Ç .

A B Ç = {x : x ÎA and x ÎB}

A B Ç can be represented using Venn diagram as :

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UNION OF SETS

Consider the following examples :

 A is a set having all players of Indian men cricket team and B is a set having all
players of

Indian women cricket team. Clearly A and B are disjoint sets. Union of these two sets is

a set having all players of both teams and it is denoted by A B È .

 D is a set having all players of cricket team and E is the set having all players of
Hockety

team, of your school. Suppose three players are common to both the teams then union

of D and E is a set of all players of both the teams but three common players to be

written once only.

If A and B are only two sets then union of A and B is the set of those elements which
belong to

A or B.

In set builder form :

A B È = {x : x ÎA or xÎB}

OR

A B È = {x : x ÎA -B or xBA Î - or xAB Î Ç }

A B È can be represented using Venn diagram as :

n(A È B) = n(A -B) +n(B -A) + Ç n(A B) .

or n(A È B) = + n(A) n(B) - Ç n(A B)

where n A B È stands for number of elements in A B È so on.

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CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TWO SETS

Consider two sets A and B where

A={1, 2}, B= {3, 4, 5}.

Set of all ordered pairs of elements of A and B

is {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5)}

This set is denoted by A × B and is called the cartesian product of sets A and B.

i.e. A×B ={(1, 3), (1, 4),(1, 5),(2, 3),(2, 4),(2, 5)}

Cartesian product of B sets and A is denoted by B×A.

In the present example, it is given by

B×A = {(3, 1),(3, 2),(4, 1),(4, 2),(5, 1),(5, 2)}

Clearly A×B ¹ B×A.

In the set builder form :

A×B = {(a,b) : a Î Î A and b B}

B×A = {(b,a) : bÎ Î B and a A }

Note : If A = f or B = f or A,B= f

then A ´=´ B B A = f .

RELATION

relation is simply a set or collection of ordered pairs. Nothing really special about it. An

ordered pair, commonly known as a point, has two components which are the x and y

coordinates.

This is an example of an ordered pair.

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Main Ideas and Ways How to Write or Represent Relations

As long as the numbers come in pairs, then that becomes a relation. If you can write a

bunch of points (ordered pairs) then you already know how a relation looks like. For

instance, here we have a relation that has five ordered pairs. Writing this in set notation

using curly braces,

Relation in set notation:

However, aside from set notation, there are other ways to write this same relation. We

can show it in a table, plot it on the xy-axis, and express it using a mapping diagram.

 Relation in table Relation in graph

 Relation in mapping diagram

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 The domain is the set of all x or input values. We may describe it as the collection

of the first values in the ordered pairs.

 The range is the set of all y or output values. We may describe it as the collection

of the second values in the ordered pairs.

So then in the relation below

our domain and range are as follows:

When listing the elements of both domain and range, get rid of duplicates and write
them in increasing order.

What Makes a Relation a Function?

On the other hand, a function is actually a “special” kind of relation because it follows an

extra rule. Just like a relation, a function is also a set of ordered pairs; however, every x-

value must be associated to only one y-value.

Suppose we have two relations written in tables,

 A relation that is not a function

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Since we have repetitions or duplicates of x-values with different y-values, then this

relation ceases to be a function.

 A relation that is a function

This relation is definitely a function because every x-value is unique and is associated

with only one value of y.

So for a quick summary, if you see any duplicates or repetitions in the x-values, the

relation is not a function.How about this example though? Is this not a function because

we have repeating entries in x?

Be very careful here. Yes, we have repeating values of x but they are being associated

with the same values of y. The point (1,5) shows up twice, and while the point (3,-8) is

written three times. This table can be cleaned up by writing a single copy of the

repeating ordered pairs.

The relation is now clearly a function!

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Examples of How to Determine if a Relation is

also a Function

Example 1: Is the relation expressed in the mapping diagram a function?

Each element of the domain is being traced to one and only

element in the range. However, it is okay for two or more

values in the domain to share a common value in the range.

That is, even though the elements 5 and 10 in the domain

share the same value of 2 in the range, this relation is still a

function.

Example 2: Is the relation expressed in the mapping diagram a function?

Messy? Yes! Confusing? Not really. The only thing I am

after is to observe if an element in the domain is being

“greedy” by wanting to be paired with more than one

element in the range. The element 15 has two arrows

pointing to both 7 and 9. This is a clear violation of the

requirement to be a function. A function is well behaved, that is, each element in the

domain must point to one element in the range. Therefore, this relation is not a function.

FUNCTION

An ordered pair is a set of inputs and outputs and represents a

relationship between the two values. A relation is a set of
inputs and outputs, and a function is a relation with one output
for each input.

Some relationships make sense and others don’t. Functions are

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relationships that make sense. All functions are relations, but not all relations are
functions.

Section 3. Problem Solving and Reasoning

On the surface, math may seem like it's all about numbers and formulas. However,
this versatile subject is about much more than just counting, adding, and subtracting.
Discover why math is more than numbers, and find out how it contributes to the
development of valuable skills in problem solving, critical thinking, language, and more.

3.1 Inductive and deductive reasoning

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive and deductive reasoning are two fundamental forms of reasoning for
mathematicians. The formal theorems and proofs that we rely on today all began with
these two types of reasoning. Even today, mathematicians are actively using these two
types of reasoning to discover new mathematical theorems and proofs. Believe it or not,
you yourself might be using inductive and deductive reasoning when you make
assumptions about how the world works.

Inductive reasoning involves looking for patterns and making generalizations. For
example, students use this type of reasoning when they look at many different
parallelograms, and try to list the characteristics they have in common. The reasoning
process is enhanced by also considering figures that are not parallelograms and
discussing how they are different.
 28

Students may use inductive reasoning to discover patterns in multiplying by ten or a

hundred or in working with exponents. Learning mathematics should involve a constant
search for patterns, with students making educated guesses, testing them, and then
making generalizations.

Many students use inductive reasoning more frequently than teachers realize, but the
generalizations that they form are not always correct. For example, a student may see
the examples 16/64 = 1/4 and 19/95 = 1/5 and reason inductively that the common digits
in a fraction may be canceled. The student must realize that she needs to continue to
test her conjecture before making such a generalization, since 17/76 is not equal to 1/6,
for example. Students must also realize that while inductive reasoning demonstrates the
power of mathematics and allows great leaps forward in understanding, it is insufficient
in itself. The generalizations that are obtained by using inductive reasoning can only be
accepted by "proving" them through deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning involves making a logical argument, drawing conclusions,

and applying generalizations to specific situations. For example, once students have
developed an understanding of "parallelogram," they apply that generalization to new
figures to decide whether or not each is a parallelogram. This kind of reasoning also may
involve eliminating unreasonable possibilities and justifying answers. Although students
as young as first graders can recognize valid conclusions, the ability to use deductive
reasoning improves as students grow older. More complex reasoning skills, such as
recognizing invalid arguments, are appropriate at the secondary level.

Understanding the power of reasoning to make sense of mathematics is critical to

helping students become self-reliant, independent mathematical thinkers. Students must
be able to judge for themselves theaccuracy of their answers; they must be able to apply
mathematical reasoning skills in other subject areas and in their daily lives. They must
recognize that mathematical reasoning can be used in many different situations to help
them make choices and reach decisions.

In summary, mathematical reasoning is the glue that binds together all other
mathematical skills. By using inductive and deductive reasoning as they learn
 29

mathematical concepts and solve mathematical problems, students come to recognize

the extent to which reasoning applies to mathematics and to their world.

3.2 Intuition, Proof and Certainty

In the philosophy of mathematics, intuitionism or neointuitionism (opposed to

preintuitionism), is an approach where mathematics is considered to be purely the
result of constructive mental activity of human rather than the discovery of
fundamental principles claimed to exist in an objective reality.That is logic and
mathematics are not considered analytic activities where in deep practice of
objective reality are revealed and applied but instead considered the application of
internally consistent methods to realize more complex mental construct, regardless
of their possible independent existence in objective reality.
In mathematics, a proof is inferential argument for a mathematical statement. In
argument, other previously established statements, such as theorems, can be used.
In principle a proof can be traced back to self-evident or assumed statements,
known as axioms, along with accepted rules of inference.
Certainty is perfect knowledge that has total security from error, or the mental
state of being without doubt. Objectively defined, certainty is the total continuity
and validity of all foundational inquiry, to the highest degree of precision.
Something is certain only if no skepticism can occur.

3.3 Polya’s 4 Step Problem Solving Strategies

One of the primary reasons people have trouble with problem

solving is that there is no single procedure that works all the time —
each problem is slightly different. Also, problem solving requires
practical knowledge about the specific situation. If you misunderstand
 30

either the problem or the underlying situation you may make mistakes or incorrect
assumptions. One of our main goals for this semester is to become better problem
solvers. To begin this task, we now discuss a framework for thinking about problem
solving: Polya’s four-step approach to problem solving.

George Polya was a Hungarian who immigrated to the United States in 1940. His
major contribution is for his work in problem solving. Growing up he was very frustrated
with the practice of having to regularly memorize information. He was an excellent
problem solver. Early on his uncle tried to convince him to go into the mathematics field
but he wanted to study law like his late father had. After a time at law school he became
bored with all the legal technicalities he had to memorize. He tired of that and switched
to Biology and the again switched to Latin and Literature, finally graduating with a
degree. Yet, he tired of that quickly and went back to school and took math and physics.
He found he loved math.

Polya's four-step approach to problem solving

1. Preparation: Understand the problem

Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts

Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:

1. What sort of a problem is it?

2. What is being asked?

3. What do the terms mean?

4. Is there enough information or is more information needed?

5. What is known or unknown?

Rephrase the problem in your own words.

Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem.

2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan

You must start somewhere so try something. How are you going to attack the problem?
 31

Possible strategies: (i. e. reach into your bag of tricks.)

1. Draw pictures

2. Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns.

3. Be systematic.

4. Solve a simpler version of the problem.

5. Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test. (Guessing is OK.)

6. Look for a pattern or patterns.

7. Make a list.

Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the problem
aside for a while. Your

subconscious mind may keep working on it.

Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and creative
rather than becoming tense,

frustrated, and forced in your efforts to solve the problem.

3. Insight: Carry out the plan

Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down immediately. When you have
time, try it out and see if it

leads to a solution.

If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try another approach. Often
the first approach does not

work. Do not worry, just because an approach does not work, it does not mean you did it
wrong. You actually

accomplished something, knowing a way does not work is part of the process of
elimination.
 32

Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times, you will often
have a flash of insight: a new

idea to try or a new perspective on how to approach solving the problem.

The key is to keep trying until something works.

4. Verification: Look back

Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works.

1. Did you answer the question?

2.Is your result reasonable?

3. Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the problem are
satisfied.

4. Double check any computations involved in finding your solution.

 If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple mistake.
Try to fix or modify your current

attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you tried—it is likely that at least part of it
will end up being useful.

 Is there another way of doing the problem which may be simpler? (You need to
become flexible in your thinking. There usually is not one right way.)
 Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future
problems?

REFERENCES

Online Pages

Section 1
 33

https://www.livescience.com/38936-mathematics.html

https://medium.com/math-%CF%80rates/beauty-of-numbers-and-patterns-a-world-
shaped-by-math-71d240c4ee05

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature

https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ACYBGNSv8a-dzltvF-
jJQh5BR3JVlU4YPA%3A1568427927150&ei=l098XcvoCJLr-
QbzlLzIAw&q=trees+mathematical+pattern+examples&oq=trees+mathematical+patter
n+exam&gs_l=psy-
ab.1.0.33i22i29i30.240782.244516..246639...0.2..0.258.1339.0j5j2......0....1..gws-
wiz.......0i71j35i39j0i22i30.s6kAC8Rn728

https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ACYBGNTf9k1Ucoe74ltuDVLsbomdhwD8-
Q%3A1568428175039&ei=j1B8XcaHAsTn-Aa2p4-
oAg&q=spiral+mathematical+pattern+examples&oq=spiral+mathematical+pattern+exa
mples&gs_l=psy-ab.3...138527.141250..141897...0.1..0.184.1174.0j7......0....1..gws-
wiz.......0i71j0i13.6xtWuez27ls&ved=0ahUKEwiGi-
qhos_kAhXEM94KHbbTAyUQ4dUDCAs&uact=5

https://www.google.com/search?q=meander&oq=meander&aqs=chrome..69i57j35i39j0l
3j69i60.5234j1j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ACYBGNSeZAzdgdATGUZzj9FdQF9dLEE3kg%3A1
568428318164&ei=HlF8XcvVCdWA-
Qal1Iy4Ag&q=meander+mathematical+pattern+examples&oq=meander+mathematical
+pattern+examples&gs_l=psy-ab.3...62550.65108..65622...0.8..0.174.1296.0j8......0....1..gws-
wiz.......0i71j0i13.eVWXAJtq7MY&ved=0ahUKEwjL3Inmos_kAhVVQN4KHSUqAycQ4dUDCA
s&uact=5

https://www.livescience.com/37470-fibonacci-sequence.html

https://math.temple.edu/~reich/Fib/fibo.html

https://www.quora.com/How-does-mathematics-help-to-organize-pattern-and-
regularities-in-the-word

https://www.academia.edu/37079573/MATHEMATICS_HELPS_PREDICT_THE_BEHAVIOR_
OF_NATURE_AND_PHENOMENA_IN_THE_WORLD?auto=download
 34

Section 2
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315712910_The_Symbolic_Language_of_Mathe
matics

http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf_files/LANG1.pdf

http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/algebra_book/online_problems/exp_vs_sen.htm

https://imathblog.wordpress.com/2013/02/20/translation-of-mathematical-statement-in-
symbols/

https://www.google.com/search?q=set&rlz=1C1AOHY_enPH714PH714&oq=set&aqs=chr
ome..69i57j0l5.2563j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

http://download.nos.org/srsec311new/L.No.15-A.pdf

https://www.chilimath.com/lessons/intermediate-algebra/relations-and-functions/

https://us.sofatutor.com/mathematics/algebra-1/functions-and-relations

Section 3

http://archive.dimacs.rutgers.edu/nj_math_coalition/framework/ch01-04/ch01-04_s4.html

https://www.scribd.com/document/388414571/Intuition-Proof-and-Certainty
http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/M110/Worksheet/PolyaProblemSolve.pdf