high-range water reducer

Related terms:

Creep, Fly Ash, Cement-Based Material, High-Performance Concrete, Silica Fume,

Superplasticizers, Chemical Admixture, Control Concrete

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Calculations Relating to Concrete and

Masonry
Sidney M. Levy, in Construction Calculations Manual, 2012

5.4.2 Superplasticizers
The use of superplasticizers (high-range water reducer) has become a quite common
practice. This class of water reducers was originally developed in Japan and Germany
in the early 1960s; it was introduced in the United States in the mid-1970s.

Superplasticizers are linear polymers containing sulfonic acid groups attached to the
polymer backbone at regular intervals. Most of the commercial formulations belong
to one of four families:

• Sulfonated melamine-formaldehyde condensates (SMF)

• Sulfonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensates (SNF)

• Modified lignosulfonates (MLS)

• Polycarboxylate derivatives

The sulfonic acid groups are responsible for neutralizing the surface charges on the
cement particles and causing dispersion, thus releasing the water tied up in the
cement particle agglomerations and thereafter reducing the viscosity of the paste
and concrete.

ASTM C 494 was modified to include high-range water-reducing admixtures in the

edition published in July 1980. The admixtures were designated Type F water-reduc-
ing, high-range admixtures and Type G water-reducing, high-range, and retarding
admixtures.

Effect of Superplasticizers on Concrete Properties. The main purpose of using

superplasticizers is to produce flowing concrete with very high slump in the range of
7–9 in. (175–225 mm) to be used in heavily reinforced structures and in placements
where adequate consolidation by vibration cannot be readily achieved. The other
major application is the production of high-strength concrete at w/c's ranging from
0.3 to 0.4.

The ability of superplasticizers to increase the slump of concrete depends on such

factors as the type, dosage, and time of addition of superplasticizer; w/c; and the
nature or amount of cement. It has been found that for most types of cement,
superplasticizer improves the workability of concrete. For example, incorporation of
1.5% SMF to a concrete containing Type I, II, and V cements increases the initial
slump of 3 in. (76 mm) to 8.7, 8.5, and 9 in. (222, 216, and 229 mm), respectively.

The capability of superplasticizers to reduce water requirements 12–25% without

affecting the workability leads to production of high-strength concrete and lower
permeability. Compressive strengths greater than 14,000 psi (96.5 mpa) at 28 days
have been attained. Use of superplasticizers in air-entrained concrete can produce
coarser-than-normal air-void systems. The maximum recommended spacing factor
for air-entrained concrete to resist freezing and thawing is 0.008 in. (0.2 mm). In
superplasticized concrete, spacing factors in many cases exceed this limit. Even
though the spacing factor is relatively high, the durability factors are above 90 after
300 freeze–thaw cycles for the same cases. A study indicated that high-workability
concrete containing superplasticizer can be made with a high freeze–thaw resistance,
but air content must be increased relative to concrete without superplasticizer. This
study also showed that the type of superplasticizer has nearly no influence on the
air-void system.

One problem associated with using a high-range water reducer in concrete is slump
loss. In a study of the behavior of fresh concrete containing conventional water
reducers and high-range water reducer, found that with time slump loss is very rapid
in spite of the fact that second-generation high-range water reducers are claimed
not to suffer as much from the slump loss phenomenon as the first-generation
conventional water reducers do. However, slump loss of flowing concrete was found
to be less severe, especially for newly developed admixtures based on copolymeric
formulations.
The slump loss problem can be overcome by adding the admixture to the concrete
just before the concrete is placed.

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation—FHWA

However, there are disadvantages to such a procedure. The dosage control, for
example, might not be adequate, and it requires ancillary equipment such as
truck-mounted admixture tanks and dispensers. Adding admixtures at the batch
plant, besides dosage control improvement, reduces wear of truck mixers and
lessens the tendency to add water onsite. New admixtures now being marketed can
be added at the batch plant and can hold the slump above 8 in. (204 mm) for more
than 2 hours.

Recommendations
1. Verification tests should be performed on liquid admixtures to confirm that the
material is the same as that which was approved. The identifying tests include
chloride and solids content, ph, and infrared spectrometry.
2. If transit mix trucks are used to mix high-slump concrete, it is recommended
that a 75 mm slump concrete be used at a full mixing capacity to ensure
uniform concrete properties.
3. If transit mix trucks are used to mix low w/c ratio concrete, it is recommended
that the load size be reduced to ½ to ⅔ of the mixing capacity to ensure
uniform concrete properties.
4. If freeze–thaw testing as described by ASTM C 666 indicates this to be a
problem, it is recommended that the air content be increased by 1.5%.

> Read full chapter

Innovative ABC Techniques

Mohiuddin Ali Khan Ph.D., M.Phil., DIC, P.E., in Accelerated Bridge Construction,
2015

4.8.12 Self-consolidating/compacting concrete

The ease of placement and reduced demand for skilled labor are the main advantages
of using SCC. It can be used with high-range water reducers to achieve high
early-strength concrete. Proper curing is critical.

SCC has very high slump and flowability properties without segregation. It uses
specialty admixtures, which radically modify slump and flowability. Examples of such
admixtures are viscous modifiers and high-performance polycarboxylate polymers.
SCC is an improved version of HPC, with compressive and tensile strengths exceed-
ing those of normal concrete.

Benefits are:

• It provides superior appearance and long-term durability.

• It eliminates the need for vibration.

• The resulting concrete is totally homogeneous with a uniform surface finish.

• To further enhance durability, a calcium-nitrite corrosion inhibitor may be

added to the mix.
• It attains higher quality control resulting with values in excess of 9 ksi.

• The voids and honeycombing seen in many traditional concrete mixes are
avoided.
• It can be used successfully in new construction projects with difficult
placement or finishing.
• It is effective for repairs of concrete honeycombing.

• It is effective for strengthening projects when material must be placed under

pressure into confined forms with highly congested reinforcement.
• The concrete is so flowable that instead of measuring the height of the slump
cone, the diameter of the circular blob that pours out of a slump test cone is
measured.
• Concrete pumping is easier. Forms do not have to be vibrated to consolidate
concrete.
• There are labor savings because crews can pour large repair areas using a single
pump.
• Because vibration time is saved, SCC helps ABC; it is a more workable concrete
with lower permeability than conventional concretes.

SCC for use in drilled shaft applications: When conventional concrete is used in
congested drilled shafts, coarse aggregates may bridge between reinforcing bars,
which may lead to segregation of the concrete between the inside and outside of
the reinforcing cage. SCC is feasible for use in congested drilled shaft applications.

> Read full chapter

Assessing ash quality and performance

L.L. Sutter, D.P. Bentz, in Coal Combustion Products (CCP's), 2017
9.5.2 High range water reducer incompatibilities
While the previous section focused on incompatibilities due to sulfate imbalance
in simple cement/fly ash mixtures without chemical admixtures, additional issues
often arise when a high range water reducer (HRWR) is included in the concrete
mixtures, along with other admixtures. As shown previously by Roberts and Taylor
(2007), excessive retardation can also be produced by the improper selection of an
HRWR; in their particular study, a lignin-carbohydrate water-reducing admixture
was used. A further example of this influence of HRWR on performance is provided
in Fig. 9.6, showing the difference in hydration response depending on the selection
of HRWR employed in a Type II/V cement/Class F fly ash blended paste (50:50 on
a mass basis). While both HRWRs are observed to increase retardation, the perfor-
mance of HRWR-B would almost certainly be unacceptable from a practical concrete
construction viewpoint. In addition to dramatically lengthening the duration of the
so-called “induction period,” HRWR-B has also modified the basic shape of the peak
in the calorimetry curve. The Class F fly ash by itself produced no retardation, so any
delays in setting time for a blended paste without HRWR would be simply due to a
dilution effect (e.g., the blended mixture containing only 50% of the cement present
in the control mixture).

Fig. 9.6. Isothermal calorimetry curves for a Type II/V cement/Class F fly ash blend
with (two different) and without an HRWR (Bentz, Ferraris, et al., 2013).

The above examples clearly indicate that calorimetry can be a useful tool in de-
veloping HVFA mixtures as it provides diagnostic information about the hydration
reactions occurring in the paste. As complete and useful as this measurement tech-
nique is, it cannot readily predict all the important early-age performance issues of
cement-fly ash mixtures such as false setting, early stiffening, etc. A more complete
picture of how these mixtures will perform will often require additional test meth-
ods, such as modified versions of the ASTM C359 Standard Test Method for Early
Stiffening of Hydraulic Cement (Mortar Method) (ASTM C359, 2013), a mini-slump
test (currently under ASTM ballot), and rheometer tests based on the guidance
provided in the ASTM C1749 Standard Guide for Measurement of the Rheological
Properties of Hydraulic Cementitious Paste Using a Rotational Rheometer and
elsewhere (ASTM C1749, 2012; Roberts & Taylor, 2007; Tanesi, Ardani, Meininger, &
Nicolaescu, 2012).

> Read full chapter

Formulation of commercial products

S. Mantellato, ... R.J. Flatt, in Science and Technology of Concrete Admixtures, 2016

15.2.1 Slump retention

A typical commercial admixture may consist of polymers having high water re-
duction capability in combination with other ones showing good slump retention.
For example, the workability of high-range water reducers, such as PNS and PMS,
can be enhanced by blending such superplasticizers with lignosulfonates, with the
additional advantage of having a low-cost final formulation (Chang et al., 1995).

Other solutions include blends of pure PCEs. In these blends, the slump-keeper
polymers can be either copolymers having a high grafting degree (low amount
of charges on the backbone) or acrylic-based PCEs, of which the side chains can
undergo hydrolysis in alkaline pore solutions (Mäder et al., 2004).

> Read full chapter

Adsorption of chemical admixtures

D. Marchon, ... R.J. Flatt, in Science and Technology of Concrete Admixtures, 2016

10.1 Introduction
The working mechanisms of numerous chemical admixtures involve the adsorption
of water-soluble compounds at a solid–liquid interface. This is particularly the case
for water reducers and high-range water reducers, to which most of this chapter is
dedicated. Moreover, this process also concerns retarders. Additionally, adsorption
of rather water-insoluble compounds and/or substances with a high affinity to
surfaces is exploited in air-entraining and shrinkage-reducing admixtures, where
surface active agents (surfactants) are used to specifically alter properties of the
liquid–vapor interface of concrete. Despite having high affinity to liquid–air inter-
faces, these surfactants may, however, also adsorb onto the solid–liquid interface or
self-associate into micelles or liquid crystals. This makes the description of surfactant
adsorption a delicate task, as discussed in Section 10.4.3 for the solid–liquid interface
and in Section 10.7 for the liquid–air interface.

If we consider a given dispersant, its impact on fluidity increases with dosage, pro-
vided that the admixture continues to adsorb on the surface of the solid particles to
disperse (Section 10.2). In fact, it is especially the adsorbed fraction of the dispersant
that is responsible for the effect on fluidity, as explained in Chapter 11 (Gelardi and
Flatt, 2016). Depending on the admixture type and its dosage, there may or may
not be an equilibrium established between the fraction of admixtures adsorbed and
those remaining in solution. The nature of this relationship is most often reported
in the form of adsorption isotherms, which are covered in Section 10.3.

In addition to the nature of the surface, this relation is profoundly affected by the
chemical nature of the dispersant. Although it is difficult to establish general
relationships owing to the variety of chemical compositions and structures available,
we outline some general chemical features of dispersants that affect their adsorption
in Section 10.4.

Molecules with a low affinity to the surface may desorb if the conditions are changed
(Section 10.5). This may be by replacing the solution with water (Platel, 2005, 2009)
or by modifying the ionic composition of the solution by increasing the sulfate or
hydroxyl ions concentrations (Yamada et al., 2001; Marchon et al., 2013). Admixtures
may therefore be subject to competitive adsorption, which can reduce their perfor-
mance as discussed in Section 10.5.2.

Other factors that reduce the performance of admixtures can involve an apparent
increase rather than reduction in adsorption (Section 10.6). Most of these are
due to artifacts linked to the standard way of solution depletion used to measure
adsorption. Indeed, in this approach, adsorption is determined by measuring the
difference between the amount of admixture added and its fraction remaining in
solution after a given time. However, if admixtures are consumed by precipitation
(Section 10.6.1) or intercalation (Section 10.6.2), their apparent adsorption increases.
The amount of admixture adsorbed and acting as dispersant may either increase,
remain equal, or even decrease. The latter situation happens if the admixtures are
more effectively precipitated or intercalated, so that the surface coverage of particles
to be dispersed decreases. A similar situation may occur if the admixtures modify
the process of nucleation and growth of aluminates, causing an increase in the
solid–liquid interfacial area (Section 10.6.3).

The above issues concerning the interpretation of adsorption data are tightly linked
to experimental procedures. For this reason, we include at the end of this chapter
an extensive section about experimental aspects (Section 10.8).
> Read full chapter

Repair materials for concrete structures

D.W. Fowler, in Failure, Distress and Repair of Concrete Structures, 2009

7.2.8 Silica fume concrete (SFC)

SFC is used where low permeability, high strength, and high durability are re-
quired. Typically, 5–10% by mass of the cement of silica fume is used along with a
high-range water reducer that is required for workability. The advantages are the low
permeability and high strength that result in higher durability. The limitations are
reduced workability with increased levels of silica fume, and the potential for plastic
shrinkage cracking. The limited amount of bleed water may make a steel trowel finish
difficult (ACI 546R-04).

> Read full chapter

Superplasticizers and the rheology of

concrete
R. Flatt, I. Schober, in Understanding the Rheology of Concrete, 2012

Polynaphthalene sulfonates
Polynaphthalene sulfonates (PNS) are naphthalene sulfonic acid formaldehyde con-
densates. The dispersing ability of PNS is higher than that of lignosulfonates and
therefore higher water reduction is possible. PNS can be called ‘high range water
reducers’ or superplasticizers. First introduced into the admixture market in the
1960s they are widely used nowadays.

The polycondensates are produced in two steps as shown in Fig. 7.2. First naph-
thalene is sulfonated with sulfuric acid to give P-naphthalene sulfonic acid. In the
following condensation reaction with formaldehyde in aqueous medium the linear,
anionic polymer is formed. The molecular weight of these polymers is dependent
on the reaction time and can be thus regulated (Pieh, 1987).
7.2. Reaction scheme for production of PNS (Pieh, 1987).

PNS are mostly linear anionic polymers that are commercially available as sodium
or calcium salts. They are sold as aqueous solutions with 20–45% solids or as brown
powder. The sodium salts may still contain remarkable amounts of residual sodium
sulfate from the production, whereas the amount of sulfate in the calcium salts is
usually lower due to the poor solubility of gypsum which precipitates and can be
removed form the solution.

PNS dispersants have relatively low molecular weights. Their dispersing ability
starts with about five repeating units with a maximum dispersing power at higher
molecular weights between 1000 and 20 000 (Pieh, 1987; Aitcin et al., 2001). The
optimal molecular weight of PNS dispersants is, however, dependent on the type
of the cement. High molecular weight PNS are more effective in fluidizing pastes
made with cements with a high alkali content. However, the molecular weight has
little effect in fluidizing pastes made from a low alkali cement. Differences in the
molecular weight of PNS do not appear to significantly affect cement hydration
(Kim et al., 1999).

Not all cements are compatible with all PNS. This is a serious problem for concrete
production. PNS dispersants usually greatly increase the fluidity of fresh concrete.
However, the dispersing effect can be of short duration and can result in a rapid
slump loss depending on the particular combination of cement and PNS used.
Because of these incompatibility problems, the mode of action and behaviour of
PNS in different cements or concretes have been extensively studied.

Soluble alkalis were shown to increase the fluidity and the duration of the fluidity of
a cement paste superplasticized with PNS (Jiang et al., 1999). This effect is explained
by the fact that alkalis increase the concentration of sulfate ions, which in turn
reduce the adsorption of PNS on aluminate phases causing more PNS to remain
in the solution (Kim et al., 2000; Aitcin et al., 2001). This is congruent with the
findings that the incompatibility is related to the type and amount of gypsum in the
cements (Nakajima and Yamada, 2004). More detailed explanations on the influence
of soluble alkalis and sulfates on the performance of superplasticizers are given later.

> Read full chapter

Sustainability of cement, concrete and

cement replacement materials in con-
struction
M. Sonebi, ... P. Diederich, in Sustainability of Construction Materials (Second
Edition), 2016

15.2.1.4 Chemical admixture

Chemicals are becoming essential for the production of modern concrete, especially
with the development of HPC (Sonebi and Khayat, 2001), including SCC (Sonebi,
2004; Sonebi and Bartos, 1999, 2002; Zhu et al., 2004), ultra-high-performance con-
crete (UHPC), and so on. They are based on chemical organic or inorganic molecules
and are used to improve various properties of concrete, such as flow properties
(water reducer agent, WRA, and high-range water-reducer agent, HRWRA), stabil-
ity (viscosity modifying agent, VMA) (Sonebi, 2002, 2006; Sonebi et al., 2013a,b),
air content (air entraining agent, AEA), shrinkage (admixture reducing agent), for
example. WRA and HRWRA are the most used chemical admixtures with 40% and
38%, respectively, of the total amount of admixtures sold in Europe (EFCA, 2006).
These admixtures play a major role for the concrete industry as they can be used
for main objectives. The first objective is to reduce the water content of concrete
to improve strength and durability while maintaining adequate flow properties.
The second objective is to increase flow properties of concrete while maintaining
the same water content (Sonebi, 2009). These admixtures are at the origin of the
development of high-performance, self-consolidating concrete (Sonebi and Bartos,
1999, 2002). The main types are sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde, sulphonat-
ed melamine formaldehyde, vinyl copolymers and polycarboxylic ether-based. They
have an eco-profile close to that of cement with a CO2 emission of 0.72 kg CO2/kg
compared to 0.842 for cement (not clear), NOx of 1.8 g/kg for 3.65 g/kg, but a
rather higher SOx (not clear) with 3.6 for 0.53 g/kg (Van Den Heede and De Belie,
2012). However, these admixtures have a negligible effect on the overall concrete
environmental impact because such a small amount is used in concrete, amounting
to only a small percent of the cement mass.

> Read full chapter

Chemistry of chemical admixtures
G. Gelardi, ... R.J. Flatt, in Science and Technology of Concrete Admixtures, 2016

9.2.1 Introduction
In this section the chemistry of the main types of superplasticizers (SPs), also called
high-range water-reducing admixtures, is presented.

The first part is dedicated to natural polymers, which are rather plasticizers or
mid-range water-reducing admixtures. The use of such dispersants dates back to
the 1930s. Although the performance of natural polymers is limited compared to
synthetic ones, it is worth mentioning them as they are still widely used in the
concrete industry–mainly because of their low cost of production.

Next, synthetic linear polymers are described. This category includes some of
the most commonly used SPs, such as polynaphthalene sulphonates (PNS), poly-
melamine sulphonates (PMS) and vinyl copolymers. The higher dispersing ability
of these compounds qualifies them as true SPs or high-range water reducers (in
contrast to lignosulphonates or other low- or mid-range water reducers). They
were introduced during the 1960s and are generally referred to as electrostatic
dispersants, although some show predominant steric effects. They made it possible
to develop high-performance concrete as a reliable form now used in numerous
structures. The practical use of SPs is dealt with in Chapter 16 (Nkinamubanzi et al.,
2016).

Finally, the new generation of SPs, namely comb-shaped copolymers, is introduced.

The development of comb-shaped SPs in the 1980s represented a breakthrough
in concrete technology, as they allow use of a very low water/cement ratio (w/c of
0.20 or less) while keeping good workability. In this regard, one should in particular
acknowledge that the formulation and large-scale use of self-compacting concrete
(Okamura and Ouchi, 1999) have greatly benefited from the introduction of such ad-
mixtures. But these polymers have also found a place in ultra-high-strength concrete
(Mitsui et al., 1994). Comb-shaped copolymers are steric admixtures, meaning that
their dispersing ability is due to steric effects rather than electrostatic repulsion (even
if, as mentioned previously, linear polymers often also work via steric hindrance, this
terminology persists and it would be better to qualify comb-copolymer as “more
effective” steric dispersants). The successful use of these SPs comes mainly from the
possibility of tailoring their design, in terms of both chemical groups and molecular
structure, to obtain SPs with different performance and applications (ready-mix
concrete, pre-cast concrete, etc.).
> Read full chapter

Dimensional stability and cracking

processes in concrete
J.J. Brooks, in Durability of Concrete and Cement Composites, 2007

3.4 Conclusions
The knowledge of movements and cracking processes presented in this chapter has
been developed from theories, research and technical field data published over many
years for conventional types of concrete, namely low-strength mixes using natural
aggregates. Although the principles are not expected to change, in the future design
methods given in Codes of Practice will be continuously amended to account for the
use of more sophisticated concreting materials, such as high performance concrete,
which refers to both high durability (low permeability) and/or high strength concrete.
In some cases, the high strength is required to design smaller concrete elements or
low deflections through a corresponding high modulus of elasticity, low creep and
low shrinkage. Such concrete tends to be more brittle and prone to cracking so that
ductility needs to added, say, in the form of fibre reinforcement. High performance
is achieved by the combined use of chemical and mineral admixtures: high range
water-reducers (superplasticisers) and fine cement replacement materials to replace
part of cement, e.g. silica fume.

On the other hand, admixtures designed to reduce shrinkage, creep and the risk
of cracking are likely to be used more frequently in conjunction with, say, super-
plasticisers to offset any reduction in strength. Little is known about the long-term
behaviour of concretes made with cocktails of different admixtures and the pos-
sible interactions between supplementary cementing materials (or mineral admix-
tures) and multi-functional chemical admixtures need to be assessed. Advanced
methodologies may have to be developed for evaluating the early age cracking
characteristics of some of the newer formulations being considered for use in high
strength applications and repair situations (Bentur and Kovler, 2003). The increased
usage of recycled concrete and other waste materials to replace or augment natural
aggregates in concrete has also to be considered in the context of prediction models
and design documents.

It should be emphasised that it has been only possible to present brief details
of movements and cracking processes experienced by concrete in this chapter,
there being a huge amount of research and technical literature available. From the
references given in Section 3.5, further background information is recommended
as follows:
 • Movements in plain and reinforced concrete: Illston et al., 1979; Mindess and
Young, 1981; Neville et al., 1983; Bazant, 1988; Gilbert, 1988; Neville, 1995;
Neville and Brooks, 2002.
• Non-structural cracking: Harrison, 1981; Concrete Society, 1992; ACI 224R-90,
1996.
• Fracture mechanics: Mindess and Young, 1981; ACI SP-118, 1989; ACI Com-
mittee 446, 1991; Karihaloo BI, 1995; Shah et al., 1995.

> Read full chapter

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