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Geomechanics and Control of Soft Mine Floors and Sides (GEOSOFT)

Technical Report · June 2015

DOI: 10.2777/773537

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Geomechanics and Control
of Soft Mine Floors
and Sides
(GEOSOFT)

Research and
Innovation EUR 26930 EN
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for Research and Innovation
Directorate D — Key Enabling Technologies
Unit D.4 — Coal and Steel

E-mail: rtd-steel-coal@ec.europa.eu
RTD-PUBLICATIONS@ec.europa.eu

Contact: RFCS Publications

European Commission
B-1049 Brussels
 European Commission

Research Fund for Coal and Steel

Geomechanics and Control
of Soft Mine Floors and Sides
(GEOSOFT)

Dr L Kent, Dr D Bigby
GOLDER ASSOCIATES (UK) Ltd “GAUK”
Attenborough House, Browns Lane Business Park, Stanton-on-the-Wolds, Nottingham,
NG12 5BL, UNITED KINGDOM

Mr D Moore, Mr J Bowler
UK COAL MINING LTD "UKCOAL”
Harworth Park, Blyth Road, Harworth, Doncaster, DN11 8DB, UNITED KINGDOM

Mr A Munoz
GEOCONTROL S.A., "GEOCONTROL”
Cristobal Bordiu 19-21, Madrid, 28003, SPAIN

Dr S Rajwa, Dr Z Lubosik, Dr A Walentek

GLOWNY INSTYTUT GORNICTWA, "GIG"
Pl. Gwarkow 1, Katowice, 40-166, Poland

Mr K Szymiczek
BECKER-WARKOP Sp. Z.o.o., "BECKER-WARKOP”
UI. Przemyslowa 11, Swierklany, 44-266, POLAND

Mr W Chyla,
POLUDNIOWY KONCERN WEGLOWY SA, "PKWSA”
Grunwaldzka 37, Jaworzno, 43-600, POLAND

Dr R Stace, Dr D Wanatowski
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM “UoN”
University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UNITED KINGDOM

Grant Agreement RFCR-CT-2010-00001

1/07/2010 - 30/06/2013

Final report

Directorate-General for Research and Innovation

2015 EUR 26930 EN

LEGAL NOTICE
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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2015

ISBN 978-92-79-44078-6
doi:10.2777/773537

© European Union, 2015

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

Printed in Luxembourg

Printed on white chlorine-free paper

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 FINAL SUMMARY ........................................................................ 5

2 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULTS..13

2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT ............................................................... 13

2.2 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION : INSTRUMENTATION

DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Task 1.1 Development of a powered monitoring support system
for geometry, hydraulic pressures and pressure exerted on canopy,
incorporating data transmission and storage system ......................................... 15
2.2.2 Task 1.2 Improved instrumentation for quantifying the behaviour of
soft ground and associated support systems .................................................... 20
2.2.3 Task 1.3 Development of a hydraulic cushion to simulate behaviour of
weak floor rocks in the laboratory stand for testing powered roof supports .......... 27

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION : MATERIALS

PROPERTIES INVESTIGATIONS........................................................... 31
2.3.1 Task 2.1 Laboratory testing of shotcrete samples with various
constituents and additives.............................................................................. 31
2.3.2 Task 2.2 Collection and preparation of weak coal measure strata ............. 33
2.3.3 Task 2.3 Geomechanical testing of weak coal measure strata –
creep, multistage and large scale triaxial, pre and post failure ............................ 34
2.3.4 Task 2.4 Analysis of weathering of coal measure strata including
SEM Analysis ................................................................................................ 42
2.3.5 Task 2.5 In-situ characterisation of soft strata ....................................... 45

2.4 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION : SUPPORT SYSTEM

TESTING ............................................................................................. 51
2.4.1 Task 3.1 Laboratory measurement of powered support Behaviour
in simulated soft floor conditions .................................................................... 51
2.4.2 Task 3.2 Field measurement of powered support behaviour on soft floor ... 55
2.4.3 Task 3.3 Support system property determination ................................... 72

2.5 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION : GEOMECHANICAL

MODELLING ........................................................................................ 81
2.5.1 Task 4.1 Modelling of powered support behaviour on weak floors ............. 81
2.5.2 Task 4.2 Activities development of appropriate time dependant
constitutive models for simulation of soft floors in European mining situation ....... 96
2.5.3 Task 4.3 Development of an advanced constitutive time dependent model
of shotcrete behaviour under stress incorporating fatigue ................................ 101
2.5.4 Task 4.4 Modelling of creeping rock mass and interaction with support
invert designs under interaction stresses ...................................................... 102
2.5.5 Task 4.5 Modelling of stress distributions and stress control options such
as reinforcement and slotting ....................................................................... 106

2.6 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION : DEVELOPMENT OF

IMPROVED SUPPORT AND GROUND CONTROL SYSTEMS .................... 111
2.6.1 Task 5.1 Optimisation of powered support construction and
support advancing process for application on weak floors................................. 111
2.6.2 Task 5.2 Development of enhanced roadway floor and side

3
 stabilisation methods utilising sprayed systems such as shotcrete, polymer
based spray on liners, improved reinforcement and/or closed support
structural section ........................................................................................ 113

2.7 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................ 121

2.8 EXPLOITATION AND IMPACT OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS ....... 125

2.8.1 Technical and Economic Potential for the use of the Results ................... 125
2.8.2 Actual Application ............................................................................. 126
2.8.3 Patent Filing ..................................................................................... 128
2.8.4 Publications and Other Results Dissemination ....................................... 128

3 LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................... 129

4 LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................... 133

5 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................ 135

6 LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................. 137

7 DISCLAIMER .......................................................................... 139

4
1 FINAL SUMMARY

European collieries suffer from severe floor and side deformation due to depth, tectonic stress and the
soft strata within and beneath the seams which are also vulnerable to degradation over time,
particularly when wet. The project developed and applied improved means of measuring, representing
and analysing this behaviour and its interaction with mine support, both in the laboratory and in the
field. Its objectives were to improve our understanding of the phenomena and develop enhanced
design and construction solutions utilising stress control, shotcrete, improved reinforcement and/or
closed support structural sections.

WP1 - Instrumentation development

The main objective was to develop a suite of instruments and tools which would be utilised during
the Project for monitoring soft rock behaviour and the loading and performance of the support
systems used to control soft ground.
Task 1.1 Development of a powered monitoring support system for geometry, hydraulic pressures
and pressure exerted on canopy, incorporating data transmission and storage system
A monitoring system was designed for a powered support system to record data on the geometry,
hydraulic leg pressures and pressure exerted on the powered support canopy during its operation
underground. This system was successfully built and applied to a powered support for laboratory
testing. The laboratory tests showed that all elements of the system cooperated with each other
without reservation and it had the capability to be the perfect tool to investigate and determine the
behaviour of a powered support unit under in-situ conditions. However, during underground tests
in extreme conditions of high humidity and dust the strain gauges did not work properly. The
interpretation of underground strain gauge measurement results and formulating on that base the
conclusions were severely restricted.
Task 1.2 Improved instrumentation for quantifying the behaviour of soft ground and associated
support systems
Considerable effort was directed toward the development of a test technique to determine the
integrity of installed rockbolts and break location should they be broken. The Radio Frequency and
ultrasonic methods were re-investigated to see if advances could be made to previous site specific
limitations, but they remain site specific. Time Domain Reflectrometry, TDR was investigated for
the first time but showed very few meaningful results. Trials undertaken to demonstrate the
application of the acoustic method showed that the equipment is portable, easy to use and that
dominant frequencies recorded were related to bolt length, encapsulation and the nature of the
host rock. The feasibility of the use of the acoustic method was demonstrated for rockbolts.
Bolt integrity could not be determined on pre-installed bolts but could be determined by pre-
instrumenting GRP rockbolts and applying the TDR principle. In field trials electrical discontinuity
was detected in seven GRP bolts with bolt lengths measured between 1.46 – 2.57 m. However on
excavation during face retreat some of the bolts were badly bent rather than broken and electrical
inconsistencies due to loading of the end fittings indicated the method required some refinements.
An improved borehole camera was developed, one of the main features being depth recording in
the hole. It was determined that using a camera for geological logging was not reliable and the
application of the borehole penetrometer in the current UK deep mining environment to determine
strata strength and stiffness was not going to be practical due to boreholes typically being drilled at
significantly less than the 95 mm diameter required for its use.
Task 1.3 Development of a hydraulic cushion to simulate behaviour of weak floor rocks in the
laboratory stand for testing powered roof supports
A hydraulic cushion was designed and built to simulate the behaviour of weak floor rocks in the
laboratory. Twenty four hydraulic cylinders were used, which were equipped with electronic
pressure sensors allowing for continuous measurement of the pressure under the pistons surface
area of the cylinders. The results, obtained in this way, helped to determine the pressure
distribution on the base of a powered support on the floor, and the impact of weak floor rocks on
the stress values in the powered support elements. It is a unique design and build solution for both
Poland and Europe for laboratory investigations to allow simulation of a diverse range of floor rock
loading conditions which could not be attained in any other method applied to date.

5
WP2 - Materials properties investigations
The objectives of the numerical properties investigations were to: 1) provide rock property data for
use under WP4; 2) improve our understanding of soft coal measure strata behaviour, in the
laboratory and in-situ; 3) examine and compare potential methods of in-situ characterisation of
soft strata, and 4) develop better understanding of weathering and time dependent behaviour of
soft strata.
Task 2.1 Laboratory testing of shotcrete samples with various constituents and additives
Tests on the shotcrete samples designed to characterise its fatigue behaviour were successful. It
was possible to characterise the process of fatigue until the failure of test samples subjected to
loads 95%, 90% and 85% of UCS inside the test period of 90 days. It was also possible to
determine the rate of secondary creep. The data obtained was used in numerical modelling
undertaken in Work Package 4.
Task 2.2 Collection and preparation of weak coal measure strata
It was originally envisaged that it would be more efficient to collect rock samples for testing from
exposures in opencast mines than from underground mines. During the project it was discovered
that accessible exposures of soft rocks in opencast mines were often too badly weathered.
However, more underground samples were available than anticipated. Underground core samples
were wrapped in a plastic membrane and waxed; opencast lump samples were sealed by wrapping
in cling film and the weaker coal samples set in plaster. Only 5-10% of the cores were sufficiently
intact for conventional testing. However, gluing of samples allowed further samples to be obtained.
Index testing was undertaken on smaller pieces to estimate strength. Broken material was retained
for residual strength testing, thus allowing the majority of the core to be used for testing.
Task 2.3 Geomechanical testing of weak coal measure strata – creep, multistage and large scale
triaxial, pre and post failure
This task examined alternative strategies for determining sample strength and stiffness properties
of weak strata samples when sufficiently sized samples were not available for conventional UCS
and triaxial testing:
· UCS and triaxial testing of reconstructed (glued) weak strata samples was undertaken. This
worked well allowing representative properties to be obtained.
· Assessment of the strength properties of graded, crushed materials using soil mechanics
testing equipment such as direct shear and triaxial test rigs. Results obtained from direct
shear testing of particulate material were difficult to compare with those obtained from
intact samples. However, the values obtained from direct shear testing of particulate
samples do have application when considering the behaviour of ‘critical state’ fractured soft
rocks in a high stress environment.
· Standard and large scale triaxial soil mechanics type tests performed on graded particulate
coal measure rock produced lower friction angles than from the direct shear testing.
· Index testing, Point Load and Cone Indenter, to estimate UCS values, indicated, that for
the samples tested, the Cone Indentor provided the more consistent results.
Time dependency testing of mudstones over 60 days showed axial strains of less than 0.5%, which
is insignificant creep.
Geocontrol added complementary work on the examination of the characterisation of rock masses
by testing rock and measuring the post failure behaviour of the samples. This study led to the
conclusion that the most appropriate model to use for the Geosoft data was the ‘modified Hoek-
Brown’ and for the residual behaviour of the rock mass ‘hypothesis E’.
What was clear from the results of this testing is that whilst intact sedimentary rocks such as
mudstone appear not to have any time dependency, crushed coal appears to have such properties.
This may go some way to explaining the mechanisms that see some roadways closing over the
longer term even though external strata loading is not apparently changing.
Task 2.4 Analysis of weathering of coal measure strata including SEM Analysis
Climate chamber simulations show that both temperature and humidity are important for
weathering, especially in the case of soft rocks such as mudstone. The UCS and Young’s modulus
of the samples after weathering were noticeably lower than those before weathering. Samples that
had been submersed in water for up to 7 days showed a decrease in UCS values. However,
samples left longer than 7 days tended to deteriorate rapidly such that no UCS testing was
possible.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) provided
useful qualitative insights into the effects of weathering on the microstructure and chemical
composition of rock samples. However, quantifying the effect using either of these methods was

6
much more challenging due to technical difficulties in identifying identical areas of specimens
selected for SEM and EDX analyses before and after weathering. Furthermore, both methods
showed their limitations in analysing rock samples with significant mass loss during weathering
processes simulated in the climate chamber or water baths.
Task 2.5 In-situ characterisation of soft strata
The aim of this task was to use in-situ observation and application of appropriate instrumentation
to characterise the behaviour of soft floors and sides under specific geomechanical conditions. It
was anticipated that instrumentation developments from Work Package 1 would be deployed
alongside more detailed conventional measurements. Key tools anticipated for development and
trial included a test method for bolt integrity, the application of the borehole camera for geological
logging of uncored boreholes and the application of the borehole penetrometer for determining the
strength and stiffness of uncored borehole geology through cross correlation from known
situations. These were not feasible although some results from pre-instrumented rockbolts were
obtained.
Using conventional measurement methods information for the case study sites it has been possible
to produce schematic sketches to illustrate holistically the failure mechanisms and driving forces.
These types of diagram were not new in principle, but a review of previous work has indicated that
often these are concerned with detailed aspects of either roof or rib deformation and did not always
consider roof, rib and floor together along with driving mechanisms and failure as predicted by
numerical modelling. Pillar interaction areas due to multi-seam mining are important for Thoresby
and Maltby, at Kellingley local geological changes and in-seam interaction, while at Daw Mill the
thick seam and weak floor promote higher levels of floor lift and rib movement.

WP3 - Support system testing

The objective of this work package was the measurement of support performance and observation
of support behaviour both in laboratory test rigs and underground in working mines. The support
systems to be studied were to include longwall powered supports on soft floors, improved
reinforcement and containment systems suited for stabilisation of soft strata, sprayed and injection
materials including shotcrete and PUR, with various constituents, and closed support structural
elements.
Task 3.1 Laboratory measurement of powered support behaviour in simulated soft floor conditions
The instrumented powered support BW-16/34-POz was tested on the hydraulic cushion under
various states of load. The tests were carried out at the Institute of Mining Technology KOMAG in
Gliwice, where specialist test machines can apply load on powered roof supports. The instrumented
powered support BW-16/34-POz was subjected to a total of 53 stress cycles. The main loading
regimes were based on the Polish standard PN-EN 1804-1+A1:2010, harmonised with the EU
Machinery Directive. During the tests pressure in the hydraulic legs and in the cylinders of the
hydraulic cushion, geometry of powered support and stresses in the selected elements of the
support were monitored. The results obtained were subsequently used to calibrate the numerical
model of the powered support on weak floor, performed in the program ANSYS.
The use of the specially developed hydraulic cushion allowed determination of the load on the floor,
depending on the load of the powered support and the susceptibility of the substrate. The results of
such research have a significant impact on improving the subsequent construction of powered roof
supports designed to work in soft floor conditions.
Task 3.2 Field measurement of powered support behaviour on soft floors
Results obtained showed that the inclinometers and pressure sensors worked well in underground
conditions. In total the amount of data obtained from the underground tests exceeded 4.3 million
records. However, data loss occurred frequently from the strain gauges resulting in insufficient
data to formulate meaningful conclusions. Operationally the strain gauges were affected by high
humidity and a dusty environment and were replaced once but require a more robust attachment
arrangement.
Results were presented in histogram form to show the percentage of main operating parameters of
support in conditions of Longwalls No. 136, 700 and 141. The parameters included pressure in
hydraulic props, inclination angle of support base, inclination angle between base and canopy, and
the pressure ratio on a support base. The most favourable pressure ratio was obtained in longwall
No. 141 where the strength of the floor was the lowest. It can be explained by the tendency to
uniform distribution of pressure on the base in conditions of dry and soft rocks. This contributed to
a good daily retreat rate of 6 m per day. The powered support worked less favourably in Longwall
136. In 38% of measurement time the pressure in the left hydraulic leg was low during the early
stage of retreat. Longwall 136 also showed the largest variation when considering the support
geometry. The pressure ratio on the powered support base was found to be a significant parameter

7
on Longwall 136 for working supports in soft floor conditions. The research conducted showed that
in Longwall No. 136 the support worked on the whole length of the base on only 37% of testing
time. Lack of pressure on whole base was found to lead to sinking of the support into floor, which
at times was wet on Longwall 136.
The use of monitoring a larger number of powered roof supports in one longwall should have a
positive impact on optimising powered support advanced rates and also operator safety.
Task 3.3 Support system property determination
The optimum properties for a cuttable rockbolt were reviewed and three alternatives were tested,
but no bolt worthy of field trial was identified. Efforts were made to develop a cuttable plastic bolt,
but concerns with its elongation properties not compatible with good bond strength when under
load and cost meant it was not pursued past the laboratory testing stage.
Laboratory investigations comparing performance in the standard biaxial test and the split cylinder
test have led to the improved understanding of rotational failure of long tendons in the laboratory
and the potential benefits of the large diameter split cylinder test for low confinement applications
were demonstrated. The procedure for conducting consistent and safe test programmes with the
split cylinder test was reviewed and where necessary modifications made. Australian tendons and
current UK long tendons used for rib support were evaluated. The test technique was
recommended for use as a British Standard for evaluation of rib support systems.
A test rig has been developed with the ability to test shear performance of cuttable bolts in the
field. This allows the determination of material properties for numerical modelling studies and
provides a test tool to evaluate performance with the objective of developing products with
improved bending and torsional strength.
With respect to the development of rib support consumables improvements were made with
respect to the plastic rib mesh, (more reliable strength), polyurethane resin injection installation,
(pressurised placement for immediate rib consolidation), a new injection product, (Geofoam), and
rib webbing/strapping, (improved anchorage techniques).
Floor support has not been successful with rockbolting and an up to date review indicates that
there are still difficulties with respect to drilling and installing suitably bonded rockbolts. Under the
GEOSOFT project there has been a trial with respect to the use of PUR injection for floor
consolidation. The trials were successful for very site specific cases, gate ends and facelines, in
order to aid the stability of the powered supports.

WP4 - Geomechanical modelling

The objective of this Work Package was to both improve numerical modelling of soft coal measure
strata and to apply modelling to develop improved ground control through better support and
stress relief. The Work Package specifically had objectives corresponding to the key five work
tasks:
Task 4.1 Modelling of powered support behaviour on weak floors
The work of powered roof support BW-16/34-POz was modelled in the laboratory and in
underground conditions. The geometrical form of BW-16/34-POz was made in SolidWorks
programme and imported in to ANSYS to create the 3D powered support model in a finite element
mesh with appropriate connections between structural elements. Calibration tests then began
based on the results of laboratory tests including those with the hydraulic cushion. On this basis, a
calculation algorithm was developed for the design of powered roof supports in weak floor
conditions. The next stage was to use the results from the underground tests carried out in Janina
Mine to determine the basic parameters affecting the interaction of the powered support with the
floor. The most important parameters included external load of the powered support (its value,
direction and sense), type of roof rocks, height and structure of the powered support and its
support capacity. In addition, analysis of the data from the inclinometers and pressure sensors in
the hydraulic legs of the powered support BW-16/34-POz during the underground tests, enabled
GIG (Central Mining Institute) to determine the true geometry of the canopy as well as the
pressure distribution on its base.
The analysis of the results of underground tests and numerical calculations then formed the basis
for carrying out Task 5.1, which focused on optimising the design and the way of advancing
powered roof supports in weak floor conditions.

8
Task 4.2 Development of appropriate time dependent constitutive models for simulation of soft
floors in European mining situations
A FLAC 3D model of a mine roadway was developed in this task. The development work included
the validation of the constitutive model chosen against laboratory test data, the selection of the
grid and boundary conditions, and the allocation of material properties to that model based on
samples tested during the earlier tasks and from the previous RFCS project IMPREX. It was
observed that the Burger-Creep Viscoplastic model was the most appropriate constitutive model for
the roadway soft floor and side wall rocks. The 3D model was then validated against the in-situ
measurements provided by the partner, UK Coal, from Daw Mill Colliery. Different stiffness and
strength properties of the coal seam based on different geological strength indices (GSI) were then
applied for coal to take into account long term weathering effects. The simulation results with GSI
values equal to 60 and 80 were found to match in-situ measurements reasonable well.
Task 4.3 Development of an advanced constitutive time dependent model of shotcrete behaviour
under stress incorporating fatigue
Laboratory testing was able to determine the creep behaviour of shotcrete under load close to its
UCS. These could then be compared with the constitutive models in FLAC to determine the most
appropriate one for shotcrete. The Two Component Power Law was rejected in favour of the Burger
Creep model. However the Burger Creep Model did not represent the tertiary creep measured in
shotcrete. The constitutive Burger Creep model was therefore modified by creating a subroutine
FISH, in FLAC which reduces the viscosity of the Maxwell component and initiates the tertiary
creep. This modification has enabled a constitutive model for shotcrete to now simulate a
viscoelastic behaviour with the three phases of creep and a plastic behaviour through the Mohr-
Coulomb rupture criterion.
Task 4.4 Modelling of creeping rock mass and interaction with support invert designs under
interaction stresses
Numerical modelling was undertaken to determine if a slab, curved or anchored floor performed
best for tunnels driven in soft floor strata prone to creep. The modelled results indicated that the
curved invert is the better solution, presenting smaller displacements although more compressions
are induced in the concrete. The model also showed the distribution of the principal stresses in the
roadway with slab invert and curved invert; the distribution is more homogenous in the curved
invert avoiding the stress concentration due to the swelling of the slab invert.
Task 4.5 Modelling of stress distributions and stress control options such as reinforcement and
slotting
Stress distribution modelling forms a key tool as it can be used to determine areas of elevated
stress from current and previous workings. Rib and floor movement are directly related to vertical
stress levels so layout planning to avoid higher stress windows should always be considered first.
FLAC modelling can be used to determine suitable support patterns for increased stress scenarios
and, under this project, simulation of ribbing off and floor dinting has also been undertaken.
Comparison of modelled and measured results show that rib deformation can be simulated
reasonably well but floor deformation is consistently underestimated. Alternative, but more time
consuming methodologies could be developed to help model floor deformation more accurately.
Simulations using current cuttable rockbolt technologies in the floor showed that if good bond
strengths could be achieved even low density patterns may have a significant effect on reducing
floor heave.
Through numerical exercises, where over and underestimated modelled stress resulted in
inaccuracies compared to measured results, a greater appreciation of stress transfer mechanics in
laminated strata and the effect of goaf consolidation were gained. However, to date no modelling
packages more suitable than Map3D have been identified.

WP5 - Development of improved support and ground control systems

This Work Package planned to develop recommendations and guidelines on support design and
ground control strategies to improve the control of soft floor and sides in European coal mines. The
objectives were to 1) Develop recommendations for design and construction of longwall
mechanised powered supports intended for weak floor conditions; 2) Produce guidelines for
powered support advancing methods for different behaviours of floor rocks; 3) Develop enhanced
roadway floor construction methods taking account of the expected long term behaviour of the
support and rock mass under high stresses, and 4) produce recommendations on improved
systems for stabilisation of roadway sides.

9
Task 5.1 Optimisation of powered support construction and support advancing process for
application on weak floors
PFC3D software was used to simulate the base of a powered roof support working on soft floor
rocks to improve understanding of how the powered support base behaved on a soft floor.
Although this program only allowed a simplified way to model the base of powered roof support the
calculation process itself enabled a clear understanding of the interaction between the support base
and the floor. With this program, the impact has been thoroughly examined of: the width of the
base, location of spherical head connection in the base of hydraulic legs, longwall advance and
strength parameters of the floor on their mutual interactions.
Based on monitoring data from the powered roof support during testing in the laboratory and
underground in Janina Mine and numerical simulations recommendations and guidelines were
developed, which will be important in the design of powered roof support and its use in weak
floors.
Task 5.2 Development of enhanced roadway floor and side stabilisation methods utilising sprayed
systems such as shotcrete, polymer based spray-on liners, improved reinforcement and/or closed
support structural section

Structurally closed support designs including the application of shotcrete

Geocontrol applied a real scale in-situ test in Competidora Mine to validate the numerical analysis
developed in Task 4.4. Convergence measurements and extensometer measurements were carried
out and the required geotechnical properties determined. These tests showed that a flat invert
performed poorly due to the creep behaviour of the floor.
A back analysis was performed comparing the field measurements with the modelling performed
taking into account the creep phenomena. The results obtained from the field have validated the
numerical modelling work carried out and confirms that an understanding of the creep properties in
mine roadways is an essential tool in designing an appropriate support system in weak ground
conditions.

Rock reinforcement design systems

Recommendations for improved stabilisation of rib sides have been documented according to the
support management system proposed in the PROSAFECOAL project, (RFCS, 2010). It includes
instrumentation, numerical modelling, monitoring and improved support products.
Floor control has been described and is managed by removal commonly known in the UK Coal
industry as dinting. Rib deformation and floor deformation tend to be linked and it has been
demonstrated through controlled trials how rib and floor control has been enhanced. For example
by:
· abolition of manholes,
· predicting floor heave in order to better plan deployment of dinters,
· proactive additional support of ribs before dinting, and
· not over dinting in one lift, i.e. multiple dints of <1 m.

Technical and Economic Potential, Application and Patents

Longwall Powered Support Monitoring and Design
Longwall exploitation on weak floor rocks is very difficult and requires safe efficient extraction of
coal at economically viable rates. One of the most important elements of longwall equipment is the
powered support which should be optimally designed for the prevailing geological and mining
conditions, in terms of geometry and support capacity. The results of the Geosoft laboratory and
underground tests allowed guidelines to be drawn up for:
· designing powered roof supports to work on soft floors, and
· for coal mines with powered supports on soft floors.
Optimisation of the design and use of powered supports can help improved safety and efficient
extraction of coal by longwall mining.

Improved Design and Support of Rockbolted Coal Mine Ribs and Floors
Rockbolted coal mine roadways need to be designed and adequately supported for their intended
use so as to allow safe and efficient longwall extraction of the coal. During this project work has

10
addressed both the planning and design tools as well as the monitoring and management tools that
are required during longwall retreat to maintain rib stability and manage floor lift.
Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for aiding design where stress, geological and support
performance parameters are reasonably well known. Under the project model advances come from
improved input parameters, (weak rock testing), improved constitutive models (creep simulation),
improved understanding of limitations and improved adaptability (different geometries – cheeking
off ribs dinting floors and modelling floor bolting). All are useful and being applied.
Having a range of high quality reinforcement products and understanding their performance is key.
A split cylinder laboratory test technique for evaluation of rib reinforcement has been proposed.
The project did not identify an improved cuttable rockbolt but improvements in mesh, polyurethane
resin placement techniques, alternative injection products and better rib restraint anchoring
systems placement were developed and all are being applied for improved rib support.
Floor heave is managed by removal commonly known in the UK Coal industry as dinting. Rib
deformation and floor deformation tend to be linked and through improved understanding it has
been demonstrated how rib and floor control can be enhanced with improved prediction of floor
heave in order to better plan deployment of dinters, by proactive additional support of ribs before
dinting, and not over dinting in one lift. Site specific use of polyurethane resin injection to
consolidate very soft floors was also demonstrated.
Instrumentation and observation for understanding side and floor failure mechanics is very
important. Monitored trials on the detrimental effect manholes can have on ribstability were
undertaking, leading to the conclusions they introduced more risks than they eliminated at Daw Mill
Colliery. Their abolition was applied to 303’s where their absence contributed to much improved rib
stability.

Structurally closed support designs including the application of shotcrete

Closed support designs, like rockbolted roadways, need to be designed and adequately supported
for their intended use so as to allow safe and efficient support during their anticipated lifetime.
Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for aiding design where stress, geological and support
performance parameters are known. Strata creep can subject tunnel linings to long term loading.
Shotcrete properties have been determined and appropriate creep parameters characterised in
order to develop appropriate constitutive models for more accurate simulation. Different design
strategies for roadways subjected to this creep phenomenon have then been modelled. This work is
very useful for the collieries operating in soft ground. By implementing curved inverts maintenance
costs from cracked slab inverts will be saved.
Geocontrol applied a real scale in-situ test in Competidora mine to validate the numerical analysis
developed in Task 4.4. The results obtained from the field validated the numerical modelling work
carried out and confirms that an in depth understanding of the creep properties is an essential tool
in designing an appropriate support system in weak ground conditions.

Patents Filing
None

11
2 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULTS

2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

European collieries suffer from severe floor and side deformation due to depth, tectonic stress and the
soft strata within and beneath the seams which are also vulnerable to degradation over time,
particularly when wet. The project will develop and apply improved means of measuring, representing
and analysing this behaviour and its interaction with mine support, both in the laboratory and in the
field. Its objectives are to improve our understanding of the phenomena and develop enhanced design
and construction solutions utilising stress control, shotcrete, improved reinforcement and/or closed
support structural sections. The key sub-objectives of the Work Packages were as follows:

WP1 - Instrumentation Development

· Develop a suite of instruments and tools which will be utilised during the Project for
monitoring soft rock behaviour and the loading and performance of the support systems
used to control soft ground.

WP2 - Materials Properties Investigations

· Provide rock property data for use under WP4
· Improve our understanding of soft coal measure strata behaviour, in the laboratory and in-
situ
· Examine and compare potential methods of in-situ characterisation of soft strata
· Develop better understanding of weathering and time dependent behaviour of soft strata.

WP3 - Support System Testing

· Measurement of support performance and observation of support behaviour both in
laboratory test rigs and underground in working mines. The support systems to be studied
will include:
- longwall powered supports on soft floors
- improved reinforcement and containment systems suited for stabilisation of soft strata
- sprayed and injection materials, including shotcrete and PUR with various constituents
- closed support structural elements

WP4 - Geomechanical Modelling

· Model powered support behaviour on weak floor to enable the loading patterns which occur
in the field to be better simulated in the laboratory
· Develop time dependent constitutive models to simulate soft floors in European mining
conditions
· Develop constitutive time dependent model of shotcrete behaviour incorporating fatigue
· Model and compare the expected performance of three different closed support
construction strategies with an open support in a creeping rock mass
· Improve understanding of stress distributions and stress control options for soft floor and
sides.

WP5 - Development of Improved Support and Ground Control Systems

· Develop recommendations for design and construction of longwall mechanised powered
supports intended for weak floor conditions,
· Produce guidelines for powered support advancing methods for different behaviours of floor
rocks,

13
 · Develop enhanced roadway floor construction methods taking account of the expected long
term behaviour of the support and rock mass under high stresses,
· Produce recommendations on improved systems for stabilisation of roadway sides.

WP6 – Co-ordination and Results dissemination

Dissemination of Project results through workshop, papers and articles

14
2.2 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION: INSTRUMENTATION
DEVELOPMENT

2.2.1 Task 1.1 Development of a powered monitoring support system for

geometry, hydraulic pressures and pressure exerted on canopy,
incorporating data transmission and storage system

The aim of Task 1.1 was to design and construct a system for monitoring a powered support unit,
which would also allow tests of the behaviour of the unit under simulated soft floor conditions.
While proceeding with the development of the monitoring system, Becker Warkop constructed their
own powered support unit designated BW-16/34-POz as planned within the project. The basic
technical specifications of the unit were similar to those of the powered supports applied under the
conditions of soft floors in the colliery of Janina. The newly constructed support unit was equipped
with the full monitoring system after functionality checks, first in a laboratory and then
underground. Figure T1.1-1 shows the support unit BW-16/34-POz along with the basic elements
of the monitoring system.

Figure T1.1-1: View of Support Unit BW 16/34 POz after Equipping with the Monitoring
System

The powered support measurement system has been designed to work during the constant
operation of the powered support as it advances over weak floor. It was also designed to visualise
and store the recorded data. Pressure sensors, inclinometers and capacity extensometers on the
support made it possible to take measurements of the support capacity, section geometry and
strains from the selected components of the lining.
The monitoring system was designed with the use of the devices of the automation system
BETACONTROL. A pictorial diagram of the support unit’s monitoring system is presented in
Figure T1.1-2. Each component of the recording system has been described in Table T1.1-1.
Detailed structure and functioning of the monitoring system are described in Deliverable 1.1.

15
Figure T1.1-2: Outline of the Powered Support Monitoring System: (CC – pressure
sensor, TS – capacity strain gauges, INK – inclinometers, MMC – MINCOS device, PS1.1,
PS1.2-type device, ISR – splitter box, ZI – SVI feeder, SR1 – flameproof distribution box,
LWL – light pipe, PR – distribution frame)

Table T1.1-1 Description of the Recording System Components for the Powered Support
Monitoring System

No. Name Type Symbol Sight

1 Pressure sensor PC-29A PC-29A/Ex/60MPa CC 1-4 I M1 Ex ia I KDB 08 ATEX 004X

Biaxial inclinometer
2 IS40.2 INK 1-5 IP67
IS40
3 Capacity extensometer TF-5/350(k) TS 1-11 IP54
I M2(M1) Eex d [ib] ia/ib I BVS
4 MINCOS device MINCOS MMC 06
ATEX E 013
PS1.1 I M2 EEx ia/ib I DMT 02 ATEX E
5 BETACONTROL device BFS 181
PS1.2 I M2 EEx ia I DMT 02ATEX E153
I M2 EEx q [ib] I BVS 03 ATEX E
6 SVI Feeder SVI 12/42 ZI1, ZI2
271 X
Flame-proof I M2 EEx d I KDB 06 ATEX 073
7 SRO-3 SR1
distribution box X
MS-BOX 3.3-
8 Light pipe distribution PR IP54
150BG
Eltel-MIDI, Eltel-E I M1 EEx ia I KDB 04 ATEX 129
RSI I M1 EEx ia I KDB 04 ATEX 321
ISR,
9 Splitter box ISR-87/1 I M1 EEx ia I FTZU 04ATEX0077X
ISRH
ISR-94-1 I M1 EEx ia I FTZU 04ATEX0076X
STI1, STI2, STI3 I M1 EEx ia I KDB 04 ATEX 113

10 PC computer The position of the surface - visualization, database

16
The essential elements of the measurement system are as follows:
· main MINCOS-type microprocessor device (Figure T1.1-3a),
· PS1.1 and PS1.2 type devices placed in the unit (Figure T1.1-3b),
· pressure sensors with a measuring range 0-60 MPa, type PC-29A, made by the
company of APLISENS (Figure T1.1-4a),
· biaxial inclinometers with a measuring range ±45°, type IS40.2, made by the company
of KÜBLER (Figure T1.1-4b),
· deformeters (strain gauges) with a resistance of 350±0.2% Ω, type TF-5/350(k), made
by the company of TENMEX (Figure T1.1-4c),
· Personal Computer for receiving, storing and handling data from the pick-up system.

a) b)
Figure T1.1-3 Controllers Deployed: (a) central MINCOS, (b) auxiliary PS1.1 and PS1.2

b)

a) c)

Figure T1.1-4 Measurement Sensors: (a) pressure sensor, (b) inclinometer, (c) strain
gauges

The main MINCOS microprocessor, powered by a voltage feed of 230 V 50Hz, was placed in the
gate road in the area of the switches responsible for longwall complex powering. The power packs,
with a spark proof output circuit of 12V 1.3A DC built into the device, feed to two FELDBUS-type
buses. To ensure current efficiency of the buses it was advisable to add another spark proof SVI
12-type power pack. The installation system, as well as appropriate sensors, were powered by
constant equivalent of 12V. The power will be transmitted through the MINCOS device through the
bus lines to the PS1 devices.
The process of decoding the analogue data from the pressure sensors (CC1-CC4), inclinometers
(INK1-INK5), and extensometers (TS1-TS11) requires them to be saved in two spark proof PS1-
type devices fitted with FB064.1 modules. The process of walling off PS1.1 and PS1.2-type devices
took place in the powered support section. Processing of the analogue-system data to digital data
will enable them to transmit between the communications bus FELDBUS and the main device

17
MINCOS. The fibre optic transmission system allowed transfer of the data to a PC on the surface
with full control of the system, (data storage and visualisation). The data visualisation system
PROVISIT, fitted in the MINCOS device, allowed monitoring of the work underground.
The system allows monitoring, visualisation and storing the following work parameters of a
powered support unit:
· Hydraulic pressure in the support unit legs and its canopy hydraulic cylinder, measured by
means of pressure sensors built-in in the hydraulic system (Figure T1.1-5),
· Geometry of the powered support unit under test, measured by a set of five inclinometers
placed on canopy, caving shield, lemniscate link, base and hydraulic legs, (Figure T1.1-
6),
· Stresses in the powered support unit under test, measured by means of elf strain gauges
(Figure T1.1-7).

Figure T1.1-5 Distribution of Pressure Sensors on the Powered Roof Support Unit: (a)
hydraulic legs, (b) tilting cylinder

18
Figure T1.1-6: Distribution of Inclinometers on Powered Roof Support Unit: (a) canopy,
(b) caving shield, (c) lemniscate link, (d) hydraulic leg, (e) base

Figure T1.1-7 Distribution of Extensometers on Powered Roof Support Unit: (a) canopy,
(b) base

19
Measurement results were read from the monitoring system’s sensors mounted on the powered
support unit in the following two ways:
· Firstly, by means of the central controller MINCOS equipped with the data visualisation
system ProVisIT, Figure T1.1-8a;
· Secondly, by means of the stationary PC-class computer equipped with the GWiRD system
allowing collection, visualisation and data reporting, with the capability of receiving large
amounts of data from all the sensors mounted and analysing them at a later time
(Figure T1.1-8b).
With the MINCOS controller it was only possible to make readings and to view the measured values
as the ProVisIT system does not record data by itself. This controller then sent all the information
to the stationary PC-type computer where full visualisation and archiving of the data could be
performed.
a) b)

Figure T1.1-8 Visualisation System for BW 16/34 POz Powered Support: (a) ProVisIT
based on central controller MINCOS, (b) GWiRD based on PC computer

This monitoring system developed in the framework of Task 1.1 was then used in laboratory tests
of the powered support units behaviour on the hydraulic cushion specially developed to simulate
weak floor rocks, Task 3.1. Following testing the support unit BW 16/34 POz along with its
monitoring system was deployed underground at Janina Mine on three longwall faces, Task 3.2:
· Longwall No.136, Seam 119/2,
· Longwall No.700, Seam 207,
· Longwall No.141, Seam 119/2.
The monitoring system developed is an ideal tool allowing investigations of behaviour of a powered
support unit under in-situ conditions. The laboratory tests showed that all elements of the system
cooperated with each other without conflict. Nevertheless, during underground tests in extreme
conditions such as high humidity and dusty environments the strain gauges did not fully function.
The interpretation of underground strain gauge data and analysis severely restricted any
conclusions that could be made on the performance of the base of the powered support.

2.2.2 Task 1.2 Improved instrumentation for quantifying the behaviour of soft
ground and associated support systems
The task was devoted to developing and testing new and improved instruments suited to
in-situ characterisation of the behaviour and condition of the floors and sides of coal mine
roadways and the support systems used for controlling them.
The instrumentation developments and/or improvements were:

Instruments for Support System Integrity Monitoring:

(Most specifically for the NDT testing (Non Destructive Testing) of pre-installed
rockbolts/tendons to determine their original integrity (length) AND location of the break if the
integrity was lost)
· RF, Radio Frequency,

20
 · TDR, Time Domain Reflectrometry,
· Fibre Optic,
· Ultrasonics,
· Acoustic.
Instruments for In-situ Soft Ground Characterisation
(To determine geology, measure rock strengths, roadway deformations etc.),
· Borehole camera,
· Borehole penetrometer,
· Rib distometer.

Instruments for Support System Integrity Monitoring

Radio Frequency, RF
The RF or Radio Frequency technique has been investigated in previous RFCS projects and used
with success in site specific mining environments and with some limited success in UK coal mines.
The technique treats the bolts as antennae or transmission-lines and measures their resonant
frequency, which is a function of length. In order to further clarify the potential of RF for NDT
testing of rockbolts in coal mines, and because a method of assessing their condition was urgently
required, it was decided to attempt to re-apply the method to specific bolts in the coal-rib and roof
at Daw Mill Colliery.
Few meaningful correlations between RF resonances and known lengths of bolts were observed.
The majority of scans producing asymmetric (Standing Wave Resonances, SWR, versus frequency)
plots with ill-defined minima close to the lower limit of the instrument (0.1 MHz). Laboratory tests
showed that the asymmetric low frequency plots similar to those recorded underground could be
obtained by connecting the instrument to various values of resistor or to a cell containing tap-
water.
It was concluded that the lack of meaningful data was in part due to the effects of mine water. In
general the resonances in coal-measures are at lower frequencies, for a given bolt-length than
other environments such as limestone mines.
It is known (e.g.: http://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/general_physics/2_6/2_6_5.html) that water is
intrinsically dissociated, so that “even de-ionized water cannot be treated as a dielectric at
frequencies much below 1 MHz”. The lower the frequency the greater the effects of ionic electrical
conduction due to water containing dissolved salts. Thus coal measure resonances, already close to
1 MHz for typical bolt lengths, could be preferentially affected on the low-frequency side of the
SWR minimum, resulting in the asymmetry observed both underground and in the laboratory. An
additional factor may be that once loaded the rockbolt encapsulant becomes fractured allowing
contact with water, which if ionised, would produce the effects observed.

Time Domain Reflectometry, TDR

This technique is commonly used to locate faults and discontinuities in electrical transmission lines.
The instrumentation sends an electronic pulse down a conductor which can be returned to
determine the distance to the fault. The instrument presents this information to the user as peaks
and troughs on amplitude versus time plots.

Use of Time Domain Reflectometry on Steel Bolts: The Bicotest T631 TDR instrument used is
designed to connect to parallel conductors and therefore requires connection to two conductors.
Three possible methods were identified in order to apply the technique to steel bolts: (i) single bolt
and accessory lead; (ii) a bolt and ground plane; and (iii) a bolt pair. Figure T1.2-1 shows the
TDR readout box and the three methods identified.
TDR trials were performed at Daw Mill Colliery on 3 m and 1.8 m long 28 mm diameter bolts and
4 m long flexible bolts.
The tests showed very few meaningful results. In spite of the higher frequencies involved, the TDR
method frequently suffered from the same limitations as the RF method, i.e. ionic conduction
between the parallel conductors. Although the TDR method has demonstrated the potential to work
under certain conditions, it was not shown to be a viable means to determine the integrity of
already-installed steel bolts at Daw Mill, nor did it demonstrate any advantages over the RF
method for this purpose.

21
 Rib side
Setup 1: Single bolt and Accessory Lead
Bolt
Connection
Readout Cable (6m)
box
Accessory
lead
Setup 2: Single bolt and Ground Planes
Bolt
Connection
Readout Cable (6m)
box
1m sq steel
Ground Plane
Setup 3: Bolt Pair Bolt

Connection
Readout Cable (6 m) Bolt
box

a) TDR Readout Box b) Setups for TDR measurements in steel bolts

Figure T1.2-1 TDR Readout Box and the Three Setups Identified for Measurement of
Steel Bolts

Use of Time Domain Reflectometry on GRP Bolts: The knowledge that good TDR reflections could
be obtained from pairs of conductors, provided they were protected from the ionic conduction of
mine-water, the feasibility of incorporating a miniature two-core cable into a GRP rib bolt was
investigated. This provides an alternative but related application of the TDR method to
underground support monitoring for use with pre-instrumented bolts.
Following suitable laboratory tests 20 GRP bolts were installed and investigated by a standard
electrical multi-meter, (to indicate a break), and a TDR meter, (to indicate position of break), at
Daw Mill Colliery. Electrical discontinuity was detected in seven GRP bolts with bolt lengths
measured between 1.46 – 2.57 m. Figure T1.2-2 below shows a typical TDR trace (red line)
recorded from a GRP bolt where there was no electrical continuity. This means the copper wires
have been cut and therefore implies the bolt is broken. For reference a trace is displayed from a
second and intact GRP bolt which shows perfect continuity (blue line). The position of the break can
be calculated from the ratio of transit times for the intact and broken bolts.

34.2 nsec
303’S CG GRP No 25 -
Bolt with no Continuity

Outgoing pulse First Reflection End of GRP bolt

303’S CG GRP No 24 -
Bolt with Continuity

39.9 nsec

Length of
Readout box cable (6 m)

Figure T1.2-2 TDR Traces from Underground Trials on GRP Continuity Bolts
All the results obtained from the TDR agreed with those from the multi-meter. Data obtained from
the GRP bolts that showed continuity were used successfully to calibrate the velocity of the pulse in
the copper wire. Although routine multi-meter surveys will indicate the integrity (or otherwise) of

22
the bolts, application of the TDR technique will provide valuable information on the positions of any
breaks.

Fibre Optic Methods

The application of TDR to GRP pre-instrumented bolts led to a review of the application of current
fibre optic technology to the problem. Standard Optical Fibres, (SOF’s), Fibre Bragg Gratings,
(FBG’s) and particularly Brillouim Optical Time Domain Reflectrometry, (BOTDR) were reviewed.

In conclusion the advantage of fibre optics is that SOF’s, FBG’s and the BOTDR all can give strain
location and consequently all would indicate the location of a break and all can be attached
to/embedded in GRP/steel bolts and cablebolts. Sensors are non-electrical so can be installed in
hazardous areas with a readout located in a safe area connected by a long optical cable. However
temperature sensitivity and expensive interrogation equipment mean that it is currently not a
viable tool for rockbolt integrity testing.

Ultrasonic Method
The Ultrasonic method for determining bolt length was considered to be worthy of reinvestigation
on the basis that since the previous research (over several years), the following had changed:
· KT rockbolts were now in common use compared to the AT rockbolts, these are
continuously threaded and therefore do not have the ‘rolled on’ thread at the bottom end
which had different reflective properties to the rest of the bolt;
· The KT bolts provide a flatter saw cut end unaffected by the thread rolling process thus
potentially negating the need for the laborious bolt end preparation of previous trials;
· Larger 28 mm bolts were in use compared to the 22 mm nominal diameter;
· Alternative probes, couplants and ultrasonic instruments were available.
Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors: The original flaw detector used was the Krautkrammer USD 10NF as
illustrated in Figure T1.2-3(a) below. This equipment is now obsolete, unrepairable, large and
heavy, with a Cathode Ray Tube screen display and has limited data storage capacity. However, it
remains a valid test tool to ascertain if the principles of ultrasonics can be applied to the next
generation of rockbolts and is very versatile in terms of frequency range. Two alternative, more up
to date flaw detectors, were demonstrated, the Olympus EpocH600, Figure T1.2-3(b) and the
Krautkrammer USM23LF, Figure T1.2-3(c). Both overcome the limitations of the Krautkrammer
USD10NF listed above, the Olympus unit being preferable offering a more compact portable unit
and wider frequency range.

(a) Krautkrammer USD10NF (b) Olympus Epoch600

(c) Krautkrammer USDM

23LF
Figure T1.2-3 Ultrasonic Instruments (a) Krautkrammer USD10NF instrument and the
two alternatives tested, (b) Olympus Epoch 600 and (c), Krautkrammer USN23LF

Alternative Probes: Two new small diameter, (5 and 10 mm), 5 MHz probes were trialled on KT
bolts in free air and 1.0 m and 1.8 m long bolts encapsulated in a sand/mortar block. Results were
disappointing with only small reflections indicating the bolt end being recorded. It appeared that
injection efficiencies of the probes were a factor which depended on bolt end condition, couplant
type and the way in which the probe was held in contact with the bolt end.

Alternative Couplants: Alternative couplants to the originally used silicone grease, Vaseline and
shower gel were sourced. These were glycerine and Ultra Gel II. Through laboratory and field
testing the latter proved to generate improved response.

Field Trials: In order to assess the ultrasonic and acoustic method, (described below), field test
trials were undertaken on installed 28 mm diameter KT rockbolts at a local gypsum mine. This site
provided easy access for NDT test equipment trials under representative conditions of a rock mass
rather than a small test block. Because of the potential demonstrated by the 28 mm KT bolts with

23
the low frequency probes, a number of 22 mm KT bolts were installed in a UK coal mine to assess
further the capability and limitations of the current equipment. Twenty bolts with lengths of 0.5,
1.0, 1.8 and 2.4 m were installed in the roof for this purpose. Results showed that bolts 0.5 m and
1.0 m long could be identified but not bolts 1.8 m or 2.4 m long. Rockbolts 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6 m long
were subsequently installed in order to further identify the length of bolt that could be detected.
Three high frequency probes all detected the back end of a 1.6 m bolt, the 2 MHz most
convincingly. However, this was at the maximum amplification of the instrument, Figure T1.2-4.
Despite ‘pushing’ the current system to see the back end of a 1.6 m bolt there remained a lack of
consistency as one of each of the three installed 1.2 m long and 1.4 m long bolts could not be
detected. This therefore gave only a 66% detection rate.

1.2m long bolt 1.6m long bolt

Figure T1.2-4 Ultrasonic Test Results from a 1.2 m and 1.6 m Long KT Rockbolts, 2MHz
Probe with Ultra Gel II Couplant

Laboratory testing was undertaken to try to determine the cause of this inconsistency in end
detection rates. Results indicated that although the flat mechanically sawn ends are an
improvement on the earlier cropped AT versions there remains a signal/noise problem associated
with the surface finish.
The ultrasonic technique investigative work has demonstrated that alternative instruments, probes
and couplants are available. However, the method still has to work in principle, namely the
successful launch or injection of an ultrasonic pulse and reliable return signals from the breaks.
Results show the capability to see bolt ends up to 1.6 m long. This could be deemed a sufficient
detectable length given that most broken bolts in service are up to 1.2 m in length by nature of the
rock deformation and failure around the periphery of the excavation where stresses are
concentrated. However, there is a lack of consistency in recording bolt length from comparable
datum bolts, with investigations indicating that this is most likely to be related to the signal
injection properties, limited by the bolt end quality. This could be addressed by specialised
couplants or a specialised instrument to measure injection efficiency.

Acoustic Vibration Method

An acoustic method based on the ‘Modshoc’ system (Hartman et.al., 2010) has been investigated
as an alternative to the Time Domain Reflectometry. The method involves recording the transient
response of the exposed bolt end to an impact on the nut/plate assembly. The response is sensed
by a low-frequency geophone and recorded in digital form for analysis by a “Stress Wave Analysis”
package.
Equipment: The suitable equipment required was identified and purchased. This was a geophone,
a ruggedised tablet-type computer and an analogue/digital converter as an interface between
them. A “Picoscope 2203” was identified as the most suitable A/D convertor. An advantage of this
product is that the software included allowed Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) to be made of the
geophone output. This process is a fundamental aspect of the interpretation of the data. The
software allows recording of oscilloscope traces (Voltage – Time plots) and the derived spectra
(Voltage – Frequency plots). The equipment is shown in Figure T1.2-5.

24
 (C)
A) Tablet Computer

B) ‘Picoscope 2203’ in black case

(B) C) Geophone
(A)

Figure T1.2-5 The Acoustic Vibration Method Equipment

Initial Test Results: Initial tests were conducted in the laboratory and underground at Daw Mill
Colliery. The underground trials established a database of voltage-time traces and their associated
spectra. Reproducibility on the traces was confirmed by repeated impacts. The laboratory tests
showed that the fundamental and harmonic frequencies of the flexural modes are lower than
1 kHz. The fundamental and harmonic frequencies of the longitudinal mode were also identified
confirming the relation between the length of the bolt and the frequency for this vibration mode. It
is potentially possible to estimate the length of an installed bolt if the longitudinal mode
frequencies can be identified from the Fast Fourier Transformation, FFT, spectra.
Accelerometer Tests: The “Modshock” analysis is based on published works on non-destructive
testing of concrete piles by (amongst others) Davis & Dunn (1974). The pile is characterised by its
“mechanical admittance” or “mobility” (µ), which is the relationship between the driving force (F)
applied to it and the resulting velocity (v). Calculation of the mobility and dynamic stiffness
therefore requires knowledge of the function F which in the current application is delivered by a
hammer blow. In impact pile testing, this involves using an instrumented “force hammer” to record
the impact, or at least to confirm its consistency. “Testconsult Ltd”, who conduct the pile testing,
visited and carried out tests on free air laboratory rockbolts with their equipment. The results
indicated potential benefits of further testing to be carried out using the same type of
accelerometer as deployed with their instrument. A “Monitran” MTN1000/I accelerometer with
battery portable power supply was purchased along with a magnetic attachment accessory to
provide hands-free and consistent contact with the bolt end.

Laboratory tests were followed by easy access field tests at Fauld Gypsum Mine, operated by Saint-
Gobain whose mine management assistance and interest is gratefully acknowledged. The site is
close to Golder’s Bretby offices, with easy vehicle access and no flammable gas issues. A selection
of nine, 28 mm diameter bolts of two lengths, 1.8 and 2.4 m, were installed horizontally with three
levels of encapsulation. Numerous acoustic tests were undertaken leading to a large database of
information. These results suggested that the longitudinal resonances of at least some of the
installed bolts could be detected in a massive rock environment, using the magnetic attachment
and a steel hammer impact, Figure T1.2-6.

Underground Tests with a Force Hammer: It is known that the physical properties of the hammer
have an effect on the results of impact-testing, (Halvorsen, 1977). The basis of concrete pile
integrity testing, on which the “Modshock” method is based, involves the calculation of the mobility
spectrum. This is the ratio of the velocity spectrum and the force spectrum and requires knowledge
of the impact spectrum, for which an instrumented hammer (a force hammer) is required. The lack
of return echoes when the installed bolts were impact - tested using an accelerometer as sensor
suggests that the duration of the hammer blow maybe too long relative to the transit time of the
pulse.

25
 (a)

(b)

Figure T1.2-6 (a) Resonance from a 2.4 m long free bolt and, (b), Resonance from a 2.4
m long installed bolt

In order to investigate this method further, a force hammer of the type used by “TestConsult” with
their instrument was acquired. Using the force hammer to impact the nut/plate and with the
geophone magnetically attached to the bolt end, force and velocity traces were simultaneously
recorded for a number of bolts. Due to the recording settings of the Picoscope it was then
necessary to set up a complex Excel spreadsheet in order to allow import of the relevant parts of
the velocity and force arrays, perform the complex division, and produce scaled plots of the
spectra. Analysis of the results showed that:
· The velocity spectra obtained could related to encapsulation status,
· The mobility spectra obtained could be related to stiffness,
· Therefore the dominant frequencies recorded were related to bolt length, encapsulation
and the nature of the host rock,
· The determination of bolt length and encapsulation could be determined via back analysis
of known conditions deploying modelling software and/or acquisition with a modified
commerical instrument, and
· The feasibility of the acoustic method was therefore demonstrated for rockbolts.

Instruments for In-situ Soft Ground Characterisation

Improved Borehole Camera

The BICSR25C is a portable borehole camera system designed for visually inspecting and recording
the condition of small diameter boreholes (30 mm minimum diameter). This latest version has
been developed under GEOSOFT, Figure T1.2-7(a), and compared to the previous version offers
(i) integration of the features, notably the video recording facility; (ii), longer battery life; and, (iii)
to replace tape measure recording of hole depth, Figure T1.2-7(b), automatic recording of the
position of the camera head above the mouth of the hole, Figure T1.2-7(c). As part of the project
a tool was designed and built in order to allow for the camera head to be orientated within the
borehole to allow the direction of fractures or other features to be measured and recorded. Figure
T1.2-7(d) a camera recording showing the orientation of a borehole breakout within a borehole.
The tool allows a measurement accuracy of 3-5o.

26
 (b)

Example of borehole breakout from a tell tale hole

(a) Outbye

(c)
(c)
»12°

Inbye

Figure T1.2-7 (a) Improved BICSR25C borehole camera system, (b) Original borehole
distance recording with tape measure (c) New borehole distance recording, (d) Results
from camera head orientation tool to measure borehole breakout direction

Borehole Penetrometer
The borehole penetrometer is a tool which can be used to measure the mechanical properties of
strata units at selected positions up a borehole. The Pen206 Hole Penetrometer used in the Polish
coal industry with success was assessed for use in UK coal mines. The Pen206 Hole Penetrometer
is manufactured by IRB Sp. Zo.o., 42-440 Ogrodzieniec, ul. Kosciuszki 107A. However the
85-95 mm diameter borehole requirement makes the Pen206 Hole Penetrometer impracticable for
use in UK Coal mines because this size hole is not routinely deployed.

Rib Distometer
During rib laser surveys at Daw Mill Colliery to measure roadway closure apparent discrepancies
between data recorded and the observed rib conditions underground had been noted. Consequently
an audit of the current scheme was instigated in order to highlight any issues and to resolve them.
In order to improve the accuracy of the laser surveys it was recommended that a number of
improvements could be made to both the survey itself, (including base widths set up more quickly,
offset stations), and in how the data is processed, (software amendments to record dint position,
ability to remove/correct data simply, record of face position for particular dates, a single
programme for right and left closures rather than two).

2.2.3 Task 1.3 Development of a hydraulic cushion to simulate behaviour of

weak floor rocks in the laboratory stand for testing powered roof
supports
This task aimed to develop a special device for simulating the behaviour of weak floor rocks in a
laboratory powered support testing rig. A hydraulic cushion was designed and manufactured to
meet this aim. The measurements and observations undertaken using this device made it possible
to verify the distribution of forces exerted on the powered support bases in various states of load
exerted on the support.

27
The hydraulic cushion was made of two adjoining steel frames within which 12 hydraulic cylinders
were mounted, Figure T1.3-1. Each of the cylinders, (24 of in total), had a special head end and
were fitted with a T-pipe equipped with a pressure sensor and high-pressure hose. At the end of
the hose a cut-off valve and an overflow valve were installed. Detailed structure and principles of
functioning of the hydraulic cushion are described in Deliverable 1.3.

Figure T1.3-1 Photographs of the Hydraulic Cushion

The hydraulic cylinders were essential elements of the hydraulic cushion as they facilitated the
performance investigations planned for the project. The cushion possessed 24 hydraulic cylinders
with dimensions of 135 mm/100 mm x 155 mm, (cylinder diameter/piston rod x hydraulic stroke),
Figure T1.3-2(a).
The cylinders were mounted in a vertical position with their piston rods directed upwards. Each
piston rod had a special head mounted at its end and was positioned above the top steel plate of
the cushion’s frame, Figure T1.3-2(b) and Figure T1.3-2(c). The heads ensured safe
cooperation between the hydraulic cushion and the powered support unit located on the cushion’s
top during the laboratory investigations.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure T1.3-2 Hydraulic Cushion: (a) hydraulic cylinder, (b) placement of heads, (c)
general view
A T-pipe was fastened to each of the hydraulic cylinders on its lower part. On one of the outlets
there was a PC-29A pressure sensor connected made by APLISENS with a measurement capability
of 0-60 MPa. On the second outlet a high pressure hose was connected, Figure T1.3-3. The task
of the sensors was to measure pressure under the cylinder piston during the laboratory
investigations. The high pressure hose was used to connect an overflow valve to the hydraulic
cylinder. The overflow valves were characterised by a measurement range 20-60 MPa and were
placed on a separate mounting plate, (12 valves for each of the cushion frames), Figure T1.3-3.
The valves were adjusted to an appropriate working pressure during the test investigations. When
the adjusted pressure was exceeded as a result of high load on the hydraulic cushion by the
powered support’s base, the valves opened and the hydraulic fluid flowed out of the under-piston
space of the cylinders so the powered support could move downwards. The valve displacement
depended on the load exerted on the support and on the working pressure adjusted at the overflow
valves.
The application of the aforementioned solution allowed simulation of the phenomenon so-called
“bogging” of the powered support base. The lower the working pressure of the overflow valves the
lower the load bearing capacity of the simulated floor.

28
Figure T1.3-3 Overflow Valves on the Hydraulic Cushion

The system for recording pressures in the hydraulic cushion’s cylinders constituted an integral part
of the monitoring system of the powered support. The main system for monitoring the powered
support was extended by an additional auxiliary controller PS1.3, Figure T1.3-4. The combination
of the two monitoring systems allowed synchronisation of the whole measuring system which made
it easier to interpret the results obtained from the testing.
(b)

(a)

(c)

Figure T1.3-4 (a) Diagram showing the connections between controller PS1.3 and the
support monitoring System, (b) Photograph of the PS1.3 controller, (c) Photograph of
the electronics inside the PS1.3 controller

The PS1.3 controller was equipped with 24 analogue inputs 0-5 V to which the signals from the 24
pressure sensors installed in the cushion’s hydraulic cylinders were transferred. Six FB064.1
boards, (described in Deliverable 1.3), were installed which converted the analogue signal to a
digital signal which complied with the FELDBUS protocol. The received signal was then sent by the
local controller PS1.2 to the main microprocessor controller MINCOS, (described in Deliverable
1.1). Then all the data was sent from the controller MINCOS to a PC-type computer where a full
analysis of the measurement results was undertaken alongside data storage and achive, Figure
T1.3-5.

29
Figure T1.3-5 Visualisation System “PODUSZKA” that Presents the Pressure Valve
Readings from the 24 Sensors in the Hydraulic Cylinders

30
2.3 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION: MATERIALS PROPERTIES
INVESTIGATIONS

2.3.1 Task 2.1 Laboratory testing of shotcrete samples with various

constituents and additives
Several shotcrete formulations were tested, in the Archidona tunnel. The different formulations
tested confirmed the relationship between the resistance of the concrete settled by projection and
the accelerator content. An increase in the accelerator content produces a reduction in the Uniaxial
Compressive Strength at 28 days. Although there are formulations with greater proportions of
cement, these do not have a greater compression resistance. The formulation with lower water
content had a greater UCS as a result of the use of superplasticizers.
After the initial study to determine the most appropriate formulation, shotcrete samples were
tested in the facilities of the Mine School in El Bierzo (León) and in the laboratory of CEPASA to
determine:
· constant load test over a long period of time (Test A),
· slow compression test, increasing the load (Test B).
Before either of the two type tests above were undertaken the compressive strength of the
shotcrete selected was tested at a minimum cure time of 28 days. Tests made use of strain
gauges. The average value of the samples tested, at the age cited above, was 20.8MPa, slightly
less resistant than expected. This was the value used to calculate initial load values of the other
tests.
Long-term Shotcrete Behaviour Tests (A)

Methodology
To determine the fatigue behaviour, the samples were subjected to a constant load over 90 days at
maximum loads close to the breaking load of the shotcrete. Loads were chosen to represent 75%,
80%, 85%, 90% and 95% of the compressive strength of shotcrete.

Results
The results obtained are reflected in Figure T2.1-1. The investigations show that:
· The slope in the secondary creep is greater when larger load is applied, in accordance
with the test B,
· For a load of 95% of UCS was reached at 62 days, while it is increased to 76 days for a
load of 90% of the UCS and 92 days for 85% of the UCS,
· In all cases the strain at failure was in the order of 17000 µm (1.7%),
· For loads under 85% of the UCS no tertiary creep started before 90 days.

18000

75% 80% 85% 90% 95%

16000

14000
y = 12,695x + 5468,3 y = 9,6385x + 5219,3 y = 8,7088x + 4743,2
R2 = 0,9488 R2 = 0,997 R2 = 0,947
12000
y = 7,8809x + 4274,4 y = 6,1586x + 3625,8
Strain (microstrains)

R2 = 0,9964 R2 = 0,9192
10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Time (days)

Figure T2.1-1 Strain/Time Results from the Long-term Shotcrete Behaviour Tests (A)
Slow and Incremental Compression Shotcrete Tests (B)

31
Methodology
To perform this test the shotcrete test cubes were tested at different loads maintained for 24
hours. The test begins with a load level enough for creep to occur, value arbitrarily estimated on
75% of the compressive breaking load and followed the sequence described below; duration of
each loading time, (24 hours), the increment of different load levels with respect to the UCS (5%
of the UCS), the duration of the load increase is 30 seconds. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated until
sample failure. The sample was tested over 7 days.

Results
Results obtained are shown in Figure T2.1-2.

Figure T2.1-2 Strain/Time Slow and Incremental Compression Shotcrete Tests (B)

The variation in the Strain/Time characteristics between the two test types is shown in Table
T2.1-1 below.

Table T2.1-1 Variation of Strain/Time in the Shotcrete Between Test Types (A) and (B)
% UCS Variation of the Strain/Time in Variation of the Strain/Time in
Test A Test B
70 3,2485
75 12,695 10,111
80 9,6385 8,6985
85 8,7088 7,5028
90 7,8809 6,9186
95 6,1586 5,3475

Discussion
The tests on the shotcrete samples designed to characterise its fatigue behaviour were successful.
It has been possible to characterise the process of fatigue until failure of test samples subjected to
95%, 90% and 85% of UCS inside the test period of 90 days. It has also been possible to
determine the rate of secondary creep. The data will be employed in the program FLAC at Task 4.3
“Development of an advanced constitutive time dependent model of shotcrete behaviour under
stress incorporating fatigue” and will take into account this phenomenon in the calculations.

32
2.3.2 Task 2.2 Collection and preparation of weak coal measure strata

Sourcing of Weak Coal Measure Strata

The material samples relating to the research presented in this report were extracted and collected
from UK coal mines. These sites included the Shotton Open Cast mine and Daw Mill and Thoresby
Collieries.
It was originally envisaged that it would be more efficient to collect rock samples for testing from
accessible exposures in opencast mines than from underground mines. During the project it was
discovered that exposures of soft rocks in opencast mines were too badly weathered. However a
good supply of soft near seam material from Daw Mill and Thoresby mines was made available.
This material was in better condition than the opencast samples because it was from cored
boreholes and therefore not weathered. On collection the cores were placed in protective plastic
sleeves to allow easier handling out of the mine and also to enable easier sealing of the samples to
prevent weathering. Some samples were obtained from Shotton Opencast mine but these tended
to be coal or harder rocks. The weaker clays were already too badly affected by weathering.

Sample Handling and Preservation: Cores

As material was collected from both underground and surface mines, materials were extracted and
hence received in a different manner. The materials from Daw Mill were cores in wooden or plastic
core boxes that had been ‘wet’ cored on site. The cores were thoroughly wrapped with a plastic
membrane and waxed. The core log along with the expertise of Nottingham University’s technical
staff was used to identify the weaker material (for creep testing) and therefore anything that
resembled pure siltstone (considered to be ‘very hard’ rock) was dismissed. From the remaining
core samples, material that could satisfy the 2:1 height to width ratio for testing was identified and
prepared for testing. Only approximately 5-10% of the core satisfied the requirements for testing.
From the remaining core, samples containing a natural fracture at an angle not greater than 20°
(from a line perpendicular to the axis) and that could satisfy the 2:1 ratio were assessed for
potential gluing. The core samples that could be saved were glued together using cyanoacrylate
adhesive. The gluing of samples contributed another 5-10% of the core. The remaining 80-90% of
the core consisted of broken rock fragments that could not be used for the uniaxial or triaxial
compression testing but were available for other test methodologies conducted during the project.
Sample Handling and Preservation: Lump Samples
At Shotton open cast mine the samples were picked from the overburden left from a ‘fresh’ coal
face. However, due to safety restrictions, sample collection could not take place near the newly
exposed coal face. With the help of the site geologist, the coal, seatearth, mudstone and siltstone
material samples (as large pieces of rock) were chosen. After the samples were collected, they
were taken to the nearest safe area where they were sealed by wrapping them in cling film (to
maintain the moisture content) and referenced. As the coal samples are inherently weak, in order
for them to remain intact during transportation, they were set in plaster as shown in
Figure T2.2-1, to protect them from the any sudden movements that could cause the sample to
break.
The material samples were transported to the NCG Rock Testing laboratory, where they were
prepared for testing immediately and wrapped again in cling film to maintain the moisture content
with the testing planned to commence soon after.

Figure T2.2-1 Coal Samples Set in Plaster before Transportation

33
Sample Preparation
The received cores were simply cut and ground to length to specified tolerances but the samples
received as irregular pieces of rock, had to be cored first. This was performed by technical staff at
the university using a coring drill. The coal required ‘wet’ coring and hence the in-situ moisture
content was taken prior to cutting. Once cored, all the samples were assessed to check whether
multiple sections of the sample core could be glued together.
Testing ‘reconstructed’ cored rock samples has demonstrated that glued planes parallel to bedding
(no more than 20° to a line perpendicular to the core axis) make no significant difference to UCS
determination and therefore sample gluing in this manner can be used to obtained reliable UCS
data from samples split along bedding planes.
Other tests using the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) to investigate the effect of weathering
on the specimen required little specimen preparation as only a small fragment of sample is needed.
However, to investigate the weathering through submersion of the sample in different kinds of
water, the specimens were placed in normal tap water, mine water and an acidic mixture. The
specimens remained in the mixtures until withdrawn for SEM analysis after approximately every 3
months.
The remaining broken materials were retained for ‘residual’ strength tests on broken specimens
using the University’s direct shear apparatus. The material sample was crushed and a sieve
analysis was undertaken to obtain a particle size distribution. The test specimen was then prepared
in accordance to the relevant British Standard codes for the direct shear box and large triaxial
tests.

2.3.3 Task 2.3 Geomechanical testing of weak coal measure strata – creep,
multistage and large scale triaxial, pre and post failure

The University of Nottingham took the task of examining ways in which the physical properties of
soft coal measure rocks could be quantified, especially when conventional rock testing methods
were not possible due to the friability of the material samples obtained. These physical properties
are required as input data for numerical modelling, allowing more accurate assessments to be
made of the potential mine opening size and shape and the support elements that need to be used
within them. This task examined the alternative strategies for testing available when Uniaxial
Compressive Strength (UCS) and triaxial testing of intact weak strata samples to obtain strength
and stiffness parameters are not possible. These include:
· UCS and triaxial testing of reconstructed weak strata samples,
· Assessment of the strength properties of graded, crushed materials using soil mechanics
testing equipment such as direct shear and triaxial test rigs,
· Large scale triaxial soil mechanics type tests performed on larger sizes of graded
particulate coal measure rock,
· Index testing (point load and cone indenter) of the weakest samples to obtain UCS values,
· Time dependency testing
Geocontrol added complementary work on the examination of the characterisation of rock masses
by testing rock and measuring the post failure behaviour of the samples.

Investigation of Effects of Sample ‘Reconstruction’ on Tested Rock Strength

Nottingham tends to core its test samples to a 75 mm long by 37 mm diameter specimen.
However, triaxial tests are also conducted on larger diameter samples (42 mm and 50 mm).
Samples with a 2:1 aspect ratio are tested where possible, although this can be a problem with
softer rocks (ISRM 1981).
One technique that has been considered to enable a range of ‘normal’ rock mechanics tests to be
conducted on weak or soft rock materials is the testing of reconstructed broken cores. Breaking of
cores along stratified geological variations is quite common in softer materials preventing 2:1
aspect ratio samples being obtained. This fracturing is normally perpendicular to the sample axis.
The technique consists of reconstructing the core by gluing the cored pieces together using a
cyanoacrilate adhesive.

34
A series of tests were conducted to assess the effect of reconstruction using adhesives on cores of
the similar materials that were both intact and reconstructed (glued). These included UCS and
triaxial tests. Initially, cores were obtained from adjacent boreholes drilled into the roof measures
of a UK coal mine. Although the material chosen was quite a strong silty mudstone (which did not
qualify as a soft rock) it was chosen because of its consistency and uniformity between boreholes.
Samples of rock, including those that were intact and those that had broken and then glued, were
tested, Figure T2.3-1.

Glued

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure T2.3-1 Example of (a) an intact sample and (b) a reconstructed (glued) sample

Figure T2.3-2(a) shows an example of UCS test data obtained on samples of intact and
reconstructed rock (note that the reconstructed samples were all glued along bedding planes
perpendicular to the axis of loading). The results in Figure T2.3-2(a) which are illustrative of a
much larger number of tests indicate that the intact samples have a slightly higher UCS than the
glued samples and that there is more variability in the strength of the glued samples compared to
the intact samples. Figure T2.3-2(b) shows results of triaxial single stage compressive strength
tests on intact and glued samples. This example of test data was from triaxial tests at a confining
stress of 5 MPa. The strength and stiffness of broken samples appears to be slightly lower than for
the intact samples; however, the spread of results is within the normal variability of results from
these tests.

120
100 I = Intact sample
(a) I = Intact sample
G = Glued sample
G = Glued sample
G (b)
100
80
80 G G
Load (kN)

60 I
Load (kN)

G 60
G I
40 I
G 40
G I
G
I
20 20
G

I I
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Axial displacement (mm)
Axial displacement (mm)

Figure T2.3-2 (a) UCS test data comparing intact and glued samples, (b) Single stage
triaxial test data comparing intact and glued samples
Reconstructed samples of a much weaker material, coal, were also selected to conduct UCS and
triaxial tests. Some comparison results of the UCS tests for both intact and glued samples are
shown in Figure T2.3-3(a). It can be seen that the strength obtained for the intact sample falls
within the range of strength results from the reconstructed samples. Figure T2.3-3(b) shows a
glued sample after a triaxial test; it can be seen that the glued plane remained intact after testing
and that failure occurred elsewhere in the specimen.

35
 80 I = Intact sample

70
G = Glued sample
G
(a)
60

Load (kN)
50 I

40
G G
30

20 G

10

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Axial displacement (mm)

(a) (b)
Glued
Glued

Failure
plane

(a)
Figure T2.3-3 (a) UCS results comparison between (b)
intact and glued samples, (b) Glued
sample before and after triaxial testing

Overall results obtained by this approach indicate that if the supply of a particular material is
limited or if it is very difficult to obtain an intact sample, samples glued in the direction
perpendicular to the axis of loading can be used instead of the intact samples to obtain some
reasonable properties for the material.

Testing using Soil Mechanics Techniques

The next step in this research was to take broken samples of soft coal measure rock types for
which it was not possible to use reconstruction techniques. These were crushed and sized, and
tested using a similar methodology to that used when soils are tested using standard soil
mechanics testing apparatus. Tests conducted were direct shear tests and triaxial tests with a
range of particle sizes.
The direct shear (shear box) test was used to investigate the properties of broken materials. A
square container with plan dimensions of 100×100 mm and 30 mm height was used. A specimen
of particles placed in a horizontally split box was sheared by moving the bottom half of the box
relative to the top half at a constant rate of approximately 0.5mm/min. A vertical normal stress
was applied during shearing and both the vertical displacement of the top of the specimen and the
shear displacement were measured. Failure was prescribed on the plane separating the two halves
of the box. Four different normal stresses (10, 25, 50, and 100 kPa) were applied for each sample
consisting of different particle sizes and three tests were carried out for each normal stress. Mohr-
Coulomb properties (Cohesion c’ and friction angle φ’) were obtained from the normal stress-shear
curves. All tests were performed on dry samples.

36
Initially, coal was used for this study and five ranges of particle sizes (6.3-10 mm, 5-6.3 mm,
3.35-5 mm, 2-3.35 mm, 1.18-2 mm) were obtained. Since these samples consisted of graded
small particles, a particle size effect on the sample shear strength was demonstrated. The size of
the direct shear box is also expected to have had an effect on test results given that a shear band
of approximately 10 times the average grain size is expected to develop (Roscoe 1970). ASTM
specifies that the thickness of the direct shear specimen should be six times the maximum particle
diameter and that the container width should be a minimum of 10 times the maximum particle
diameter. This requirement is not met for all of the particle size samples. Large cell triaxial testing
(described below) was therefore undertaken on some of the larger particle size samples.
Figure T2.3-4 plots the data of shear stress versus horizontal shear displacement from the direct
shear tests for all sample sizes. As expected, the tests show that the maximum shear force
increases with an increase of the normal force for the samples of each of the particle sizes. It
appears from the data that the effect of particle size was greatest for the tests with the higher
normal force applied (50 kPa and especially 100 kPa).

1.18-2 mm
1
2-3.35 mm
3.35-5 mm
0.9
5-6.3 mm
6.3-10 mm sn = 100
0.8

0.7
Load (kN)

0.6
sn = 50
0.5

0.4
sn = 25
0.3

0.2
sn = 10
0.1
sn = normal stress in kPa
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Horizontal displacement (mm)

Figure T2.3-4 Direct Shear Test Results for Coal: Load versus Horizontal Displacement
for all Particle Sizes

Figure T2.3-5(a) shows the maximum value of shear stress (τmax) versus the normal stress (σn)
for all of the data shown in Figure T2.3-4. Similar to Figure T2.3-4, the data shows more
variation at higher normal stress. Figure T2.3-5(b) plots the maximum friction angle (φ’max)
based on the maximum shear stress data plotted in Figure T2.3-5(a). These data were calculated
using the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion and assuming that the cohesion intercept c’ = 0. Figure
T2.3-5(b) shows that the larger particle sizes resulted in higher estimates of friction angle
compared to the smaller samples. However, as mentioned previously, the larger particle size
results would have been affected by the relatively small size of the direct shear container so these
results may not be entirely representative.
Seatearth materials from a UK coal mine which were difficult to core to obtain intact samples were
also used to conduct shear box tests. As had previously been found when testing coal, particle size
affected the values of shear strength when normal stress was high.
The shear box test was also used for intact, reconstructed (glued) and differing broken particle size
samples of weak soft coal measure clay. This represented an opportunity to compare test results
for different sample types of the same material. Direct shear tests were conducted at a normal
stress of 35 and 105 kPa. The Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters of friction angle and cohesion
were calculated based on the maximum and ultimate shear stresses for each sample, as shown in
Table T2.3-1. The reconstructed samples were ‘spot’ glued at several places and sheared along
the pre-existing failure plane. The ‘maximum’ strength parameters determined therefore relate to
the strength of the glue and not the rock itself and have been omitted from Table T2.3-1. The
intact samples show a peak strength at small displacements, followed by a sharp reduction and
then a gradual trend towards an ultimate value. The particulate samples show a gradual increase in
strength (strain-hardening) with shear displacement.

37
 120 47
1.18-2mm
2-3.35mm 46
100
3.35-5mm

Maximum shear stress (kPa)

45

Friction angle (degrees)

5-6.3mm
80
6.3-10mm 44

60 43

42
40
41
20
40 Friction angle calculated based
on assumption that c’ = 0
0 39
0 20 40 60 80 100 1.18-2 2-3.35 3.35-5 5-6.3 6.3-10
Normal stress (kPa) Particle size range (mm)
(a) (b)

Figure T2.3-5 Direct Shear Results for Coal: (a) maximum shear stress versus normal
stress and (b) maximum friction angle for all particle sizes
As with critical states in soil mechanics, the ultimate strength (at high values of shear
displacement) is a function of the nature of the particular rock material and it is therefore not
surprising that the data from all tests appear to converge at higher displacements (unfortunately
the larger displacement data for the intact and glued samples were not obtained and the ultimate
state friction angle shows considerable variation between test samples). The inherent bond
strength of the intact samples results in higher values of ‘maximum shear stress’ cohesion and
friction angle than the particulate samples and makes a direct link between Mohr-Coulomb
parameters from intact and particulate samples difficult.
Table T2.3-1 Comparison of Mohr-Coulomb Properties from Direct Shear Testing of
Intact, Reconstructed and Particulate Samples of Coal Measure Clay
Maximum shear stress Ultimate shear stress
Sample type Friction angle Cohesion Friction Cohesion
(degrees) (kPa) angle (kPa)
(degrees)
Intact 65 219 69 34
Reconstructed N/A N/A 50 45
2 – 3.35mm particle 28 42 21
46
size
1 - 2 mm particle size 29 31 33 27
Therefore, the results obtained from direct shear testing are difficult to compare with those
obtained from intact samples, not only because so little intact material can be available for testing
with softer rocks but largely because of the considerable differential between intact bonded rock
and crushed material. However, the values obtained from direct shear testing of particulate
samples do have application when considering the behaviour of ‘critical state’ fractured soft rocks
in a high stress environment.
One problem with direct shear box testing mentioned in the previous section was a limitation on
the use of larger particle graded samples. In order to investigate the effect of larger particle sizes
that could not be tested in the shear box, triaxial tests of particulate samples using soils triaxial
equipment were carried out. Triaxial testing is a common laboratory test used for obtaining
strength parameters for soils in Civil Engineering. This research project proposed this method to
obtain strength properties for the crushed and graded rock samples. Triaxial tests on crushed coal
with particle ranges 3.35-5 mm, 6.3-10 mm were carried out to compare results with those
obtained from the shear box tests. The comparison of results between shear box and triaxial tests
is shown in Table T2.3-2, based on maximum shear stresses recorded during tests. The values of
friction angle from the shear box tests are noted to be higher than those from the standard triaxial
tests. The range of normal stress in the direct shear tests was, however, less than the confining
stress in the triaxial tests. This may explain some of the difference between the values obtained
from the two tests (a lower confining stress will result in a higher value of friction angle based on
maximum shear stresses).

38
Tests of samples with an even larger particle size (10-40 mm) were conducted using a large
diameter triaxial cell. As the name suggests, the large triaxial test apparatus, which was designed
for testing railway ballast, is significantly larger than a conventional triaxial apparatus and can
accommodate cylindrical samples of 300 mm diameter and 450 mm height. An issue with the large
scale test is that the amount of material required is considerable and ultimately restricted the
widespread application of this test equipment in the project.
Table T2.3-2 Comparison of Results from Triaxial and Shear Box Tests on Broken Coal
Test Particle Normal/Confining Friction Angle
Size Range Stress Range
(degrees)
(mm) (kPa)
Shear box 3.35 – 5 10-100 45.8

Shear box 6.3 – 10 10-100 45.1

Standard Triaxial 3.35 – 5 100-200 34.6
Standard Triaxial 6.3 – 10 100-200 36.1
Large Triaxial 10 – 40 100-200 33.9

Note: all values obtained assuming c’= 0.

Index Testing using Point Load and Cone Indenter Apparatus

Index testing of small rock samples, both prepared and unprepared in the field and in the
laboratory, has been regarded as a simple way for obtaining a value for Uniaxial Compressive
Strength. The researchers applied these techniques as they seemed appropriate for the particular
problem of testing soft rocks. Two pieces of equipment, the Point Load Tester and the NCB Cone
Indenter were used (NCB 1977, Taylor and Spears 1981). Mudstone samples from two adjacent
roof cores from the same UK mine were tested using the point load apparatus and cone indenter
and the results compared with intact UCS tests from the same materials, Table T2.3-3.
Table T2.3-3 Comparison of UCS Values given by Intact sample Testing, Cone Indenter
and Point Load Test for a Coal Measure Mudstone
Test Number of Average, UCS Standard Coefficient of
Samples tested (MPa) Deviation, Variation (=
StDev (MPa) StDev / Avg)
UCS Test 6 81 6 0.08
Cone Indenter 29 74 21 0.28
Point load 13 91 57 0.63
It can be seen that there was a reasonable level of agreement between the UCS sample results and
those of the cone indenter tests. There was an increased variability in the cone indenter results but
this could also have been due to the additional number of samples included within the data set. It
is also important to consider that samples tested intact would have been the strongest samples in
the core as they had not broken up during drilling whereas the lower value for the cone indenter
tests could be due to the potentially weaker sample material tested. The point load tests gave a
slightly higher UCS value with a considerably increased variability over those of the other two test
methods and seem, on examination, to be a less reliable test method.

Time Dependency Testing (Creep)

Although coal measure rock types are not normally thought of as demonstrating time dependent
(creep) properties, it is known that some roadways driven in soft coal measure rocks do
demonstrate increasing and continuous closure despite there being no apparent changes to stress
conditions in their vicinity, once driven. As a result, attempts were made using a variety of
techniques to measure whether time dependent properties could be identified in both intact and
broken samples. In these tests the objective was to choose an applied stress that was a significant
proportion of the UCS, normally approximately 75%. This was not easy to achieve as there were
limited intact samples of weaker material and the need to identify the UCS meant UCS testing one
of these samples, reducing further the availability of samples for creep testing. The researchers
also found that the value of UCS recorded was not necessarily consistent across the batch,
meaning that when the applied load was increased to 75% of UCS, premature failure of the sample
could occur at the commencement of the test.

39
Several intact mudstone samples tested over a period of 60 days showed axial strains of less than
0.5%. It was therefore concluded that the degree of creep occurring in the intact sample was
insignificant. Tests were then concentrated on particulate material. For ‘soil’ like samples
(particulate material) the Hollow Cylinder Apparatus, HCA, (being used as a triaxial cell) was used
to test the material strength and creep properties as this apparatus is able to test larger sample
sizes and also apply higher loadings. The crushed/broken samples required a sample diameter of at
least 100 mm and were tested with a sample height of 200 mm. Figure T2.3-6 shows data
collected from the tests of a crushed particle sample of mudstone. The strains recorded at the end
of the test (at time = 66 hr or just under 3 days) is far in excess of that experienced with intact
samples of similar material.
A similar test was conducted on a sample of crushed coal and it yielded a similar profile of
increasing displacement with fixed load but yielding higher strains than those experienced with the
crushed mudstone, Figure T2.3-6. This profile would suggest a degree of time dependency which
when translated to the strata around a roadway driven largely or wholly in a coal seam and in
which the high loading had fractured the coal immediately adjacent to the roadway, may offer an
explanation for continued closure of that roadway under relatively constant strata loading.

14
Crushed coal
12 Axial load = 4 kN
Cell pressure = 250 kPa
10
Axial strain (%)

8 Crushed coal
See Note Axial load = 2.5 kN
6 Cell pressure = 100 kPa

Crushed mudstone
4
Axial load = 1.5 kN
Cell pressure = 200 kPa
2
Note: these increases in strain were due to a sudden but slight
unloading/reloading that occurred during the tests
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
time (hr)

Figure T2.3-6 Time Dependent Behaviour of Particulate Coal Measure Mudstone and
Crushed Coal

Characterisation of Soft Rock Masses

The purpose of the task is to provide a complete characterization of rock masses of loose rocks that
are present in the coal mines, watching the post-peak behaviour for its use in geomechanical
modelling. This geomechanical study was undertaken in FLAC. There are a number of constitutive
models of FLAC, within the group of plastic models. For the characterisation of the weak rock the
modified Hoek-Brown constitutive model was used because it is considered to be the model with
the biggest amount of studies about the estimation of rock mass behaviour.
Following the methodology defined above tests have been conducted to characterise selected weak
rocks. The rocks were:
· Coal for Harry Banks-Shotton Opencast.
· Sandstone or medium siltstone for Hatfield Colliery Core.
· Mudstone for Thoresby Colliery.
Uniaxial compressive strength tests, triaxial single stage compressive strength tests and triaxial
multi-stage compressive strength tests were carried out in the University of Nottingham. Only
selected test results, 13 off 58, were used for the analysis because not all sample tests reached the
residual strength. Even some the uniaxial compressive strength tests have not been considered
because the curves do not stabilize and apparently do not reach the residual strength.

40
Table T2.3-4: Summary of the Parameters to Model Thoresby’s Mudstone with the
Modified Hoek-Brown Model
Thoresby Colliery Hatfield Colliery Siltstone Coal Harry Banks-
Mudstone / Sandstone Shotton Opencast
Parameter Pre Residual Long Pre Residual Long Pre Resid Long
peak strain peak strain peak ual strain
ROCK
Plastic 0.001 0.009 0.002
strain
Sig_ci 35,08 35,08 35,0 69.68 69.68 69.68 51.632 51.63 51.63
8 2 2
_m 4,546 2,427 2,42 8.067 3.998 3.998 3.284 1.62 1.62
7
_s 1.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00
_a 0.50 0,827 0,82 0.50 0.430 0.430 0.50 0.42 0.42
7
Dilatation- 12,39 15.24 11.16º
Psi
Density 2.68 2.53 1.29
gr/cm3 gr/cm3 gr/cm3
Bulk 4592 9531 2455
Shear 3444 4914 1133
ROCK MASSES
Plastic 0.065 0.066 0.061
strain
Sig_ci 35,08 35,08 35,0 69.68 69.68 69.68 51.632 51.63 51.63
8 2 2
_m 0,790 0,203 0,20 1.402 0.335 0.335 0.55 0.14 0.14
3
_s 0.004 0.000 0.00 0.004 0.000 0.00 0.004 0.000 0.00
_a 0.505 0,827 0,82 0.505 0.430 0.430 0.51 0.42 0.42
7
Dilatation- 3,15 3.77º 3.13º
Psi
Density 2.68 2.53 1.29
gr/cm3 gr/cm3 gr/cm3
Bulk 1797 2735 2455
Shear 1078 1641 1133

Figures T2.3-7(a) and T2.3-7(b) show the idealised unitary deformations along the axis of
major principal stress in the failure and post-failure, and also the percentage of residual strength
regarding to the peak resistance, for the different samples considered for this analysis.
As a result of the testing the following characteristics can be highlighted:
· The Harry Banks-Shotton Opencast samples show similar slopes in the pre-failure segment,
showing similar grade of rigidity. Also there is a linear relation between the confinement
pressure and the residual strength regarding to the peak resistance,
· The siltstone and sandstone samples have a more elastic behaviour than the mudstone
samples,
· The mudstone samples have shown a relative more elastic behaviour.

41
 (a) (b)
Theoretical Stress-Strain behaviour Theoretical Stress-Strain behaviour
80
120%
70
60 100%
Stress MPa

50 80%

% de peak
40 Coal
60%
30 Siltstone
20 40%
Mudstone
10 20%
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0%
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Strain m/m
Strain m/m

Figure T2.3-7 (a) Comparative stress-strain behaviour of the 3 rocks in MPa

(confinement pressure = 0) (b) Comparative stress –strain behaviour of the 3 rocks in %
of peak strength (confinement pressure = 0)

2.3.4 Task 2.4 Analysis of weathering of coal measure strata including SEM
Analysis
This part of the report introduces the work conducted on sample weathering and analysis. Samples
were subjected to “laboratory” weathering in both a Climate chamber and also through immersion
in baths containing three different types of water. Samples were then subjected to physical testing
using both UCS and Index testing methods, and analysis using scanning electron microscope and
Energy-dispersive X-ray techniques.
A Climate simulation chamber designed by Temperature Applied Sciences was used for accelerated
rock weathering. Heating of the chamber is effected by sheathed heater elements located behind
the baffle system. Humidification is generated by injecting air into a hot water bath and
subsequently into the chamber working area. De-humidification is achieved by the use of a ‘dew
point’ coil with anti-icing features. The temperature and relative humidity (RH) of this chamber can
be controlled between about 75° and 150° and from about 10% to 98% RH.
Three types of water were used for rock sample weathering, including tap water, acid water and
mine water. Three baths were used to hold each type of water. Information regarding the solution
for the content of each bath is given in Table T2.4-1. These values are calculated carefully to
obtain target pH values for these waters. A water pump was used every-day to ensure that these
added elements are uniformly distributed within these baths. The pH values (tap water=7.1; mine
water=5.2; acid water=2) are monitored and kept constant throughout the testing phase. These
pH values are monitored by pH meter and water is changed every 2 weeks to make sure the pH
values are kept constant.

Table T2.4-1 Water Solution Information

Mg Na Cl SO4 MgSO4 Na2SO4 NaCl H2SO4
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (g/ml) (g/ml) (g/ml) (g/ml)
Tap Water Small values can be ignored
pH 7.1
Designed 40 14.5 12 353 0.02% 0.002% 0.002% 0.01%
mine Water
pH 5.2
Aggressive 400 724 600 3273 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.05%
acid
solution pH
2.0
The Scanning Electron Microscope, SEM, Figure T2.4-1, is a microscope that uses electrons
instead of light to form an image. The SEM has many advantages over traditional microscopes. It
has a large depth of field, which allows more of a specimen to be in focus at one time. It also has
much higher resolution, so closely spaced specimens can be magnified at much higher levels.

42
Because the SEM uses electromagnets rather than lenses, the researcher has much more control
on the degree of magnification.
The environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM), Figure T2.4-1, is an SEM that allows for
the option of collecting electron micrograph specimens that are "wet," uncoated, or both by
allowing for a gaseous environment in the specimen chamber. Although there were earlier
successes at viewing wet specimens in internal chambers in modified SEMs, the ESEM with its
specialised electron detectors and its differential pumping systems to allow for the transfer of the
electron beam from the high vacuums in the gun area to the high pressures attainable in its
specimen chamber, make it a complete and unique instrument designed for the purpose of imaging
specimens in their natural state.

Figure T2.4-1 Environmental SEM Apparatus (left) and SEM Apparatus (right)
The specimens used for examination under the SEM were placed directly in an evaporator and
maintained under high vacuum overnight. They were coated with carbon just before the
observations were made. The specimens examined under the ESEM using secondary electron mode
were placed directly in the microscope chamber. Sample coating is not needed with this type of
microscope.
To investigate the weathering effect on sample strength, samples were prepared to conduct UCS
and cone indenter tests before and after weathering. SEM analysis was used to examine the
differences of microstructure and chemical changes before and after weathering for small sample
pieces. Samples of core originating from Daw Mill Colliery were selected to investigate the Climate
chamber weathering effect on sample strength. Weathering cycles (20°-60°) and constant
temperature and humidity were used for samples. Humidity was controlled between 50% and 80%.
SEM analysis of the weathered samples was undertaken to try to aid an understanding of some of
the weathering processes that might be in action. Small samples were selected for SEM analysis.
Images of microstructure near the centre of these samples were obtained from SEM and element
content in the scanned area obtained from Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). However,
because of the high degree of magnification, it proved very difficult to identify the same sample
area every time to conduct SEM analysis. Adhesive tape was placed across the centre of each
sample to mark the scanned area. The corner area of the adhesive tape was used to scan each
time giving a higher probability that the same general area of the sample would be scanned on
each occasion.
Based on the experimental work, including UCS, cone indenter, SEM and EDX analysis, carried out
in Task 2.4, the following conclusions can be drawn.
Climate chamber simulations show that both temperature and humidity are important for
weathering, especially in the case of soft rocks, such as mudstone. The UCS results obtained before
and after weathering of rock samples in the Climate chamber suggest that UCS strength and
Young’s modulus of the samples after weathering are noticeably lower than those before
weathering. However, further analysis would be needed to quantify the diminishing weathering
effects of humidity and temperature. Submerging rock samples in different types of water has
proven to be very useful in analysing detrimental effects of groundwater on rock properties.
Samples that had been submersed in water for up to 7 days showed a decrease in UCS values.

43
However, samples left longer than 7 days tended to deteriorate rapidly such that no UCS testing
was possible.
In cases where deterioration of rock samples due to weathering did not allow UCS testing, mainly
due to insufficient dimensions of samples, cone indenter tests were shown to be a convenient and
viable alternative to UCS testing.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) provided
useful qualitative insights into the effects of weathering on the microstructure and chemical
composition of rock samples. The surfaces of the rock samples removed from the baths had
significantly more pores of larger sizes. A large amount of fine materials was deposited in the baths
after weathering confirming SEM observations. EDX analysis also showed changes in chemical
composition of samples weathered in the climate chamber or submerged in water baths. However,
quantifying the effect using either of these methods was much more challenging due to technical
difficulties in identifying identical areas of specimens selected for SEM and EDX analyses before and
after weathering. Furthermore, both methods showed their limitations in analysing rock samples
with significant mass loss during weathering processes simulated in the climate chamber or water
baths.
Examples of typical SEM images of rock samples and EDX scan results are shown in Figures T2.4-
2 and T2.4.3 respectively below.

Figure T2.4-2 SEM Scan of Sample Left in in Acid Water for One Month

44
Figure T2.4-3 EDX Analysis for a Mudstone Sample

2.3.5 Task 2.5 In-situ characterisation of soft strata

The work for this task has been broken up into the following sections:
· Improved data collection: including the application of new and improved instrumentation,
· Characterisation at four different colliery sites :Daw Mill, Thoresby, Maltby and Kellingley
Collieries,
· Improved understanding of soft side and floor deformation : holistic schematics to
represent the improved understanding of rib and floor deformation.

Improved Data Collection

As indicated in the task descriptor this task aimed, through in-situ observation, to characterise the
behaviour of soft floors and sides under specific geomechanical conditions. In order to do this the
project aimed to apply new or improved data gathering technologies/tools and to introduce existing
tools to the study sites in order to achieve this aim. In Work Package 1 the key tools anticipated for
development and trial included an NDT test method for bolt integrity, the application of the
borehole camera for geological logging of uncored boreholes and the application of the borehole
penetrometer for determining the strength and stiffness of uncored borehole geology through cross
correlation with known sites. As indicated in Work Package 1 the application of the borehole
penetrometer in the current UK deep mining environment is not practicable due to boreholes
typically being drilled at significantly less than the 95 mm diameter required for its use. The task to
determine a method for testing in-situ rockbolt integrity also met with technical difficulties but
some positive results from pre-instrumented rockbolts were obtained. These have been reported in
Work Package 1 as part of the demonstration of the success of the field trial.
The use of the improved borehole camera for geological logging was investigated. The investigation
showed that colour changes and borehole profiles are not reliable ways to determine different rock
types. Mudstones, siltstones and silty sandstones can all appear in varying shades of ‘grey’ and
dust, moisture and general hole visibility do not aid the process. Stronger bands can be discerned
by camera analysis but the precise lithology cannot be reliably determined.
The other improvements in data collection included:
· The use of the improved borehole camera for stress direction mapping through borehole
breakout direction measurement,
· The use of the continuity bolts to indicate when bolt failure had occurred,
· Improved mapping and measurement of floor lift (heave/blow),
· Improved data representation from strain gauged bolts, and
· The application of the rib distometer and its practical use.

45
Characterisation of Soft Sides and Floors at Colliery Study Sites
Improved data collection has helped with the characterisation of soft sides and floors at the study
sites and the consequent improved understanding of the deformation mechanisms driving rib and
floor failure. The typical behaviour of the soft sides and floors at the study sites from 4 different
collieries working 4 different seams is described in this section and broken into:
· Daw Mill Colliery, Warwickshire Thick Seam, 303’s longwall panel retreat,
· Thoresby Colliery, Deep Soft Seam, DS1’s and DS4’s pillar interaction areas
· Maltby Colliery, Parkgate Seam, T125’s Panel
· Kellingley Colliery, Beeston Seam, 500’s longwall panel block

Daw Mill Colliery: 303’s Longwall Panel

On the completion of panel development the rib movement was in the order of 100 mm and
distributed evenly from roof to floor. They were reported to be the most stable rockbolted ribs ever
seen at Daw Mill Colliery, visually remaining good until affected by the retreat faceline abutment.
Floor heave had resulted in 1.5-2.0 m of floor being removed.
On retreat the height of roof movement in the Tailgate increased from 0.35 m up to 6 m into the
roof which required control by 5 x 8 m cable bolts per metre, trussing with webbing in the uneven
roof and steel strapping where the roof was flat. In the Coalgate roof movement reached a height
of 0.05 m.
In the Coalgate, rib condition near the face was poor. The solid side rib had moved inwards by up
to 1 m and additional rib support had been installed. The face side rib required systematic dress
back and rebolting, long dowelling, meshing and webbing outbye of the stage loader. Outbye, due
to the roadway height being extended beyond its original dimension by dinting, additional rib bolts,
meshing and extended webbing were required. Outbye of the dinting operations, the ribs were
observed to be stable and in good condition with approximately 300 mm total movement. It was
clearly observed that the ribs deteriorated significantly at the location where each dint was
undertaken. Both ribs in the Tailgate were considered to be in relatively poor condition compared
with the ribs in the Coalgate in the front abutment zone and this is likely to be caused by the
dinting as the installed support and vertical front abutment effects are similar for both gates.
Dinting in the Coalgate had taken the form of 3 dints in front of the face, including the material
removed on drivage up to a total of 4 m of floor lift was removed.

Thoresby Colliery: Deep Soft 1’s and 4’s Longwalls

Thoresby Colliery has been developing longwalls in the Deep Soft Seam. The workings are subject
to interaction from Parkgate workings below and Top Hard workings above. The location of DS1’s
Loadergate was such that it and DS4’s were subject to more severe interaction from the Parkgate
workings with higher stresses than has previously been encountered at comparable sites.
Monitoring of the roof and ribs in DS1’s Loadergate identified greater roof, rib and floor
deformation in the Parkgate pillar interaction area prior to panel retreat. The floor required dinting
and the ribs required cheeking off and re-supporting prior to retreat. With the additional support
installed, the ribs and floor movement on retreat was not excessive.
DS4’s is currently being driven and rib convergence and floor heave have increased in the pillar
interaction areas. These were measured with the aim of exploring the quantitative relationship of
floor lift to time and vertical stress, (estimated from numerical modelling). Figure T2.5.1 shows
the results from the floor heave measurement. The effect of dinting was also measured on both
continued floor lift and rib movement. The relationships between the floor and rib movement and
vertical stress are being further explored in Work Package 5 with respect to predicting floor heave
for floor control management.

Maltby Colliery: Parkgate Seam T125’s Longwall

T125’s longwall panel at Maltby Colliery was driven in the Parkgate Seam and planned to extract an
un-mined block of coal between T12’s and T16’s existing longwall wastes. Conditions during
development of T125’s would be influenced both by these adjacent old workings in the same seam
and interaction from overlying workings in the Swallow Wood and Barnsley seams. In addition the
roof geology at this site was known to vary significantly across the planned panel.
Roof movement was particularly affected by the weak mudstone in the roof, reaching up to
300 mm. Rib movement however was sensitive to the vertical stress regime. Roof and ribs tended
to be decoupled. Consequently even where roof movement was high, rib movement was low if the
vertical stress was low, (under waste), and vice versa. Rib movement could be high in higher
stressed areas below Parkgate solid, but roof movement tended to be low when the geology was
good.

46
Figure T2.5.1 Time Dependent Changes in Floor Lift for Selected Locations in DS4’s
Supply Gate

Kellingley Colliery: Beeston Seam 500’s Panels

The 500’s set of panels, 501’s, 502’s, 503’s, 504’s and 505’s, are a set of panels in an area of the
mine not overworked in the Silkstone seam. Hence previous experience in the Beeston seam was
expected to be of limited relevance. 501’s had already been developed and has been referred to in
Prosafe Coal, but the relevant information is reviewed for rib and floor behaviour as it forms a
reference point for the subsequent panels studied under GEOSOFT and allows a comparative study
of the modelled versus measured behaviour with a retreat scenario.
Analysis of roof movement from 501’s, 502’s and 503’s panel gate roads shows it to be generally
low, less than 10 mm with sporadic bulking. Rib movement can be characterised by that summed
up in Figure T2.5-2 with representative results from Maingate roadways.

Figure T2.5-2 Representative Roadway Rib Convergence with Time from 501, 502 and
503’s Gate Roads as Recorded by Rib Laser Measurements from Selected Points along
the Maingate’s (except 501’s where the M/G was affected by Faulting)

Rib extensometer and borehole camera logging indicates that the majority of the movement is
generally occurring within the immediate 1.0 m of rib with some movement up to 3.0 m into the

47
rib. The whole ribs therefore move in beyond the bolted length of 1.8 m with occasional localised
bulking. Floor heave tends to be negligible on development. On retreat floor heave increases to
0.5 – 1.0 m. Rib movements increase to 200-300 mm.

Improved Understanding of Soft Side and Floor Deformation

The aim of this task was to use in-situ observation and application of appropriate instrumentation
to characterise the behaviour of soft floors and sides under specific geomechanical conditions.
Using this information for the case study sites it has been possible to put together schematic
sketches to illustrate holistically the failure mechanisms and driving forces (geology/stress level
etc.). These types of diagram are not new in principle, but a review of previous work has indicated
that often these are concerned with detailed aspects of either roof OR rib deformation and do not
always consider roof, rib and floor together along with driving mechanisms and failure as predicted
by numerical modelling.
These holistic sketches have been undertaken for the following study sites:
· Daw Mill,Warwickshire Thick Seam, 303’s Longwall, coal and stone tops,
· Thoresby, Deep Soft Seam, DS1’s/4’s,
· Maltby Colliery, Parkgate Seam, T125’s, Silt and Mudstone roof geologies,
· Kellingley Colliery, Beeston Seam, 501’s – 503’s Longwalls.
Figure T2.5-3 shows the schematic created for Daw Mill Colliery. This work has allowed successful
characterisation of the study sites to provide data for the numerical modelling analysis in Work
Package 4 and analysis in Work Package 5.

48
 Numerical Model- Development
303’S STONE TOP
Plane Normal:
X: 0.000e+000
4
Y: 1.000e+000
Z: 0.000e+000

Figure T2.5-3
3
Siltstone
Roof movement 25-
2 80mm affected by local
geological changes
1 Mudstone
weak Borehole
0 camera showed Most of coal exposed is
fractures 1m 2Yard, ribs behave more
1 Two Yard into rib uniformly, squeeze in for
Photograph Coal most of their height,
2

Mechanisms at Daw Mill Colliery

Bare Coal 100mm on development Results described
3 for the Coalgate,
Ryder/Ell/ Rib and roof Floor heave 1.5-2.0m on
4 Top Nine Feet movement sensitive development , no biased Tailgate was a lot
Coal to movement, bulks into roadway
5 dinting operations
better
6

49
Seam Split
7 Coal cleat on bord therefore
Bottom Nine most favourable direction as
8 major cleat planes not
Feet Coal
promoting failure
303’s rib support and 9

deformation looked similar to Mudstone

10
this from 32’s
Retreat Behaviour Rib Behaviour
• Solid and GRP ribside moved in 1m as a
whole, more bulking and failure on GRP side
• Rib and roof movement induced where floor
Plane Normal:
X: 0.000e+000 over dinted, also induces roof movement
Y: 1.000e+000
Z: 0.000e+000 • 400-500mm roof movement, bulked and
sagged in middle of roadway
• Locally 4.0m floor lift removed, horizontal
layering vertical
• Dinting triggers more floor lift fed from a
failed ‘bulb’ of strata below the roadway
• Right hand gate, stress relieved, behaves a
lot better

Schematic to Represent Improved Understanding of Deformation

2.4 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION : SUPPORT SYSTEM
TESTING

2.4.1 Task 3.1 Laboratory measurement of powered support behaviour in

simulated soft floor conditions
The objective of this Task was to conduct standard laboratory powered support performance tests
with the instrumented powered support BW 16/34 POz positioned on top of the hydraulic cushion
developed in Task 1.3. This would simulate the conditions existing on extraction faces with soft
floors. The tests were also used to check the functionality of the system for monitoring the actual
support behaviour deployed undertaken underground.
Scope of Laboratory Testing of the Instrumented Powered Support
The tests of the BW 16/34 POz powered support unit with the hydraulic cushion were carried out in
a test machine specially designed for testing strength and behaviour of mine supports. The system
allows loading of a powered support by active application of load to its canopy, Figure T3.1-1. The
testing stand, the only one in Poland, is at the Institute of Mining Technology, KOMAG, in Gliwice.

Figure T3.1-1 View of Testing Machine and BW 16/34 POz Powered Support Unit
Mounted on the Hydraulic Cushion

The tests of the BW 16/34 POz support unit were performed for two heights: 2.5 m in the middle of
operational range and 3.3 m at the maximum operational range.
The tests included the following measurements:
· Pressure in legs and other hydraulic cylinders of the support unit,
· Pressure in the hydraulic cylinders of the cushion,
· Support height – with an intermediate method, by means of inclinometers measuring
inclination angles of support unit components,
· Stresses at selected places of canopy, base, shield and lemniscate links.
At the same time as the above measurements, additional measurements were recorded via the
measurement system developed and used by the owner of the laboratory tests stand, the Institute
of Mining Technology KOMAG. The measurements included recording of signals from twenty
additional RL 10/120-type strain gauges fixed on the powered support components and
measurements of pressure in hydraulic legs.

Suite of Tests on the Powered Support

The BW 16/34 POz powered support unit was subjected to 53 load cycles. The load arrangements
were set in accordance with the Polish standard PN-EN 1804-1+A1:2010, which is harmonised with
the EU Machinery Directive. These are schematically presented in Table T3.1-1. The powered
support tests were performed under both symmetrical and asymmetrical load exerted on its canopy
as well as with diverse floor reaction patterns having effect on its base, the latter being attained
with the use of the hydraulic cushion simulating floor rock behaviour.

51
Table T3.1-1 Arrangement of Load Application on the Support Canopy in Accordance
with the Standard PN-EN 1804-1+A1:2010

The powered support unit was also subjected to tests with load applied on the whole canopy area
as well as with the canopy at diverse angles towards the machine roof loading plate, Table T3.1-
2.

Table T3.1-2 Additional Canopy Loading Specification

During the tests of the support unit the number of the active hydraulic cylinders of the hydraulic
cushion were changed in order to diversify the number and places of supporting points of the
support unit’s base. Each of the presented load arrangements was applied in tests in the following
way:
1. Support setting with application of a medium pressure in legs pw=25 MPa (pw Supply
pressure),
2. Increase of pw=30 MPa,
3. External load increase (downward roof movement) continued until the medium pressure
in legs reaches a value of pr=34 MPa (pr Operational pressure),
4. External load increase (downward roof movement) continued until the support yields by
ca. 100 mm,
5. Release of the load exerted on the support canopy.

52
Processing of Measurement Results
The measurement results taken from the controller MINCOS are stored on the PC computer in
a database developed based on SQL Server Management Studio, (presented in Deliverable 1.1).
The measurement data were then processed in a procedure developed in the CodeGear™ Delphi®
2007 programme environment.
Because of the volume of data, all the measurement results obtained during the laboratory tests
have been placed in Annex A of Deliverable 3.1. Example results of the tests, obtained from test
No. 11 symmetrical load on powered support, are presented in Figures T3.1-2, T3.1-3 and T3.1-
4.
Each of the graphs shows time on the horizontal axis, expressed in seconds (sampling frequency of
1Hz). The first graph, Figure T3.1-2, has two vertical axes:
· The left-hand axis gives values of load on both support legs in kN and values of resultant
cushion reaction force (calculation based on records of indications of 24 pressure sensors).
· The right-hand axis shows respectively:
o Equivalent support height in m (measured to the upper edge of support shield and
converted based on geometrical model), reduced by 2 m in order to increase length
increments, for better readability;
o Distance from base front-edge, expressed in m, determining position of application point
of resultant cushion reaction force;
o Ratio of cushion reaction force value to value of load on legs (reduced by support weight to
get clear proportion external load to “floor” reaction), dimensionless value.

Figure T3.1-2 Results of Measurements of Forces in Components and Geometry of BW

16/34 POz Powered Support Unit – Test No 11

The second graph, Figure T3.1-3 shows indications of strain gauges designated with numbers
from 1 to 11. Stress values are presented on the vertical axis in MPa.

53
Figure T3.1-3 Results of Measurements of Stresses in Components of BW 16/34 POz
Powered Support Unit (strain gauges 1-9), Test No 11

The third graph, Figure T3.1-4, shows results of the stress measurements performed by means of
strain gauges designated with numbers from 20 to 39 (Institute of Mining Technology KOMAG). On
the horizontal axis is the sampling number (inconsistent with the time axis – such a system is
applied by the Institute of Mining Technology KOMAG). On the vertical axis are presented stress
values in MPa and underneath are presented respective pressures of working medium in the
hydraulic legs of the support, also expressed in MPa.

Figure T3.1-4 Results of Measurements of Stresses in Components of BW 16/34 POz

Powered Support Unit (strain gauges 20 - 39) and Pressure in Support Legs – Test No.
11

54
The laboratory tests performed with the use of the hydraulic cushion were applied so as to simulate
support working conditions on a weak floor. The powered support was tested at heights of above
2.0 m and with application of symmetrical and asymmetrical load patterns in accordance with the
relevant standards in force. The recorded pressures in the support’s legs corresponded with those
found in its real application.
They ranged from a supply pressure 25 MPa and 30 MPa to an operational pressure of 34 MPa.
The envisaged scope of testing activities was achieved and the results was used in the next stages
of the project to include calibration of a numerical model and in analyses of load patterns,
displacements and forces existing in the support components. The overall volume of data obtained
from the tests amounted to over 28,000 records.

2.4.2 Task 3.2 Field measurement of powered support behaviour on soft floor

Introduction on the Underground Tests with the Instrumented Powered Support

The task objective was to carry out underground investigations using the powered support
monitoring equipment developed in WP1 on several longwalls in order to allow the determination of
working parameters for powered supports under weak floor conditions. The powered support
designed and manufactured by Becker Warkop, unit BW 16/34 POz, was used at Janina Mine. This
unit was equipped with instrumentation, developed by GIG, and had been tested previously in the
laboratory, as described in Task 3.1.
Using the measurements from the pressure values of the hydraulic actuators, the strain
measurement devices and inclinometers, the working parameters of the powered roof support were
determined:
· bearing capacity of the support unit,
· stress distribution in individual powered roof support unit elements, and
· support unit geometry.
Within the reporting period, testing of support unit BW 16/34 POz was undertaken in the Janina
Mine in three longwall faces, Table T3.2-1:
· Longwall No.136, Seam 119/2, Region of B1,
· Longwall No.700, Seam 207, Region of G, and
· Longwall No.141, Seam 119/2, Region of K2.

Table T3.2-1 Test Schedule for the Instrumented Powered Roof Support BW 16/34 POz

Seam, 2011
Longwall
portion I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
119/2
136
B1
207
700
G

Seam, 2012
Longwall
portion I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
207
700
G
119/2
141
K2

Seam, 2013
Longwall
portion I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
119/2
141
K2

period of longwall excavation

period of testing powered roof support

Carrying out testing in various seams made it possible to observe the powered roof support unit
behaviour in different conditions.

55
Field Measurement of Powered Support Behaviour in Longwall No. 136

Description of Longwall Area

Longwall No. 136 extracted the seam 119/2 by longwall retreat in region B1 at the 350 Level.
Figure T3.2-1, shows the location of Longwall 136.

Figure T3.2-1 Location of Longwall No. 136, Janina Mine

Longwall mining was undertaken with roof caving in a transverse inclination at the height of 2.9-
3.2 m. The depth of longwall extraction was 400-450 m. The geological strata were dipping at 5-9°
to the NE. The shape and size of the longwall panel was the result of geological faulting. The length
of the longwall face No. 136 was initially 163.0 m and then was extended to about 200 m. The
total longwall panel length was 838 m.

Geological Profile for Longwall 136

Figure T3.2-2 shows a geological profile of the seam 119/2 and surrounding rocks made on the
basis of boreholes drilled in the area of Longwall No. 136 panel.

21.10 sandstone
Seam 119/2 in Longwall No. 136 was made
up of several layers of coal, which were 0.15 – 0.90 shale
0.50 – 0.80 coal, seam 119/1
separated by layers of clay slate. Directly in 1.40 – 1.65 shale
the seam roof there was a layer of shale. In
the floor of the seam 119/2 there was a shale
turning into mudstone (locally verified coal 0.0 – 8.0 sandstone UCS = 9.56 MPa
lenticle in the second part of longwall panel
length), with underlying sandstone.
0.0 – 2.10 shale UCS = 5.32 MPa

In order to determine the strength of roof 4 x shale (0.03 – 0.25) 5 x coal (0,20 – 1,30) , seam 119/2
and floor rocks deposited in the vicinity of UCS = 9.41 MPa
coal seam 119/2, testing was performed by
0.0 – 1.0 coal
means of borehole penetrometer in the UCS = 5.76 MPa 0.0 – 5.0 mudstone, shale
headings adjacent to the longwall panel. UCS = 5.28 MPa
In the Figure T3.2-2, the average Uniaxial
Compressive Strength (UCS) of the seam 0.0 – 9.90 sandstone UCS = 11.27 MPa
119/2, roof and floor rocks obtained on the
basis of penetrometer testing is also given.
Figure T3.2-2 Geological Profile for
Longwall No. 136

56
Powered Roof Support in Longwall 136
Longwall No. 136 was equipped in the following powered roof supports:
· Fazos 17/33 POz-ZGE - 125 units
· BW 16-34 POz - 1 unit
· Fazos 17/33 POz/BSN- ZGE - 6 units
The required longwall retreat rate with the powered supports was prepared by GIG calculating the
index of load capacity of roof „g”. The analysis showed that in order to ensure suitable conditions a
minimum longwall daily advance of 3.2 m must be achieved.

Mining Longwall No. 136

Having retreated 500 m, the longwall was extended by 37 m, Figure T3.2-3, which included the
installation of the instrumented powered support BW 16/34 POz. Stopping the longwall advance for
the period necessary to carry out the longwall extension works caused deterioration of ground
conditions on the face which required the use of measures to prevent a roof fall. Simultaneously,
the period of longwall stoppage led to the loss of floor stability which caused the bases of the
support units to sink into the soft floor. As a result it gave rise to difficulties in maintaining suitable
geometry of powered roof support units and their bearing capacity. In order to counteract these
unfavourable support conditions wooden ground beams were laid under the support bases at this
time. After overcoming the above mentioned difficulties the longwall ran with the retreat rate
exceeding 5 m per day.

Figure T3.2-3 View of Cross-cut Aimed at Extending the Longwall No. 136

Powered Support Monitoring System for Longwall 136

In Figure T3.2-4, a section of Janina Mine map is shown, with marked monitoring network and
arrangement of devices. Monitoring of powered roof support unit BW 16/34 POz was undertaken
with the use of instrumentation provided by Becker Warkop, with partial utilisation of the existing
installation in Janina Mine.

57
Figure T3.2-4 Diagram of Powered Support Monitoring System for Longwall 136
Information from sensors was collected in auxiliary controllers built-in on unit No. 119 and then
sent to the main microprocessor controller MINCOS. Thereafter, the distribution frame transferred
a signal with fibre-optic network along roadways and through the shaft to the signal converter on
the surface. From there, information was forwarded to the PC computer station located at the office
of Support Department. Data archiving took place after processing on the computer’s hard disk in a
continuous manner.

Measuring Devices and Controllers for Longwall 136

The instrumented powered support measuring devices and their placement on the powered roof
support BW 16/34 POz were described in Task 1.1. Figure T3.2-5 shows views of extensometer
and inclinometer built-in on the canopy and pressure sensor located in the leg of powered roof
support unit.

extensometer inclinometer pressure sensor

Figure T3.2-5 View of an Extensometer, Inclinometer and Pressure Sensor

Figure T3.2-6 shows a view of intrinsically safe auxiliary controllers type BFS built-in on the
powered support unit. One controller collected data from pressure sensors, inclinometers and 3
extensometers. The second controller collected data from 8 extensometers. The data was obtained
in analogue form and processed to digital form. Data in such a form were forwarded to the main
controller MINCOS, containing data visualisation system which enabled viewing of measurement
systems work.

58
Figure T3.2-6 Views of Auxiliary Controllers Type BFS and Main Controller MINCOS

Field Measurement of Powered Support Behaviour in Longwall No. 700

Description of Longwall 700 Area

Longwall No. 700 extracted the Seam 207 with longwall retreat system in region G at the 500
level. In Figure T3.2-7, a segment of a coal seam map is presented which refers to the range of
the longwall exploitation. Longwall mining was undertaken with roof caving in transverse inclination
at the height up to 3.2 m. The average depth of longwall mining was 585 m. The geological strata
in the region of Longwall 700 were dipping at 3-9° to the NE direction. The length of Longwall No.
700 was 210 m, and panel length 440 m. Because of the height of the powered supports which
were available for Longwall No. 700, (powered supports were from longwall No. 136), and in order
to ensure stable retreat conditions of longwall a layer of coal 0.0-0.4 m thick was left in the roof
and a layer 0.6-1.0 m in the floor.

Figure T3.2-7 Location of Longwall No. 700, Janina Mine

59
Geological Profile for Longwall 700
Figure T3.2-8 shows a geological profile of Seam 207 and surrounding rocks made on the basis of
boreholes logged in the region of Longwall 700. The Seam 207 thickness in Longwall 700 panel was
4.0-4.4 m (including two interlayers of refractory shale 0.01-0.04 m).

Directly in the roof of the seam there was a

layer of shale with an overlying layer of
sandstone
sandstone. Over the sandstone there was a
layer of coal 0.1-0.2 m, above which there 1.00 – 1.60 coal, seam 206/1
was: shale, sandstone and shale, and over 0.00 – 0.40 shale
0.00 – 1.60 sandstone
which there was a coal seam 206/1 of
thickness 1.0-1.6 m. In the floor of Seam 207 1.00 – 2.50 shale

there was shale with an underlying 0.10 – 0.20 coal

sandstone.
23.30 – 24.00 sandstone UCS = 15.02 MPa
In order to determine the strength of roof and
floor rocks deposited in the vicinity of coal
Seam 207, testing was performed by means
0.00 – 1.50 shale UCS = 11.77 MPa
of borehole penetrometer in the headings
adjacent to the longwall panel. 4.00 – 4.40 coal, seam 207 UCS = 10.81 MPa

0.00 – 1.70 shale UCS = 5.28 MPa

In the Figure T3.2-8, the average UCS of
roof and floor rocks obtained on the basis of
penetrometer testing is given as well. 66.00 sandstone UCS = 11.27 MPa

Figure T3.2-8 Geological Profile for

Longwall 700

Powered Roof Support in Longwall 700

Longwall 700 was equipped in the following powered roof supports:
· Fazos 17/33 POz-ZGE - 132 units
· BW 16-34 POz - 1 unit
· Fazos 17/33 POz/BSN- ZGE - 6 units
The required longwall retreat rate was prepared by GIG calculating the index of load capacity of
roof „g”. The analysis showed that in order to ensure suitable conditions a minimum longwall daily
retreat of 3.2 m must be achieved.

Mining Longwall No. 700

Due to the need to keep a coal layer in the roof and floor of Seam 207 in Longwall 700 face,
conditions of longwall extraction were significantly better, Figure T3.2-9, than in Longwall 136
that extracted seam 119/2. Floor stability ensured appropriate passage of supports without the
sinking of bases of the support units sinking into the floor. Longwall 700 ran with the retreat
exceeding 5 m during normal extraction.

60
Figure T3.2-9 View of the Longwall Face 700

Powered Support Monitoring System Longwall 700

Monitoring of powered roof support unit BW 16/34 POz, was conducted with devices utilised in the
Longwall No. 136. Information from sensors was collected in auxiliary controllers built-in on unit
No. 20 and then sent with transmitted fibre to the main microprocessor controller MINCOS. The
signal was transmitted by means of telecommunication and fibere-optic networks to the surface
converter. From there information was forwarded to a PC computer at the office of Support
Department. In Figure T3.2-10, a section of Janina Mine map is shown, with marked monitoring
network and arrangement of devices.

at the surfice
Link from the converter with
teletechnical wire toward
to the PC station at the office
of Support Department Manager

Shaft „Janina IV”

PC
Station
e
uid
wav eg
i cal
opt
Didstribution
Frame

Device
MINCOS

Auxiliary
Device PS1

wire
teletechnical

Figure T3.2-10 Diagram of Powered Support Monitoring System

Replacement of Measuring Equipment for Monitoring of Support BW 16/34 POz

During the mining of Longwall No. 700 there were no readings from some of the strain gauges
(extensometers), and it was not possible to replace them underground. In order to inspect and
most likely replace the damaged strain gauges the powered roof support unit BW 16/34 was
brought back to the surface and transported to Becker Warkop Company, Figure T3.2-11. The
strain gauges were replaced in there workshop and the support unit returned to Janina Mine and
installed on Longwall face No. 141, Seam 119/2.

61
 replaced extensometers

Figure T3.2-11 View of Elements of BW 16/34 Support Including Strain Gauges

Replaced Field Measurement of Powered Support Behaviour in Longwall No. 141

Field Measurement of Powered Support Behaviour in Longwall No. 141

Description of Longwall 141

Longwall No. 141 extracted the Seam 119/2 by longwall retreat in Region K2. In the Figure T3.2-
12 a segment of a coal seam map is presented which refers to the range of the longwall
excavation.

1
14

Figure T3.2-12 Location of Longwall 141, Janina Mine

Mining Longwall No. 141 was undertaken with roof caving in a transverse inclination at the height
of 2.9 m. The average depth of longwall mining was 420 m. The strata in the worked area were
dipping at 4-9°, in NW-SE direction. The length of Longwall No. 141 was 230.0 m and panel length
885 m.

Geological Profile
Figure T3.2-13 shows a geological profile of Seam 119/2 and surrounding rocks made on the
basis of boreholes drilled in the area of Longwall 141 panel. The Seam 119/2 thickness in Longwall
No. 141 panel was 3.0-3.4 m (including 4 interlayers of clay slate 0.02-0.33 m).

62
Directly in the seam roof there was a layer of
shale, with an overlying layer of sandstone, 18.10 – 27,50 sandstone
over which there were deposited: arenaceous
shale, sandstone and shale. Above, there was 0.80 – 1.30 shale
0.20 – 1.00 coal, seam 119/1
coal seam 119/1 of thickness 0.2-1.0 m,
shale and sandstone. 0.00 – 5.80 shale

0.00 – 1.20 sandstone

In the floor of the seam 119/2 there was
0.0 – 3.10 arenaceus shale
shale and the layer of sandstone below.
In order to determine the strength of roof and
0.40 – 6.00 sandstone UCS = 11.81 MPa
floor rocks deposited in the vicinity of coal
seam 207, testing was performed by means
borehole penetrometer in the headings
0.20 – 3.80 shale UCS = 9.09 MPa
adjacent to the longwall panel .
4 x shale (0.02 – 0.33) 5 x coal (0,25 – 0,85) , seam 119/2
UCS = 7.50 MPa
In the figure, the average Uniaxial
1.00 – 2.8 shale UCS = 4.76 MPa
Compressive Strength (UCS) of roof and floor
rocks obtained on the basis of penetrometer 65.00 – 80.00 sandstone UCS = 10.24 MPa
testing is given.

Figure T3.2-13 Geological Profile for

Longwall 141

Powered Roof Support in Longwall No. 141

Longwall 141 was equipped in the following powered roof supports:
· Glinik 18/30 Poz - 148 units,
· BW 16-34 POz - 1 unit,
· Glinik 18/30 POz terminal version - 6 units.
The required longwall retreat rate with the powered supports was prepared by GIG calculating the
index of load capacity of roof “g”. The analysis showed that in order to ensure suitable conditions
a minimum longwall daily advance of 3.2 m must be achieved as in case of the previous faces.

Mining the Longwall 141

Mining Longwall No. 141 was carried out in two-way system as for the previous two longwall faces.
Figure T3.2-14 shows a view of Longwall face 141 during its operation, including the test support
unit. Longwall 141 ran with a retreat exceeding 6.0 m during normal extraction.

Figure T3.2-14 View of the Longwall Face 141

63
Powered Support Monitoring System Longwall 141
Monitoring of powered roof support unit BW 16/34 POz, was conducted with the use of devices
which had been previously utilised in longwall faces 136 and 700. In Figure T3.2-15 a section of
the colliery map is shown with the locations of the monitoring network. Information from the
sensors were gathered in the auxiliary controller BSF built-in on section No. 20, and then sent with
a tele-technical conductor through the longwall face and along the gate road to the main controller
MINCOS. Thereafter it was transmitted by fibre-optic network installed in the roadways and shaft
and forwarded to the signal converter on the surface. It was then sent to a PC located in the office
of Support Department.
IV”
na
a ni

Didstribution
J
ft „

Frame
Sha

PC Auxiliary
opt

Station Device PS1

ical
wav

at the surfice
egu

Link from the converter with

id

teletechnical wire toward

e

to the PC station at the office

of Support Department Manager Didstribution
Frame

Device
MINCOS
teletechnical wi
re

Figure T3.2-15 Diagram of Powered Support Monitoring System Longwall 700

Method for Processing Data recorded from the Three Longwall Panels

The measuring data recorded by means of a PC-class computer were stored in a measurement
database served by SQL Server Management Studio, (as presented in Task 1.1), and was
periodically transferred to the Central Mining Institute in order to carry out an analysis.
The total amount of data obtained from the underground tests exceeded 4.300,000 records:
· 2 580 458 records for longwall No. 136
· 803 447 records for longwall No. 700
· 944 406 records for longwall No. 141
In order to process the data a computer program was developed in CodeGear™ Delphi® 2007
executing the tasks:
· reading of data contained in the measurement database,
· converting of measurement data into real numbers with plus or minus value in accordance
with the characteristics of measurement channels,
· converting measured voltage values of strain gauges into stresses in MPa,
· computing of support height based on records of inclinometer indications with the help of
the geometric standards prepared for the powered support unit based on its calculation
model,
· computing of total load on legs, in kN,
· allow saving the converted data in the csv database format (comma separated values)
which can easily be read by other programs like Excel, Statistica, etc.).

64
As examples of the processed results, there are graphs below compiled on indications of pressure
sensors, inclinometers and strain gauges for Longwall No. 136, Figures T3.2-16 – T3.2-18.

Figure T3.2-16 Example Graph of Pressure Sensors Values after Processing in Longwall
136

Figure T3.2-17 Example Graph of Inclinometers Readings after Processing in Longwall

136

65
Figure T3.2-18 Example Graph of Strain Gauges Readings after Processing in Longwall
136
The software made it possible to plot support load. Figure T3.2-19 shows a view of the database
records to be converted by the developed program and a diagram example of surface pressure
exerted on the support unit.

Figure T3.2-19 Panel CodeGear™ Delphi® 2007 Database Records and Figure of Surface

Presentation of Underground Measurement Results

Measurement results obtained showed that the inclinometers and pressure sensors worked
properly in the underground conditions. However in the case of strain gauges data loss occurred
frequently. In many cases indications were that the strain gauges exceeded their maximum
measurement range or did not give any signal. The reason for this could have been the humidity in

66
longwall faces that interfered with the operation of them or the electronic amplifiers. Due to the
lack of data from the underground strain gauges it was not possible to analyse the data to
formulate meaningful conclusions. However the results from the laboratory tests and numerical
calculations of the shield support model and its interaction with rockmass, as well as the outcomes
from the underground test results from inclinometers and pressure sensors, were sufficient to
formulate the final guidelines and recommendations. The loss of the underground strain gauges
only limited the comparison of the stresses in the support elements operating in the soft floor
conditions of longwalls in “Janina” coal mine with the numerical model simulation. Comparison of
actual stresses in shield support elements and numerical modelling was possible on the basis of the
laboratory tests where the strain gauges worked correctly (see Task 4.1).
In order to fully analyse and represent the data from the operating parameters of BW-16/34-POz
support during underground tests, the results were presented in the form of histograms. These
histograms show the percentage of main operating support parameters on Longwalls No. 136, 700
and 141. The parameters included:
· pressure in hydraulic props,
· inclination angle of support base,
· inclination angle between base and canopy, and
· pressure ratio on a support base.
The histograms are shown in Figures T3.2-20 – T3.2-34

40
hydraulic leg - left
35 hydraulic leg - right
Percent of measurements [%]

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

Pressure [MPa]

Figure T3.2-20 Percentage Distribution of Pressure in Hydraulic Legs in Longwall No.

136

20

18

16
Percent of measurements [%]

14

12

10

0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The angle of inclination of the base [°]

Figure T3.2-21 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle of the Base in Longwall 136

67
 18
16
Percent of measurements [%]

14

12
10
8
6

4
2
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
The angle of inclination between of the base and canopy [°]

Figure T3.2-22 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle Between the Base and
Canopy in Longwall 136

40

35
Percent of measurements [%]

30

25

20

15

10

0
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
10

Length of base [%]

Figure T3.2-23 Percentage Distribution of Pressure on the Base - Longwall 136

80

70
Percent of measurements [%]

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100

The ratio of the pressure of the front part to the rear part base [%]

Figure T3.2-24 Ratio of Pressure of the Front to Rear Part of the Base – Longwall 136

68
 14
13 hydraulic leg - left
12 hydraulic leg - right
Percent of measurements [%]

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445

Pressure [MPa]

Figure T3.2-25 Percentage Distribution of Pressure in Hydraulic legs in Longwall 700

60
Percent of measurements [%]

50

40

30

20

10

0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The angle of inclination of the base [°]

Figure T3.2-26 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle of the Base in Longwall 700

70

60
Percent of measurements [%]

50

40

30

20

10

0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The angle of inclination between of the base and canopy [°]

Figure T3.2-27 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle Between the Base and
Canopy in Longwall 700

69
 100

90

80
Percent of measurements [%]

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100
Length of base [%]

Figure T3.2-28 Percentage Distribution of Pressure on the Base Longwall 700

25

20
Percent of measurements [%]

15

10

0
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
The ratio of the pressure of the front part to the rear part base [%]

Figure T3.2-29 Ratio of Pressure of the Front to Rear Part of the Base – Longwall No. 700

9
hydraulic leg - left
8 hydraulic leg - right
Percent of measurements [%]

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13 1415 16 17 18 19 2021 22 23 2425 26 27 28 29 3031 32 3334 35 36 3738 39 4041 42 43 44 45 4647 48
Pressure [MPa]

Figure T3.2-30 Percentage Distribution of Pressure in Hydraulic Legs in Longwall 141

70
 40

35
Percent of measurements [%]

30

25

20

15

10

0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The angle of inclination of the base [°]

Figure T3.2-31 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle of the Base in Longwall 141

90

80
Percent of measurements [%]

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The angle of inclination between of the base and canopy [°]

Figure T3.2-32 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle Between the Base and
Canopy in Longwall 141

100

90

80
Percent of measurements [%]

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
50

52

54

56

58

60

62

64

66

68

70

72

74

76

78

80

82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

100

Length of base [%]

Figure T3.2-33 Percentage Distribution of Pressure on the Base - Longwall 141

71
 10

9
Percent of measurements [%]

0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
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74
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82
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90
92
94
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98
10
The ratio of the pressure of the front part to the rear part base [%]

Figure T3.2-34 Ratio of Pressure of the Front to Rear Part of the Base in Longwall 141

By analysing the data presented in the above histograms it can be deduced that the working
parameters of the instrumented powered roof support were strongly dependent on the geological
conditions and the support operating method.

The powered support worked less favourably in Longwall 136. In 38% of measurement time the
pressure in the left hydraulic leg was 1.0 MPa, Figure T3.2-20, which took place in the early stage
of retreat after extending the longwall face in difficult conditions. This shows that in this period the
powered support was working on one leg made possible by the fact that the cause could be an air
pocket in the hydraulic leg or the influence of the wet floor on the manoeuvring of support during
the operation of its passage. In case of Longwalls 700 and 141 this situation did not take place.
However in all cases the measured pressure in hydraulic props indicates the asymmetry in support
work.

Longwall 136 also showed the largest variation when considering the support geometry. The
inclination of the base was changing in range from -8° to +6°, Figure T3.2-21, and the inclination
between base and canopy was changing from +2° to +20°, Figure T3.2-22. In the two other
longwalls these angles ranged from +2° to +7°, Figures T3.2-26, 27, 31 and 32.

The pressure ratio on the powered support base is a significant parameter for working supports in
soft floor conditions. The conducted research showed that in Longwall No. 136 the support worked
on the whole length of the base on only 37% of testing time, Figure T3.2-23. Lack of pressure on
whole base could lead to sinking of the support into floor. In the case of Longwalls 700 and 141
this period was 91% and 100% respectively, Figures T3.2 -28 and 33. The most favourable
pressure ratio was obtained in Longwall No. 141 where the strength of the floor was at its lowest,
Figure T3.2-34. This can be can be explained by the tendency to uniform distribution of pressure
on the base in conditions of dry and soft rocks, unlike the wet floor in the Longwall face 136. This
uniform distribution of pressure contributed to the daily retreat of the longwall, which exceeded 6.0
m during normal run of the longwall, which was greater than for either of the other two longwalls.

2.4.3 Task 3.3 Support system property determination

The work has been split into 2 areas:
· Laboratory test work related to improved rib and floor support consumables
· Field test work of improved rib and floor systems
All the work is fully reported in Deliverable 3.3.

Laboratory Test Work for Improved Rib and Floor Support Consumables

Rockbolts
The optimum properties for a cuttable rockbolt were reviewed and three alternatives were tested,
but no bolts appropriate for field trials were identified. One of the options was the use of a

72
standard GRP bolt covered in high strength webbing to see if the residual strength of a GRP bolt
could be increased despite it being fractured. Therefore a series of tests were carried out on
samples of GRP rockbolts which had been wound round with T20 webbing (20 tonnes capacity).
The tests were not intended to ascertain whether a webbing covered GRP bolt had any increased
shear strength, rather that they had higher residual tensile strength, after a bolt had failed under
shear stress, and thereby possibly improve rib-side stability. The Laboratory Short Encapsulation
Pull Tests, LSEPTs, show that the GRP bolt covered in webbing had low bond strength when
compared to a LSEPT with an uncovered GRP bolt, Figure T3.3-1.

GRP Rockbolt
GRP Rockbolts with
Webbing (variously
attached)

Figure T3.3-1 Laboratory Short Encapsulation Pull Test Results for the Webbing Covered
GRP Rockbolt Compared with an Uncovered Bolt

Tests were also conducted on plain webbing clipped in such a way as to assume an appearance of
bulbs and then set into grout. Results showed it failed at a considerably lower load than its nominal
tensile strength. On inspection, post failure, it was found the webbing when set in grout can no
longer flex and adapt to loading and it then tears due of uneven loading across the width of the
web.
Due to the lack of alternative cuttable rockbolts on the market that could offer an improvement to
the current GRP bolt, investigations were undertaken with respect to the development of a plastic
bolt. Laboratory tests were undertaken to evaluate the use of orientated polypropylene for the
manufacture of 22 mm diameter rockbolts with a capability to carry 20 tonnes load over a span of
2 m with an overall elongation of 18%. Five different grades were tested at different draw ratios
and example results of the stress-strain characteristics are shown in Figure T3.3-2 for sample
D117. Samples D117 and 404 performed the best but even the best of these two did not meet the
required specification. To meet the specification either a rod with a diameter of 46mm would be
required or the load bearing required to reduced to 8 tonnes. However it was considered that the
elongation properties were negotiable leaving room to increase the levels of orientation with an
anticipated increase in load bearing capacity. Although the potential to move forward with this
work was demonstrated, the results suggested that the elongation properties would be unsuitable
for maintaining an adequate bolt/resin/rock bond at high loads. It also appeared that it may not be
cost effective.

73
Figure T3.3-2 Stress Strain Curves for Different Draw Ratios for the D117 Grade of
Polypropylene

Long Tendons
The split cylinder test, first used under the PROSAFECOAL project, (RFCS, 2010), has been
evaluated for the use of testing long tendons in low confinement conditions analogous to a coal
mine ribside. Laboratory investigations comparing performance in the standard biaxial test and the
split cylinder test have led to the improved understanding of rotational failure of long tendons in
the laboratory and the potential benefits of the large diameter split cylinder test for low
confinement applications were demonstrated. The procedure for conducting consistent and safe
test programmes with the split cylinder test was reviewed and where necessary modifications made
under the GEOSOFT project. These included quality control measures, the use of a safety cage for
testing and continuing pull tests for longer to record load performance at greater displacements.
Following on from the investigative test work a further suite of tests was undertaken on Australian
consumable items within the split cylinder test with rotation prevented. The test programme
involved 13 different types which were grouped into the following categories according to their
design:
· Unmodified Geometry : Plain wire strands, (of variable diameter made up of variable
numbers of wires)
· Unmodified Geometry : Indented wire strands (as above with a profile or indentations on
the surface of the wires of the strands), either cable bolts or mega strands, the latter
having a central steel grout tube
· Modified Geometry: Bulbed cablebolts (wire strands with open ‘caged’ sections)
· Modified Geometry : Bulbed megastrands (wire strands with a central steel grout tube and
wires periodically caged
The testing was able to draw conclusions on the consistency of the results and comparative
performance, indented wired cable performing better than plain and modified bulbed geometries
performing better than unmodified wire strands.
Having assessed the performance of Australian long tendon systems the UK variants were assessed
in the split cylinder test. The most widely used variants were tested, all with Pozament CBG grout,
the Single Birdcage, Single Minicage, Flexible bolt and GRP dowel, solid FT500, 28 mm diameter.
The test results shown in Figure T3.3.-3 show that:
· The split cylinder pull test gives consistent repeatable results
· In terms of maximum load attained the Single Birdcaged and GRP FT 500 both attained
their maximum loads prior to the load dropping off associated with individual wire failure in
the case of the single birdcage and partial fibreglass failure or bond failure in the case of
the FT500 fibre glass bolt.
· The single minicage and grouted flexible bolt systems fail at the grout/cable bond interface
before reaching their maximum tensile failure loads, the grouted flexible bolt attaining the
greater system stiffness prior to this occurring. Both systems then maintain a high residual
load.

74
 Flexible Bolt Mini Cage Cablebolt FT500 GRP Bolt Single Birdcage Cablebolt

Figure T3.3.-3 Load Displacement Results from the Split Cylinder Test for the UK Long
Tendon Systems Deployed in Coal Mine Ribs

Mesh, Injection and Strapping Systems

Mesh
When rockbolting was introduced in the late 1980’s the mesh used to provide containment of loose
debris was made from steel. Around 1995 a plastic mesh was introduced which had advantages
over steel, such as a range of tensile strengths, low elongation, flame resistance, flexible and easy
to cut, light weight, highly visible, safe and easy to use and non-corrosive. At the time of the
commencement of GEOSOFT the plastic product in use was ParaRib manufactured by Minova
Weldgrip. However it was recognised that the performance of this mesh was variable and the
product at times suffered failure at the welded intersections. This was the result of quality control
issues during the formation of the welded intersections. An alternative product, MinGrid mesh, was
sourced for field trial from MMTT Steel products. This product has woven intersections between the
grids leading to a stronger like for like product, but also with the potential for being more reliable
given the nature of its manufacture. The product is no stronger than ParaRib, but it is more
reliable. The disadvantage was that MinGrid is 12% more expensive than the ParaRib product.

Strapping Products for Rib Webbing Systems

The Osborne 20 Tonne Flexible strap was in use for rib support during the time of GEOSOFT. No
changes were made to this product, other than the way it was anchored in the field which is
discussed with respect to field trials.

Injection/Pumped Materials
During the time of GEOSOFT the injection/pumpable products in use for rib consolidation and
support were:
· Bevedol WF Bevedan polyurethane resin, PUR, a polyurethane injection resin for fracture
sealing and adhesion
· Hydroblend cementitious grout for pumping and filling fractured ground, which has no
adhesive properties
· Carbofill a phenolic resin foam for cavity filling
During the time of GEOSOFT an alternative injection material was developed for use in deep coal
mines for fractured ground consolidation. Geofoam is a urethane-silicate resin which can stay
liquid for longer than other products penetrating further to consolidate fractures, and it has the
ability to foam and fill larger voids.

Field Test Work for Improved Rib and Floor Support Consumables : Field Shear
Testing
A particular concern with cuttable rib bolts is the low bending and torsional strength of current
cuttable reinforcement systems which is believed to be leading to failures in the field. The ability to
test their shear performance in the field would allow the determination properties for numerical

75
modelling studies, and also provide a test tool to evaluate performance with the objective of
developing products with improved bending and torsional strength.
In 1999 Geocontrol carried out a shear test programme on bolts for the project funded by the RFCS
"Geotechnical Studies For Rock Bolting (Part II)". These tests were made with different steel rock
bolts and anchors. However the original field shear test machine had limitations. These were
identified and a new improved design identified and constructed, Figure T3.3-4.

Figure T3.3-4 Shear Test Machine for Field Shear Testing of Rockbolts

Once the machine was built tests were undertaken at the facilities of the Mine School of El Bierzo,
Fundación Santa Bárbara (León, Spain). The tests were performed in soft ground with a medium-
low geotechnical quality (RMR 35-40). The geology was a grayish-blue slaty shale, layered with
smooth joints affected by oxidation in some locations. There were no other discontinuities than
those of stratification of the field.
The cuttable bolts tested were: GRP solid bolt of 25 mm anchored with resin, GRP solid bolt of 32
mm anchored with resin, GRP self drilling bolt of 32 mm anchored with grout. The results for the
shear force, shear strength and deformation are given in Table T3.3-1 to T3.3-3 respectively.

Table T3.3.-1 Maximum Shear Force of Tested Cuttable Bolts

Dowel Shear Force (kN) Resistant section (mm2)
Diameter 25 mm 33.11 346
Diameter 32 mm 36.21 580
Diameter 32/15 mm 24.90 332

Table T3.3-2 Shear Strength of Tested Cuttable Bolts

Shear strength (N/mm2) Shear strength (N/mm2)
Dowel
According to test According to manufacturer
Diameter 25 mm 95.69 >460
Diameter 32 mm 62.43 >430
Diameter 32/15 mm 75.00 >400

76
Table T3.3-3 Deformation of Tested Cuttable Bolts
Maximum deformation
Bolt Slope (N/mm)
(mm)
Diameter 25 mm 38.84 852
Diameter 32 mm 54.66 662
Diameter 32/15 mm 45.50 547

The tests showed that the bolts’ resistance to shear stress was related, as expected, to the shear
strength and the area, or diameter, of the bolt. The failure stress of one bolt was lower than that
declared by the manufacturer in its catalogues. The difference may be explained by the failure
mechanism because the bolts were working in weak ground and before failure the bolt deformed a
wedge shaped piece of ground. The stiffness was higher for the bolts of 25 mm diameter than for
those of 32 mm indicating that the bolts of smaller diameter behaved in a more rigid way.

Field Test Work for Improved Rib Reinforcement Consumables : Rib Support
Elements
Field test work was undertaken in UK Coal mines to meet the aim of optimisation of support
systems for the control of soft sides and floors in mines. The field work of Task 3.3 aimed to
measure the behaviour of targeted support elements as well as addressing practical installability,
Task 5.2 describes the field work with respect to support system performance.

Rockbolts
As there were no developments with respect to a cuttable rockbolt, attention concentrated on
issues such as bolt end fitting failure. A problem was recognised with the steel end fittings on the
steel ribside bolts and plastic end fittings were trialled. The deployment of plastic plates did help
prevent failure of the steel end of the bolt.

Long Tendons
No new long tendon systems have been developed so the work has focused on the optimal use and
exploitation of the current variants for different site specific conditions.

Injection Systems
Polyurethane resin, PUR, has continued to be successfully used during the course of the GEOSOFT
project. It has been used at all sites, Daw Mill, Thoresby, Kellingley and Maltby. The issue of
injection placement has recently achieved attention notably at Daw Mill with respect to the pros
and cons of pressurised placement. Pressurised placement can have a detrimental effect on strata
control where the strata strength is relatively low compared to the placement pressure resulting in
further strata damage caused by pressure induced fracturing. A specific trial at Daw Mill Colliery
was undertaken showing the benefits of high pressure injection where the strata was not over
pressurised. This was undertaken to support the faceline allowing consolidation of the immediate
face side rib, thus preventing slump failure of the face and cavities forming above the line of the
powered supports. Geofoam has been trialled at Daw Mill Colliery on 32’s Face as it retreated
toward its face salvage position in ground affected by faulting. Geofoam was placed to consolidate
the mudstone roof and coal face to support the face and roof above the powered supports. On
cutting the face, ribbons of the product could be seen in the roof mudstone and coal seam.

Mesh Systems
The MinGrid plastic mesh was introduced to replace the ParaRib plastic mesh where the strength of
the product had been affected by poor weld strengths at the intersections. Reports from all the
collieries indicate that there have been fewer failures or mesh ‘ripping’ with the MinGrid mesh and
it is therefore providing better containment of the immediate ribside, Figure T3.3-5.

77
 Steel Mesh MinGrid Mesh

Para Rib Mesh

Figure T3.3-5 Photograph of the Steel, ParaRib and MinGrid Mining Mesh Types used for
Coal Mine Sidewall Support

Strapping for Rib Webbing

There has been no change in the strapping product available for rib and roof support. However the
placement and use of the system in the field has been optimised. Figure T3.3-6 below shows the
placement of the strapping system where the practice of using the strapping fixed behind steel bolt
plates has been stopped. This is because when rib deformation occurs the edges of the rockbolt
plates can ‘cut’ into the strapping causing premature failure of the strap. Best practice adopts the
use of specially supplied hooks with the rockbolt plates, or grouting of the webbing into a purposely
drilled hole with a rockbolt.

POOR
PLACEMENT
PRACTICE

GOOD
PLACEMENT
PRACTICE

Figure T3.3-6 Photographs to Illustrate Poor and Best Practice for Strapping Placement
as Part of a Rib Reinforcement Support System

Sprayed concrete
Sprayed concrete, or shotcrete as it is commonly known, is not normally used as a support method
in short term gate roads for panels in coal mines; neither is it often used for long term lateral
roadways serving a group of longwall panels. However at one of the GEOSOFT study sites it was
used to support a short section of roadway roof suffering from continuing bulking and general
degradation. The shotcrete application was successful and may have future implications for the
stabilisation of ribs where similar deformation problems are encountered and in-situations where it
could be cost effective, such as longer term lateral rib sides.

Rib Support Systems

The summary above addresses targeted support elements for rib support. Considerable work has
been undertaken in the understanding of placing these in the correct combination and at the
correct time in order to provide improved rib support systems for the site conditions encountered.
These aspects where appropriate, will be reported under Task 5.2. A notable case will be that of
Daw Mill 303’s where rockbolt, long tendon, mesh, webbing, and resin injection were used for the
rib support.

78
Field Test Work for Improved Rib Reinforcement Consumables : Floor Support
Elements

Floor Dowelling/Bolting
For deep mined coal mine roadways the GEOSOFT project has reviewed potential support
strategies. This is notably the use of rockbolts in the floor in order to help reduce or prevent floor
heave. Historically these have been used and in some cases worked well. However since the
widespread use of the ‘Advanced Technology’ rockbolting into UK coal mines since the late 1980’s
there has been very little if any floor dowelling. This is because despite the technical advances
made with the drilling machines and consumables there still remains the problem of successfully
drilling and flushing a hole drilled vertically downward and achieving an adequate bond strength
with the installed bolt. Recently a small section of floor under a conveyor drive was bolted at Daw
Mill Colliery to try to control floor heave at this site specific location where machinery was located.
In this case the bolting proved unsuccessful with floor heave continuing in excess of that
anticipated or desired.

Polyurethane Resin, PUR, for Floor Consolidation

Although floor control has not been successful with rockbolting under the GEOSOFT project the
benefits of PUR injection has been investigated. The trials were undertaken at Daw Mill Colliery
which has a particularly soft immediate floor, which is made up of coal and a weak seatearth
commonly referred to as a fire clay.
The first trial was at 32’s Gate end where the powered supports were sinking into the soft floor and
tilting. Standard PUR materials were deployed namely Bevedol/Bevedan, injected via a lance. Holes
were drilled by a hand held borer into the immediate floor, the deepest hole depth being 2 m. A
random pattern of holes were drilled where the soft floor was at its worst. For optimal
performance, the PUR should be injected to achieve maximum penetration into the floor, but owing
to the weak nature of the floor it became evident that uncontrolled pressurised injection could
adversely affect the stability of the floor. Therefore, the process required a high level of skill and
diligence to ensure sufficient material was injected without the floor lifting in the process. A sump
hole dug in the floor in the injected area showed that the PUR had penetrated and was adhering to
the weak layers between which it had penetrated. The trial area was considered successful and it
has since been used for 303’s gate end and the faceline where it has been used between the
powered supports to stabilise the floor to give a firmer base that has helped prevent them from
losing their alignment.

79
2.5 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION : GEOMECHANICAL
MODELLING

2.5.1 Task 4.1 Modelling of powered support behaviour on weak floors

Because of a wide range of works associated with realising the task, it was split into stages. Firstly
focus was towards copying the geometry of BW16/34POz powered roof support in the form of a 3D
model. Then numerical calculations were undertaken to simulate previously conducted laboratory
tests, firstly without the influence of the soft floor, then with the simulation of the behaviour of a
powered roof support on weak floor rocks. This allowed a methodology for the verification of
powered support behaviour on soft floors to be developed. Finally comparisons were made with the
results obtained underground from the instrumented powered support at Janina Mine.

A Three-Dimensional Model of Powered Roof Support : Solid Works

Dassault Systèmes SolidWorks Corp.’s SolidWorks software was used to prepare a 3D model of a
powered roof support, (Lombard, 2011). In this package an additional benefit is that any change
in a geometric dimension of a part of the assembly is automatically up-dated within the assembly,
making it possible to observe the changes in real time. A 3D section of a powered roof support and
its division into given components, modelled with SolidWorks software, is presented in Figure
T4.1-1.

Figure T4.1-1: 3D Model of BW16/34POz Powered Roof Support Produced by Becker

Warkop

Based on Figure T4.1-1 the modelling work analysis can be divided into four major assembly
subunits:
· the base of a powered roof support was modelled,
· the canopy of a powered roof support was modelled,
· the caving shield of a powered roof support was modelled,
· rear and front lemniscate links of the powered roof support were modelled.
The remaining elements of the model of BW 16/34 powered roof support, such as hydraulic legs, a
hydraulic cylinder between the caving shield and the canopy, additional elements necessary for
simulating work of the support on a hydraulic cushion were implemented for the whole model as
individual parts. All the elements of the 3D construction were modelled based on technical
documentation obtained from Becker – Warkop, containing all the necessary design dimensions.

81
In complex 3D objects which consist of a large number of single elements, there may occur errors
in geometry, which may cause interpenetration of the elements. It may be caused by errors in
drawing documentation or errors made during modelling. One of the modules of SolidWorks
software, which may be used by both the designer of the construction and the user, who mainly
model the virtual objects (visualising and modelling geometric models for numerical calculations),
allows geometric verification of a modelled object. Using the set of tools, a designer is able to
check, while creating the model, whether the components of an assembly interpenetrate each
other. Figure T4.1-2 shows an example of usage of the tool. The detected place where two
neighbouring elements collide (penetrate each other) is marked red.

Figure T4.1-2 A Tool in SolidWorks Software for Verifying Projects

It was better to build a complete model of a powered roof support, containing additional elements
which enable simulating work of a powered roof support during numerical calculations, at the initial
stage of modelling works, than update a discrete model later on. It was also easier to exclude a
group of elements in the final computational model, especially when a certain amount of work
associated with creating a finite elements mesh or attributing boundary conditions has been
already done, than to make a new computational model with additional elements and simply do the
work again. Figure T4.1-3(a) shows BW 16/34 POz powered roof support together with cylinders
of a hydraulic cushion, and Figure T4.1-3b shows a model with simplified cylinders of a hydraulic
cushion.

Figure T4.1-3 3D Model of a Powered Roof Support with Additional Elements, Used to
Simulate a Hydraulic Cushion (a) hydraulic cylinders (b) simplified hydraulic cylinders

82
Numerical Calculations of Powered Roof Support Using a Finite Element Method
: ANSYS
In the next stage, it was possible to import the complete 3D model of a powered roof support into
the ANSYS software. The ANSYS program allows full integration with SolidWorks program and
creates a parallel link between the two programs using ANSYS DesignModeler module. Using
additional functions of the programs it is possible to, for example, steer parameters describing
geometry of the support with both ANSYS and SolidWorks software. In practice it means that if a
change to a given parameter is required, e.g. height in a model of a powered roof support, it can
be done in one of the programs and the changes will be automatically made both in ANSYS and
SolidWorks. Figure T4.1-4 shows, in form of a dialogue window, the described capabilities of the
two programs.

(a) (b)

Figure T4.1-4 ANSYS Design Modeler Module (a) solid works program (b) ANSYS
program

ANSYS Results for the Numerical Modelling of a Powered Support in the

Laboratory
Following the planned work schedule, the finite element mesh was built with ANSYS program,
connections between construction elements were made, and kinematic bonds were attributed to
appropriate elements, (Dyląg et.al. (1996); Rakowski, (1996); Rakowski & Kasprzyk, (1996);
Szuścik & Kuczyński (1998)). Once the computational model was ready, it was possible to perform
numerical calculations. The main task, at the stage of numerical analyses, was comparing the
obtained results with the ones obtained during laboratory tests (Task 3.1). Figure T4.1-5 shows
the scheme for conducting the tests.

Tests by KOMAG Calibration FEM- model of support

unit
of model
§ inclinometers,
§ supporting reactions
§ strain gauges,
(hydraulic cushion),
§ reactions of
§ stresses in support unit
hydraulic
elements,
cushion.
§ geometry changes
(inclinometers)

Figure T4.1-5 Algorithm for Conducting Numerical Calculations for Simulating the
Behaviour of a Powered Roof Support on a Hydraulic Cushion

The first numerical calculations were conducted for the load and support scheme in accordance to
Polish Standard/Norm PN-EN 1804-1+A1:2010 for three values of pressure in the main hydraulic
legs (25 MPa, 30 MPa, 34 MPa). The beams installed between the canopy and the active roof at the
test stand (Deliverable 3.1) are marked red in Figure T4.1-3. Active cylinders of the hydraulic
cushion are also marked red (in the remaining cylinders there was no operating medium). Figure
T4.1-6b shows a discrete model of a powered roof support representing the load and support
scheme presented in Figure T4.1-6a.

83
(a)

(b)

Figure T4.1-6 (a) Load and support of the model in the test machine and in the numerical
model, (b) Discrete model of a powered roof support

The obtained results of model tests (for the scheme of conducting tests) match the results obtained
during stand tests. The observed differences between the obtained particular values are a result of
measurement errors and specific methods of conducting stand tests. Nevertheless, the obtained
results allow the conclusion that the stress in the elements of a powered roof support matches the
one which was observed during laboratory tests.
The arrangement of the strain gauges of the system for monitoring the powered support unit under
test is presented in Figure T4.1-7 and Figure T4.1-8. The strain gauges are designated with
numbers: 1-5 on canopy, 6-11 on base.

Canopy Base

Figure T4.1-7 Arrangement of Strain Figure T4.1-8 Arrangement of Strain

Gauges on the Canopy of the BW 16/34 Gauges on the Base of the BW 16/34 POz
POz Powered Support Unit Under Tests Powered Support Unit Under Tests (No. 1-
(No. 1-5) 5)

Figure T4.1-9 and Figure T4.1-10 show, in form of graphs, the comparison of the results
obtained with strain gauges, during laboratory tests, with the results obtained with numerical
analyses. At this stage of research, it was extremely important to measure stress values in exactly
the same measurement points as in the test stand. Figure T4.1-11 shows reduced stress maps for
the elements of a powered roof support, while Figure T4.1-12 shows directional deformation
a powered roof support.

84
Figure T4.1-9 Comparison of the Obtained Results of Stand Tests and Numerical
Calculations

Figure T4.1-10 Comparison of the Obtained Results of Load of The Base on the Hydraulic
Cushion During Stand Tests and Bearing Reactions in the Places which Simulate
Cylinders in the Hydraulic Cushion During Numerical Calculations

85
(a) (b)

(c)
(d) (e)

(f) (g)

Figure T4.1-11: Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric

Load and support of a Powered Roof Support, Height 3.3 m, Pressure in Hydraulic Legs
25MPa (stress MPa): (a) canopy, (b) caving shield, (c) base, (d) lemniscate link - right
front (e) lemniscate link - left front, (f) lemniscate link - right rear, (g) lemniscate link -
left rear

86
Figure T4.1-12 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis For Symmetric
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height: 3.3 m, Pressure In Hydraulic Legs:
25MPa (Deformation Scale 10x)

ANSYS Simulation of the Hydraulic Cushion

In the next simulation the work of a powered roof support on the hydraulic cushion imitating weak
floor rocks was undertaken. To do this several computational models were built. They differed in
the way of modelling the hydraulic cushion and had different boundary conditions, (Lawrence,
2012). FigureT4.1-13 shows three basic computational models.

(a) ( b)

(c)
Figure T4.1-13 Computational Models of Tests of a Powered Roof Support on
a Hydraulic Cushion: (a) elements with a spring support (b) elements modelling
cylinders of a hydraulic cushion (c) a hydraulic cushion simplified with SPRING type
elements

87
Based on the obtained results of numerical calculations for the three above mentioned
computational models (results in the form of strain maps are presented in Figure T4.1-14) and
the time necessary to obtain them, it may be concluded that the best one was the first model,
where elastic elements were used.

Figure T4.1-14 Basic Discrete Models Used in Numerical Calculations: (a) elements with
a spring support (b) elements modelling cylinders of a hydraulic cushion (c) a hydraulic
cushion simplified with spring type elements
However, additional numerical calculations with the computational model showed that it is
necessary to apply non-linear contact between the floor base and the elements modelling heads of
cylinders of the hydraulic cushion to model work of a powered roof support on weak floor rocks. It
was necessary to use the type of contact because an elastic type support works symmetrically and
bi-directionally, and interaction between the base and the hydraulic cushion generates both tensile
reaction and compressive reaction. Hence the necessity to apply a contact of non-linear
characteristics which enables separation between two defined surfaces. Applying this type of
contact resulted in extending the time necessary for calculations several times. Consequently it
was decided to find another way to model the work of a powered roof support on a hydraulic
cushion. As a result of the conducted analysis of the elements available in ANSYS program, it was
decided to apply a SPRING type element, (Barczak & Tadolini (2006); Thomas et.al. (1992); Peng
(1990)), (Figure T4.1-13c).
Additional capabilities of the element are revealed when ANSYS Parametric Design Language
(APDL) is used. The language enables attributing almost any operational characteristics, as long as
it is a load-displacement one. Figure T4.1-15 shows the characteristics of work of a SPRING type
element. The idea is that when the floor base generates load on the floor, the element transfers
the load according to given characteristics. When the distribution of load of the floor base on the
floor causes its separation from the surface, the element does not transfer any forces and its
deformation may be infinite (Figure T4.1-16).

Figure T4.1-15 Basic Discrete Models used in Numerical Calculations

88
Figure T4.1-16 Basic Discrete Models used in Numerical Calculations

Using the described above properties of a SPRING type element, multi-variant numerical analyses
were made. They were aimed at modelling all the tests conducted on the hydraulic cushion (Task
3.1). While conducting the calculations the load-displacement characteristics were changed several
times to find the ones that allowed a better simulation of the hydraulic cushion imitating a soft
floor. The results of numerical calculations conducted for a case of symmetrical layout of load
exerted on powered support canopy are shown on Figure T4.1-17-20.

Figure T4.1-17 Comparison of the Obtained Stand Test Results and the Numerical
Calculations

89
Figure T4.1-18 Comparison of the Obtained Results of Load of the Floor Base on the
Hydraulic Cushion During Stand Tests and Support Reactions in the Places Where
Cylinders are Simulated on the Hydraulic Cushion During Numerical Calculations

(a) (b)

(c)

(d) (e)

(g)
(f)
Figure T4.1-19 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height 3.3 m, Pressure in Hydraulic Legs
25MPa (stress MPa): (a) canopy, (b) caving shield, (c) base, (d) lemniscate link - right
front (e) lemniscate link - left front, (f) lemniscate link - right rear, (g) lemniscate link -
left rear

90
Figure T4.1-20 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height: 3.3 m, Pressure in Hydraulic Legs:
25MPa (Deformation Scale 10x)

Methodology for Verifying Powered Supports Installed on Soft Floors

The results obtained and the way of conducting numerical calculations, aimed at modelling the
tests of a powered roof support installed on the hydraulic cushion, simulating weak floor rocks,
enabled a methodology to be devised with which it is possible to verify a powered roof support
installed on soft floor rocks. In the methodology, the main indicator is the strength criterion. Based
on the criterion, it was determined whether a powered roof support would provide safe working
conditions installed on soft floor rocks. During preparation of this criterion the experience of
designers and constructors of the powered roof support was used. While verifying a designed
powered roof support, similarly to constructors and designers, the rule was followed that if any of
the elements of the section showed its allowable strain being exceeded (depending on the grade of
steel used in a given element), it was necessary to redesign it or use a different grade of steel
(higher strength parameters). Figure T4.1-21 shows the algorithm which may be used to verify
a powered roof support dedicated for work on weak floor rocks.

Figure T4.1-21 Algorithm Verifying Usage of a Given Powered Roof Support on Weak
Floor Rocks
The methodology developed also considered the simulation of soft floor rocks. Floor parameters
according to the methodology will be attributed to SPRING type elements in ANSYS program. In
turn the possibility of entering data and controlling the parameters allows modelling, with
numerical calculations based on empirical and table dependencies, of load-displacement

91
characteristics obtained during stand tests. To sum up this stage of the computational works, a
strength analysis of a powered roof support was performed. The above mentioned algorithm was
applied in the analysis. The previously used model of a powered roof support (BW16/34POz
produced by Becker – Warkop) was considered in the calculations, and the parameters of floor
rocks were simulated with SPRING type elements, basing on the calculations made with PFC3D
program. Because works with ANSYS program and PFC3D program were almost simultaneous, it
was possible to obtain data from PFC3D program concerning rock mass of strength Rc=18 MPa,
Figure T4.1-22. Figures T4.1-23-25 show results of the conducted numerical calculations.

Figure T4.1-22 Chart from PFC3D Program Concerning Rock Mass of Strength Rc=18
MPa

Figure T4.1-23 Comparison of the Laboratory Test Results and the Numerical
Calculations

92
(a) (b)

(c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g)

Figure T4.1-24: Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric

Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height 3.3 m, Pressure in Hydraulic Legs
25MPa (stress MPa): (a) canopy, (b) caving shield, (c) base, (d) lemniscate link - right
front (e) lemniscate link - left front, (f) lemniscate link - right rear, (g) lemniscate link -
left rear

93
Figure T4.1-25 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height: 3.3 m, Pressure in Hydraulic Legs:
25MPa (deformation scale 10x)

Comparison of Numerical Modelling with the Underground Results from Janina

Mine
The next stage of the numerical modelling work focused on comparisons of the results from the
numerical computations with ones from underground in-situ investigations (Task 3.2) conducted at
Janina Mine. Figure T4.1-26 presents the stress value measurements in a BW 16/34 POz
support’s elements during service on Longwall No. 136 seam 119/2, compared with those obtained
from numerical computations. The numerical computations were carried out for both the cases of
load arrangement, asymmetric and symmetric.

-100

Symmetric load
-200
Stress, MPa

Asymmetric load
-300
Underground
-400 measurements

-500

-600
No 1 No 2 No 3 No 4 No 5 No 6 No 7 No 8 No 9 No 10 No 11

Number of extensometers

Figure T4.1-26 Comparison of Outcomes of Numerical Computations of Stress Values in

some Support Elements with ones Obtained During Underground Measurements

While analysing the outcomes presented in Figure T4.1-26 it is possible to observe that the
distribution of load exerted on the powered support underground during the in-situ measurements
was close to the symmetric case of load arrangement.
Moreover, results of underground measurements recording changes in readings of inclinometers
fitted to the BW 16/34 POz support and changes of pressure in its hydraulic legs, (the latter being
measured with the use of pressure transducers), allowed determining the actual geometry of the
support in operation by means of the analytical method (developed by the GIG) as well as
distribution of pressures over the base bottom and canopy top. Figure T4.1-27 presents an
example of the results.

94
Figure T4.1-27 Example of Pressure Distribution on the Base and Canopy of the BW
16/34 POz Powered Support Operated on Longwall 136 in Seam 119/2

Based on the results of the underground investigations performed at the Janina Mine and a detailed
analysis of the kinematics of the BW 16/34 powered supports, numerical computations were
undertaken with the ANSYS programme to determine the fundamental parameters affecting the
interaction between the powered supports and longwall’s floor. The following parameters have
been classified among the most important:
· load exerted on powered support (its value and direction),
· sort of floor rocks,
· height of powered support as set,
· structure / construction and load-bearing capacity of powered support.
Taking the above into account, a geometrical model of floor was developed in the form of a cuboid
with dimensions 3.82 m x 2.23 m x 1m, and elasto-plastic qualities with a linear strengthening,
Figure T4.1-28(a). The support’s base was positioned on the cuboid and loaded by forces
corresponding to those determined in the support’s legs and lemniscate links during underground
measurements carried out, Figure T4.1-28(b).
a) b)

Figure T4.1-28 (a) Geometrical model of the floor and base; (b) Model of the base
loading
Example results of the computations are presented in the form of displacement maps in the base
and the floor for cases where the horizontal component of the overall load exerted on the support
is directed towards the goaf, Figuret T4.1-29(a), and towards the working front of longwall face,
Figure T4.1-29b. Moreover, it was assumed that plastic deformations of the floor begin to occur
at a reduced stress Re=5.0 MPa.

95
(a) (b)

Figure T4.1-29 Displacements in Floor and Support’s Base: (a) the horizontal load is
directed towards the goaf, (b) the horizontal load is directed towards the longwall face

Summary
The numerical modelling presented in Task 4.1 has fulfilled the objective of the task in undertaking
numerical modelling of laboratory and field test results of powered supports on soft floors in order
to allow a better understanding of powered support performance on soft floors to be developed.
Applying state of the art calculation methods and advanced software enables modelling the work of
a powered roof support in given geological and mining conditions. Modelling different patterns of
load of a powered roof support and simulating floor rocks, characterised with different strength
parameters in discrete models, allows determination of accurate distribution of stress in the
elements of an analysed powered roof support. Based on the conducted numerical calculations how
support geometry will change for different floor rocks and load schemes can be determined.
Strength parameters of individual steel elements of the analysed construction of a support were
chosen for computational models according to technical and maintenance documentation and
construction documentation of BW16/34POz powered roof support produced by Becker–Warkop.
The algorithms and calculations developed allow virtual powered support design work to aid
targeted laboratory tests in order to minimise the costs and the time for preparing a prototype
support. The developed algorithm allows for precision modelling of laboratory tests carried out with
accordance to Polish standard PN EN 1804-1+A1:2010. Laboratory and underground tests carried
out within the GEOSOFT project as well as numerical calculations contribute substantially to
scientific and industrial understanding in the development of powered supports in underground
mining.

2.5.2 Task 4.2 Activities development of appropriate time dependent

constitutive models for simulation of soft floors in European mining
situation
This task sought to develop and modify numerical constitutive models to simulate the laboratory
observed time dependent behaviour of soft materials. This modelling was then validated against
laboratory test data. Finally, a numerical model of a case study from UK Coal was compared with
in-situ closure measurements taken from mine roadways taking into account the time dependent
content of this closure predicted by the model.
Initial Model Set-up
Any detailed 3D modelling of mining situations including creep is very computationally intensive
and challenging. At the very early stage, a uniaxial laboratory creep test on a soft rock sample
(100 mm in length, 50 mm in radius, 50% of UCS as loading value) was simulated and validated
by an analytical solution using FLAC3D software. The classic creep approach using the Burger creep
visco-plastic model (i.e., Burger-MC rheological model shown in Figure T4.2-1 was chosen as the
constitutive model, which is a combination of the Kelvin, Maxwell and Mohr-Coulomb units. A very
good agreement of results was achieved between the numerical model and the analytical solution,
Figure T4.2-2.

96
Figure T4.2-1 Schematic Representation of the Deviatoric Behaviour of the Burger-MC
Rheological Model

Black sketch: the sample

before loading

Red sketch: the sample after

1 year loading

Black curve: predicted

displacement of point 1 by
3D model

Red cross-curve: analytical

solution of displacement of
point 1

Figure T4.2-2 Uniaxial 3D Creep Model (1 year)

After validation of the numerical model, a preliminary generic creep model was developed to
simulate a simplified roadway structure of a European coal mine with a soft sidewall and floor in a
hydrostatic ground stress field (σxx= σyy= σzz). It was assumed in the model that the mine roadway
is 6 m wide and 3.5 m high, approximately 800 m below the ground surface, with its sidewall and
roof supported by glass reinforced plastic (GRP) and steel rock bolts, respectively. Only half the
roadway was modelled in this preliminary model to save the model memory and calculation time
since it was assumed that it was an axi-symmetric problem. In October 2012 the numerical code
FLAC3D was updated from version 3.1 to version 4.0 at UoN. At the same time, it was found that
there was a boundary effect in the preliminary 3D model. In order to relieve the boundary effect
and obtain more precise results, the model domain was expanded from 30 m×36 m×50 m to
40 m×36 m×70 m in the new version of the code. Daw Mill Colliery (UK) was chosen as the
prototype for the numerical model. The multi-leaved Warwickshire Thick Seam incorporating
particularly weak sides and floor geology was worked at this colliery. The geological lithological
column at the area of interest, 22 m in all above and below the roadway was updated based on the
information taken from the gate roads plan for 303’s longwall at the mine. The 3D creep model was
then further updated again based on more detailed in-situ information, including details of the
strata nearby the roadway site, available displacement measurements and different mine support
patterns for the two sidewalls of the roadway. This led to a 3D model including the full roadway
(6 m wide and 4.0 m high). The final version of the 3D model domain (70 m×36 m×72 m) and
geology is shown in Figure T4.2-3.

97
Figure T4.2-3 Creep 3D Model, Version 3, The Final Model
Initially, the laboratory tests data on soft rock samples collected for this project in WP 2 were not
available. Therefore, for all the surrounding rock types, the input properties of the rocks for the
preliminary 3D creep model, including Young’s modulus, cohesion, friction angle and tensile
strength, were based on the laboratory tests conducted for a previous RFCS project (IMPREX).
Time dependent (creep) reference data for rock from Goodman (1989) was applied in the Burger
creep model properties for the rocks in the mine sidewall (coal) and floor (coal and seatearth).
(Tables T4.2-1 and T4.2-2 below.)

Table T4.2-1 Input Properties of the Rocks Used in the Preliminary 3D Model

Young’s Tensile
Model Poisson’s Cohesion Friction
Modulus strength GSI
Lithology Ratio (MPa) angle
(GPa) (MPa)

Sandstone 26.25 0.25 3.94 50 0.31 65

Mud/Siltstone 10.18 0.25 1.9 33 0.1 50

Seatearth 6.63 0.25 0.97 32 0.02 35

Mudstone 11.25 0.25 2.0 36 0.03 40

Siltstone 15.83 0.25 3.94 45 0.31 60

Coal 6.13 0.25 1.85 28 0.03 40

Table T4.2-2 Burger Creep Model Properties used in the 3D Model

Gk ηk Gm ηm
Rock types Reference
(Pa) (Pa×day) (Pa) (Pa×day)

Coal 3.45e8 2.39e11 3.45e9 4.79e13 Goodman, 1989

Seatearth 3.45e8 2.39e11 3.45e9 4.79e13 Goodman, 1989

As the laboratory testing progressed under Task 2.3, more data could be used to obtain the input
properties for rocks in the model.
In order to take into account the scale effect and discontinuities (cracks, bedding and joints) in the
rock mass, the stiffness and strength properties of the rock obtained from intact rock samples in
the laboratory must be reduced to be used in the numerical model. The software RocLab
(Rocscience Inc.) was applied for this purpose, where both uniaxial and triaxial compression test

98
data are required. The newly acquired data from tests on siltstone and coal was processed to
obtain input material properties to update the 3D creep model, Table 4.2-3. Based on the time
dependent tests on broken coal, three sets of parameters were determined with GSI values equal
to 40, 60 and 80.

Table T4.2-3 Input Properties of the Rocks used in the Final 3D Model

Young’s Tensile
Model Poisson’s Cohesion Friction Sample
Modulus strength GSI
Lithology Ratio (MPa) angle source
(GPa) (MPa)

Sandstone 26.25 0.25 3.94 50 0.31 65 IMPREX

Task
Siltstone 3.79 0.25 2.12 33 0.21 50
2.3

Mudstone 11.25 0.25 2.0 36 0.03 40 IMPREX

Task
Coal 0.48/1.56/2.64 0.25 1.29/2.08/4.42 23/28/32 0.14/0.64/2.87 40/60/80
2.3

Marine 11.25 0.25 2 36 0.03 60 IMPREX

Seatearth 6.63 0.25 0.97 32 0.02 35 IMPREX

Brown and Hoek (1978) collated the published results of stress measurements made around the
world and found that measured vertical stresses were largely in agreement with the prediction that
the vertical stress was simply a function of depth and cover rock density (usually in the range of
20–30 kN/m3). Based on those measured results, they obtained the equation (eqn.1) which gives
the average relationship for the vertical stress in relation to depth.
σz = 0.027h (1)
where σz is the vertical ground stress in MPa and h is the depth in m.
As reported in Hoek and Brown’s (1980) book, Talobre (1957) and Heim (1912) suggested that
‘the inability of rock to support large stress differences together with the effects of time-dependent
deformation of the rock mass can cause lateral and vertical stresses to equalise over periods of
geological time’. Heim’s rule is widely used by engineers in weak rocks such as those found in the
UK coal measures and ‘has been found to give a good approximation of the in-situ stress field in
these materials’ (Hoek and Brown, 1980). Based on these previous studies, the initial background
stress was reconstructed based on hydrostatic in-situ stresses in the whole model domain, i.e. σxx=
σyy= σzz, h = 765.8 m and 837.8 m for the top and bottom of the model domain respectively. The
final model was run until half year’s and one year’s creep modelling results were obtained. The
sidewall inward displacement (closure) was clearly seen after the roadway’s half year service,
Figure T4.2-4.

Roadway just after excavation Roadway after half year’s service

Figure T4.2-4 Roadway Section Shapes in the 3D Creep Model (red points: measuring
mark)

99
Figure T4.2-5 shows the overall closure of the roadway (i.e. sum of the two sidewalls’ inwards
displacement) for a half year in the 3D model. The in-situ measurement of rib convergence in 303’s
gate roads (Coalgate CG and Tailgate TG) is also shown in Figure T4.2-5. With the creep models
and properties used for sidewall and floor coal for a GSI = 40 in this model, approximately 0.41 m
lateral roadway closure occurred after a half year, 0.39m of which occurred within the first day and
is thought to be the immediate displacement after the roadway excavation. This part of the
deformation is significant but is approximately 10% of the roadway width. One of the possible
reasons for this is thought to be the weakness of the coal (Table T4.2-3) in which the roadway is
located. For the two sidewalls, the left one suffered about 5mm less inwards displacement than the
right one. Figure e implies that the current model prediction on the roadway’s closure due to time
dependent behaviour (0.41 - 0.39 = 0.02m) of the soft rock is significantly lower than the in-situ
measurements, most of which are around 0.1m at half year. One of the possible reasons for this is
thought to be the creep properties used for the coal (Table T4.2-3). As mentioned earlier, the coal
with GSI = 40 was used for both preliminary and final modelling. However, since the closure of the
roadway was significantly lower compared to in-situ measurements, two other simulations with GSI
of 60 and 80 were carried out. This assumption seems reasonable because the resemblance
between coal samples tested in the lab and coal seams in-situ are always uncertain due to
significant breakage of coal samples collected from boreholes. The modelling results for all three
values of GSI are compared in Figure T4.2-5. Whereas, a GSI of 40 used predicted significantly
more displacement compared to the field measurements simulations with a GSI of 60 and 80
matched in-situ measurements reasonable well.
Based on the 3D modelling described in this task, the following conclusions can be drawn:
· The Burger-Creep Viscoplastic model was chosen for the roadway soft floor and side wall
rocks and validated against laboratory test data. A very good agreement of results was
achieved between the numerical model and the analytical solution.
· The 3D creep model was developed using available in-situ geological information from Daw
Mill Colliery (UK) and the laboratory test data for soft rocks.
· Different stiffness and strength properties of the coal seam based on different geological
strength indices (GSI) have been employed for coal to take into account long term
weathering effects. The simulation results with GSI equal to 60 and 80 matched in-situ
measurements reasonably well.

450

400

350
Roadway closure (mm)

300

250 Model prediction - CoalGSI40

Model prediction - CoalGSI60
200 Model prediction - CoalGSI80
303CG Stone top
150 303TG Stone top

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (days)

Figure T4.2-5 Model Prediction and In-situ Measurements of the Roadway Closure in
303’s Gate-roads at Daw Mill Colliery

100
2.5.3 Task 4.3 Development of an advanced constitutive time dependent
model of shotcrete behaviour under stress incorporating fatigue
The laboratory results obtained in Task 2.1 are employed to establish a rheological constitutive law
representing shotcrete behaviour under high stress, also taking into account the fatigue of the
shotcrete to determine the best shotcrete composition and additives (strength and stiffness at
short and long term) for minimizing fatigue effects on the concrete used in coal mines.
Modelling the Creep Phenomenon in a Non-linear Range
The application of the models recommended by the building codes or even those based only on
classical theories of viscoelasticity, such as Kelvin and Maxwell, models are not sufficient to predict
the behaviour for the construction of mining galleries, which is essential in the inclusion of the most
important factors that influence the phenomenon. Under sustained loads over time with the
relation levels of applied load/resistance characteristic higher than 50%, the behaviour of creep of
the concrete is highly non-linear, since for elevated levels of stress the cracking of the matrix leads
to a gradual degradation of structural rigidity, which is concatenated with the increase of deferred
strains thereby altering the kinetics of strain of the material, which enters the branch called
“secondary creep”, for which the proposed criteria are not valid. Starting from this stage, the
progress of the cracking process can lead to the branch of "tertiary creep", eventually reaching the
deferred failure of the material
Models Reviewed to Represent the Creep Phenomenon
By reviewing the models of basic creep, it is clear that there is still a long way to go in achieving a
model that adequately reproduces the complex failure mechanism of concrete under sustained
load, especially for high levels of the load applied/resistance characteristic. This complexity is
generated in the interaction between the behaviour of the deferred concrete and the process of
micro-fissuring in it, especially in the phases of secondary creep and tertiary creep, in which the
proposed regulations existing for buildings and the viscoelastic models traditionally employed are
not valid.
The limitations presented by the viscoelastic models and these recommended by the building codes
can be summarised in the following points:
· None of the constitutive formulations presented gathers the requirement necessary when
reproducing reliably the rheological behaviour of concrete
· The previously listed models do not include the combined effects of creep and drying, or
drying-creep-temperature, which occur simultaneously and in real structures and are
mutually fed back.
· None of the above models considers the interaction between the effects of creep/relaxation
and load speed application.
These limitations in the models, inspire the development of new mathematical models and, in
particular, the use of “"Power Law” and “Burger- Creep Viscoplastic” models to represent the
complex physical phenomenon, especially in order to improve the numerical modelling constitutive
behaviour in the stage of tertiary creep or flow of concrete.
Results for the Two Component Power Law
Initially, it was intended to set this model for the test to 85% of the UCS. In Figure T4.3-1(a) it
can be seen that the real strain obtained, which is recognised with the designation "porreal" versus
the deformation obtained in three points on the surface of the sample. After obtaining this curve
the used values were intended to be extrapolated to the rest of the tests, obtaining non coherent
results. Therefore, for different stress states the strain rate is different, so for different loads the
increase of the speed of the creep does not maintain the ratios obtained in real tests.
Results for the Burger-Creep Viscoplastic Model
Initially, it was intended to set this model, for the test to 75% of the resistance to simple
compression, obtaining behaviour coherent with the test performed. Subsequently, the parameters
obtained were extrapolated to the rest of the tests, obtaining a similar result to the values obtained
in the real tests. Once all results were compared together, Figure T4.3-1(b) we observed that the
samples with a 90% and 95% of the UCS show a larger deviation with respect to the real
measurements. As a primary conclusion, it can be seen as the visco-elastic constitutive law for the
Burger model (Kelvin cell in series with a Maxwell component) are employed to model the first two
stages of the creep, but the failure criteria considered does not represent the performed test.

101
 JO B T IT L E : P R O B E T A J O B T IT L E : P R O B E T A

F L A C (V e rs io n 5 .0 0 ) F L A C (V e rs io n 5 .0 0 )

-0 2 -0 2
(1 0 ) (1 0 )
LEG EN D LEG EN D

1 -F e b -1 2 1 1 :1 0 1 .6 0 0 3 1 -J a n -1 2 1 4 :2 3 1 .6 0 0
ste p 83880 s te p 82987
C re e p T ime 7 .9 9 7 4 E + 0 6 C re e p T im e 7 .9 9 7 4 E + 0 6 1 .4 0 0
1 .4 0 0

H IS T O R Y P L O T H IS T O R Y P L O T
Y -a xis : 1 .2 0 0 Y -a xis : 1 .2 0 0
1 0 p o rya a (F IS H ) 1 0 p o ry a a (F IS H )
1 1 p o ryb b (F IS H ) 1 .0 0 0 1 1 p o ry b b (F IS H ) 1 .0 0 0
1 2 p o rycc (F IS H ) 1 2 p o ry c c (F IS H )
1 3 p o rre a l (F IS H ) 0 .8 0 0 1 3 p o rre a l (F IS H ) 0 .8 0 0
X-a xis : X-a xis :
6 C re e p -flo w me ch . time 6 C re e p -flo w m e c h . tim e
0 .6 0 0 0 .6 0 0

0 .4 0 0 0 .4 0 0

0 .2 0 0 0 .2 0 0

(a) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
(b) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

05 05
(1 0 ) (1 0 )
G E O C O N T R O L , S .A. G E O C O N T R O L , S .A.
w w w .g e o co n tro l.e s w w w .g e o c o n tro l.e s

Figure T4.3-1 (a) Burger-creep viscoplastic model, 85% of the UCS test, (b) Two
component power law model

Constitutive Model Employed

Among the six constitutive models that are standard in the FLAC program, the constitutive model
power law creep and Burger were chosen as starting points.
When trying to use the power law, it was found that the value of the parameters obtained for a
proper correlation between deformational behaviour of the tested samples and the virtual sample
for a load level, is not suitable for another load level. Consequently the power law model was
rejected.
Using the constitutive Burger creep model, results were compared the those obtained in the
physical tests of the real samples, obtaining a correct correlation for the primary and secondary
creeps but not for the tertiary creep. It was considered that the deferred failure is a transcendental
subject within the shotcrete behaviour and therefore it is necessary that the constituent model
reflects it. Using the test results it was possible to determine when tertiary creep was initiated and
an empirical adjust in the critical strain-time curve has been performed with the following
formulation.
Y= 0.0451*LN (2231+1988 x)+0.0305
Thereby the constitutive Burger creep model was modified by creating a subroutine FISH, in FLAC
which reduces the viscosity of the Maxwell component and initiates the tertiary creep. This has
managed to provide a constitutive model for shotcrete that presents a viscoelastic behaviour with
the three phases of creep and a plastic behaviour through the Mohr-Coulomb rupture criterion.

2.5.4 Task 4.4 Modelling of creeping rock mass and interaction with support
invert designs under interaction stresses
Three different construction strategies to support tunnels floors in soft rocks have been analysed to
determine the most appropriate support technique between slab invert, curved invert and anchored
invert. The work has been undertaken for a gallery driven in lutiteic-carbonaceous terrain at a
depth of 450 m presenting a creeping behaviour. The comparison is done using numerical models
of FLAC 3D.
Model Description
The section of the gallery modelled is shown in Figure T4.4-1. It has a geometry with straight
walls with circular roof (vault) 5.72 m wide and 4 m high. In the vault there is a support thickness
of 0.18 m and in the invert 0.40 m. In the case of the curved invert the depth below floor level (H)
was 0.2 x W.

102
 W/2

Figure T4.4-1 Geometry of the Section of the Tunnel with Slab, Invert and Curved Invert

Geological and Stress Properties

The properties used in the model correspond with a terrain formed by carbonaceous lutites, with an
RMR index of 30. This terrain corresponds to the material located in the coalfields of northern
Spain.
Table T4.4-1 summarizes the calculation parameters. It has been considered an elastic-plastic
constitutive model of Mohr-Coulomb with creep.

Table T4.4-1 Properties used in the Calculations

rap EM n c’ f y
(t/m3) (MPa) (MPa) (º) (º)

2.6 5500 0.3 0.392 31.5 5

For the initial stress state it has been considered K0= 1.0. Although the depth considered in this
study does not reach the values corresponding to the deep mines of northern Europe, the work is
fully comparable to such conditions because the terrain has squeezing behaviour. This is confirmed
by the value of the Index of Elastic Behaviour (ICE), B. Celada (2010):

ோெோିଵ଴଴
͵͹ͲͶߪ௖௜ ݁ ଶସ
ˆ‘” ଴ ൒ ͳǣ ൌ  
ሺ͵‫ܭ‬଴ െ ͳሻ‫ܪ‬
Where:
ߪ௖௜ = Uniaxial Compressive Strength,
RMR = Rock Mass Rating,
H = Overburden and
F = Shape factor.

This result, in accordance with Table T4.4-2, indicates that the behaviour is going to be mostly
yielding:

103
Table T4.4-2 ICE Classification

ICE Stress-strain behaviour

> 130 Completely elastic

90-130 Elastic with incipient yielding

50-90 Moderate yielding

30-50 Intensive yielding

10-30 Very intensive yielding

< 10 Mostly yielding

Support Properties
The modelled support has a thickness of 18 cm in the walls, along with bolts (Swellex-MN16) with
a length of 2 m and a longitudinal transverse spacing of 1 m and 2 m. The support has been
modelled with an elastic behaviour, in order to establish in a more determinant way a comparison
of the effects of the terrain’s creep accumulation on the support.
The analysis of the stress state of the support allows determination of its fatigue without having to
model it as a material that responds to the elastic-plastic model of Mohr-Coulomb, as it is done in
the back-analysis of the data obtained in Task 5.2.
For the reinforcement of the floor area, 3 solutions have been proposed: a) slab invert, b)
anchored invert, c) curved invert.
Formulation of the time-dependent deformations
Galleries under certain levels of stress present measured convergence of the roof that have a time
evolution that cannot be explained with a pure elastic-plastic constitutive model. Therefore, it is
necessary to include in the modelling the simulation of the creep phenomenon, which describes the
terrain deformation that occurs over the time and which is not associated with any change in the
geometric or tensional tunnel environment.
The constitutive model used in the FLAC3D model is the CPOW, which includes an instantaneous
elastic-plastic behaviour of Mohr-Coulomb and a potential law, for the creep.
The general knowledge available about the phenomenon of creep indicates that it normally occurs
with permanent loads with values above 70% of the instantaneous strength of the material.

Results
The results that have been summarized in Figures T4.4-2, Figure T4.4-3 and Figure T4.4-4 for
the displacements, maximum compressions in the concrete and maximum tensile stresses in the
concrete respectively.

Figure T4.4-2: Floor Displacements (m)

104
Figure T4.4-3 Maximum Compression in Floor Concrete (MPa)

Figure T4.4-4 Table of Maximum Tensile Stress in Floor Concrete (MPa)

From the above tables it can extracted that the curved invert is the best solution for galleries with
large deformations produced by creep. Figure T4.4-2 shows that the curved invert is the solution
that presents smaller displacements. However this containment of displacements induces more
compressions in concrete, as shown in Figure T4.4-3. In tensile stresses and with a creep of 6
months, the support of the gallery with slab invert reaches the break at 1.5 MPa, both the solution
without bolts as the one with bolts, but with curved invert is much lower, not reaching 0.5 MPa.
Figure T4.4-5 shows the distribution of the principal stresses in the gallery with slab invert and
curved invert, and, as it can be seen, the distribution is more homogenous in the curved invert
avoiding the stress concentration due to the swelling of the slab invert.

Figure T4.4-5 Distribution of the Principal Stresses

105
2.5.5 Task 4.5 Modelling of stress distributions and stress control options such
as reinforcement and slotting
The work has been split into 2 areas, the first forming the majority of the work:
· Options for Positively Modifying the Behaviour of Soft Floors and Sides Addressing:
o Effects of different support and mining geometries on rib and floor
behaviour
o Comparison of modelled and measured results and improved floor
simulation investigations
o Numerical investigation into the potential benefits of floor dowelling
· Improved Approach to Modelling Multi-Seam Working Stress Distribution
o Improved understanding of the problem
o Assessment of alternative modelling packages

Options for Positively Modifying the Behaviour of Soft Floors and Sides: Effects
of Different Support and Mining Geometries on Rib and Floor Behaviour
The different support and mining geometries modelled which can affect and modify rib and floor
behaviour are:
· Geometry : Pillar size, Extraction sequence, Cutting horizon, Dinting and Ribbing/Cheek
off,
· Support : Support types and length and support density,
The modelling has been undertaken at the following study sites:
· Daw Mill Colliery : gate road behaviour and support for 303’s longwall panel driven on a
stone and coal top horizon, and retreated on a stone top horizon
· Thoresby Colliery: pillar interaction area for DS1’s longwall panel
· Maltby Colliery : T06’s pillar size, T125’s panel support
· Kellingley Colliery : behaviour and support of 501, 503’s and 504’s panels
A full description of the numerical modelling undertaken has been given in Deliverable 4.5.
Selected examples are reported here to illustrate the main conclusions.
Numerical modelling remains a key tool for stress evaluation, with MAP3D (Mine Modelling Pty)
being used to estimate stress redistributions around longwall panels subject to interaction from
workings in other seams. This is particularly important because higher vertical stresses lead to
greater rib and floor deformation. Both prediction and subsequent experience have emphasised the
importance of controlling vertical stress by positioning entries away from the highest stressed
areas. Stress control can be achieved at the planning stage by working panels in sequence and by
ensuring the separating pillar between panels is wide enough, and that the tailgate entry rather
than the maingate entry (used for coal transport) of the replacement panel is on the pillar side.
Where multi -seam workings are present, as at two of the mine sites where research work was
undertaken, highly stressed pillars in seams above or below can cause major entry deformation.
Stress transmission is near vertical in these situations, and entry positioning should avoid these
pillar interaction areas wherever possible. Conversely underlying or overlying waste areas can
provide vertical stress relief which can be beneficial.
Computer modelling was undertaken to investigate the impact of different pillar widths between
T06’s and T05’s waste on the conditions likely to be experienced in T06’s Tailgate at Maltby. Model
runs were conducted using the normal and intensive bolting pattern for T06’s with the stresses set
to those for a 90 m and an 80 m pillar. A 90 m pillar between T06’s and T05’s waste represents a
reasonable compromise between the risks associated with a smaller than usual pillar and the desire
to maximise the panel width, Figure T4.5-1 shows the results with an intensive rib bolt pattern.

106
 FLAC3D 3.10 Job Title: Maltby T06's T/G
(c)2006 Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. View Title:
Step 39566 Model Perspective
11:24:40 Wed Mar 09 2011

Center: Rotation:
X: -9.382e-005 X: 0.000
Y: -2.684e-005 Y: 0.000
Z: -2.045e-003 Z: 0.000
Dist: 2.218e+002 Mag.: 5
Ang.: 22.500

Plane Origin: Plane Normal:

X: 0.000e+000 X: 0.000e+000
Y: -5.000e-002 Y: 1.000e+000
Z: 0.000e+000 Z: 0.000e+000

Block Contour of cohesion

Plane: on
Live mech zones shown
0.0000e+000 to 5.0000e+005
5.0000e+005 to 1.0000e+006
1.0000e+006 to 1.5000e+006
1.5000e+006 to 2.0000e+006
2.0000e+006 to 2.5000e+006
2.5000e+006 to 3.0000e+006
3.0000e+006 to 3.5000e+006
3.5000e+006 to 4.0000e+006
4.0000e+006 to 4.5000e+006
4.5000e+006 to 5.0000e+006
Interval = 5.0e+005

Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.

Minneapolis, MN USA

Figure T4.5-1 T06’s Roadway Deformation for a 90 m Pillar with an Intensive Bolting
Pattern with Rib Dowels
Numerical modelling of 503’s Tailgate was undertaken to assess the influence of the retreat of
502’s face on 503’s Tailgate. With the stresses increased to represent passage of 502’s they
showed softening and movement within the silty mudstone roof and the rib movements were
approximately doubled by the increase in stress. This indicated the need for long tendon
reinforcement at an early stage and was undertaken at a set distance behind the heading. Webbing
was also used to aid rib restraint.
Numerical modelling has been applied in order to assess the scenario of broken side bolts and the
effect of subsequent cheeking off and dinting to restore entry clearances for face retreat. This type
of numerical modelling has aided decisions on the timing of cheek off and suitable additional
reinforcement of sides prior to face retreat at Daw Mill and Kellingley Collieries. At Daw Mill, Figure
T4.5-2, the effect of the simulation of broken bolts also aided the decision to support the sides
with textile webbing on development to guard against the risk of sidewall failure as a result of
broken bolts.

Figure T4.5.2 Numerical Model Output from Daw Mill Colliery Simulating Broken Bolts,
Floor Dinting and Sidewall Cheek Off (Rib Off). (Stages 1, 2 and 3 represent increasing
front abutment stresses, Stage 3 = 2 m in front of the face)

Options for Positively Modifying the Behaviour of Soft Floors and Sides:
Comparison of Modelled and Measured Results and Improved Side and Floor
Simulation Investigations

Comparison of Modelled and Measured Results

Historical understanding indicates that often side and floor deformation has tended to be
consistently under-estimated by the current models and this has had to be accounted for when
drawing quantitative conclusions from the numerical results. In order to confirm this a study was
undertaken using the GEOSOFT study sites.

107
 Based on the data set analysed the comparative results of modelled and measured movements for
the roof and ribs on development are relatively close when the scales of anticipated movement are
considered. Figure T4.5-3 shows the results from the comparison of measured and modelled rib
movement.

Rib Movement
Rib Movement on Development
on Development
700
Modelled
Modelled Measured
Measured
600
(mm)
Movement (mm)

500
RibMovement

400
300
200
Side

100
0
Daw MillDaw
303Mill
Kellingley Daw
303 Kellingley Mill Kellingley
Kellingley303 Kellingley
Kellingley Kellingley
Kellingley Maltby
Kellingley Maltby Maltby
Thoresby Thoresby
501's Faulted 503's501'sT/G
No 503's T/G T125's LHG. T125's LHG. DS1's DS4's
Inbye outbye Zone A Zone E

Figure T4.5.3 Example Plots to Show the Comparison of Modelled and Measured Rib
Movement
When considering modelled floor heave on development, it is under-estimated in all cases. As a
result due consideration was given to improved floor simulation.

Improved Floor Simulation Investigations

At least two mechanisms of floor failure occur that are not captured in the current state of
modelling, these are:
· breakage and uplift of the floor in discrete layers; and
· the formation of vertical tensile cracks along the axis of the roadway through these layers.
Discrete layering, or bedding, can be represented in FLAC3D and a small number of interfaces are
used in the current models to represent parting planes in the gate road roof and between strata in
both the roof and floor. However, the number of interfaces in the floor currently is not sufficient to
capture the layered mode of failure observed in the field.
As it is not easy to incorporate a large number of interfaces in FLAC3D for this type of modelling
some means of mesh/grid generation pre-processor needs to be created that can automate this
process. This was undertaken for FLAC because of advantages in terms of speed and efficiency to
be gained by using the 2D version of FLAC. A pre-processor has been written in FISH, the
embedded FLAC programming language, to allow the generation of multi-strata layers in the floor
(and roof) of coal seams. This allows various scenarios of layer spacing and properties to be
investigated efficiently and showed that levels of floor lift increased when using this methodology.

Options for Positively Modifying the Behaviour of Soft Floors and Sides:
Numerical Model Investigation into the Potential Benefits of Floor Dowelling

Floor Dowel Densities

Floor dowelling used to be practised in UK collieries and was proven to be successful under certain
specific conditions historically. In order to assess the potential benefits of current reinforcement
consumables in current site conditions a study was carried out using numerical modelling. The
modelling process involved re-running an original FLAC3D model for Daw Mill 303’s longwall panel
site. In total four floor support patterns were investigated ranging from no floor dowels to 3, 5 and
11 dowels each 2.4m long placed for a 1.0 m length of roadway. All the floor dowels were modelled
to be installed vertically into floor strata and having the same cuttable properties as those installed
on the face side rib. The FLAC model plots showed that the extent of failure in the floor was
affected by the number of dowels installed in the floor. As the level of floor support increased the
failure occurring in the floor reduced especially in the region located immediately beneath the
middle of the roadway. The modelling results for increasing vertical stress levels are plotted in
Figure T4.5-4. This illustrates the effect of face retreat on the floor deformation for the four
different reinforcement scenarios. For each of the support patterns the predicted floor heave

108
showed an increasing trend as vertical stress was increased. There is clearly an impact of installing
just 3 dowels into the floor, significantly reducing floor lift, while installing a further 2 or 8 dowels
Floor Heave VS Floor Support
has diminishing returns in improved floor control.

No floor doweling 3 floor doweling

5 floor doweling 11 floor doweling
1.20

1.00
Floor heave (m)

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
Vertical Stress (MPa)
Figure T4.5-4 Modelled Floor Heave for the Different Floor Support Patterns with
Increasing Vertical Stress

Floor Dowel Bond Strengths

Sensitivity studies on the effect of bond stiffness on floor heave were also undertaken. The result
showed that there was increased floor heave as bond stiffness decreased but the difference was
not significant. This could be explained by the way the bond stiffness for the different
reinforcement systems is simulated and would require further investigation.

Improved Approach to Modelling Multi-Seam Working Stress Distribution

Improved understanding
The boundary element program Map3D is used to estimate the stress state acting on coal mine
roadways (gateroads). Project work at Maltby Colliery has indicated inconsistencies between the
results from Map3D and actual experience where current working panels were affected not only by
the adjacent workings in the same seam but also from old workings above. In response to this an
investigation was carried out in order to improve the understanding of the application of Map3D at
Maltby and therefore make suitable recommendations on its more successful use in similar
circumstances.
Measured and modelled stresses over pillar edges were compared. Measured data shows a steeper
gradient in stress change from below waste to below pillar than the modelled results. The
indications are that the actual interaction is more localised than indicated by Map3D. This has
implications when planning the layout of new longwall panels above or below existing ones. New
seam gateroads could be placed closer to the edge of overlying or underlying mined panels thus
increasing longwall width and overall productivity and recoverable reserves. A possible explanation
for the difference between measured and modelled stress magnitudes was deduced and UDEC
modelling used to demonstrate the proposed mechanism related to the laminated nature of coal
measure strata and associated stress transfer.
Two further cases were considered where Map3D had over predicted stress levels for particular
interaction geometries. For T125’s modelling it was assumed that past mining on the Barnsley
Seam still had an interaction effect on current mining in the Parkgate Seam. Towards the outbye
end of the gateroad an isolated pillar in the Barnsley Seam caused a significant increase in vertical
stress acting on the gate, Figure T4.5.6. In practice, the effects of the high stress concentration
arising from this isolated pillar on the Barnsley Seam were not observed in the gateroad. In this,
and the second case analysed, the discrepancies may be related to the behaviour of goaf
consolidation with time. This therefore confirms that this needs to be taken into consideration when
undertaking Map3D modelling.

109
 Barnsley pillar

T125’s

WithPlot
Figure T4.5.6 Stress Contour Barnsley pillar
for T125’s present
with Barnsley Pillar

Assessment of Alternative Modelling Packages for Simulation of Stress

Redistributions
The laminated nature of strata can have a marked effect on modelling accuracy. As part of the
current research programme efforts are being made to see how the current technology can, or
could, be extended to explicitly model the behaviour of a laminated material in these
circumstances. A number of possible stress analysis programs in current use have been considered
for their suitability including, Map3D, LaModel, FLAC3D, 3DEC and MinSim.
The intention was to capture the large scale mining geometry associated with existing and ongoing
production panels and explicitly incorporate stratigraphic layering into these models. It appears
unlikely that any of these programs can efficiently model the detailed stratigraphy whilst capturing
a sufficiently large area of mining. The current approach adopted for routine modelling of this type
of situation is to use Map3D to capture the large scale mining geometry but then to interpret the
computed stress field judiciously to account for the effects of strata when applying it as input to the
detailed gateroad modelling.

110
2.6 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION : DEVELOPMENT OF
IMPROVED SUPPORT AND GROUND CONTROL SYSTEMS

2.6.1 Task 5.1 Optimisation of powered support construction and support

advancing process for application on weak floors
Based on monitoring data from the powered roof support during tests in the laboratory and
underground tests in Janina coal mine, analytical model works were made using ANSYS and PFC3D
software and with the GIG software for calculating distribution of contact pressure on the canopy
and the base of the support. With the software it was possible to model performance of a powered
roof support on soft floor rocks. The influence and mutual interaction of the width of base, location
of the spherical head connection in the base, and strength parameters of the floor were analysed.
In case of PFC3D software the base of a powered roof support was modelled in a simplified way,
Figure T5.1-1, nevertheless, the calculations made enabled recognition of behaviour
characteristics occurring between the floor and base of a working powered support.

Figure T5.1-1 Example of Computational Model of Interaction Between the Base of BW-
16/34-POz Support and the Rock Mass using PFC3D Software
PFC3D software, based on discrete element method, makes it possible to model dynamic behaviour
of partial models. The basic difference, comparing with the continuum method, is the possibility of
separating blocks and cracking during the deformation process. In Figures T5.1-2 and T5.1-3
results of numerical calculations for the influence of the width of a canopy and the location of the
spherical head connection in a base are shown.

Figure T5.1-2 Comparison of Maximum Displacements and the Force of a Rock Mass
Reaction for Given Width of the Base of a Powered Roof Support

111
Figure T5.1-3 shows that the biggest changes in working conditions of a support were observed
for the width of below 606 mm. Further increase in the width of the base results in improved
interaction between the base and the rock mass, yet, over the base width of 692 mm, the
improvement is relatively small.

Figure T5.1-3 Comparison of Maximum Displacements and Rock Mass Reaction Force for
given Locations of Spherical Head Connection in the Base

Results of calculations, Figure T5.1-3, show that moving the point of applying the resultant force
towards the back of the base has unfavourable influence on the performance of the support. In
such cases it was observed that the support was displaced and it tended to incline. The best
working conditions were observed when the point of application of the equivalent force was moved
by 100 mm towards the front of the base. Moving the point farther resulted in a slight decrease in
the value of displacement, but caused increased inclination of the support, especially in the
longitudinal plane (back and forth movement).
The tests conducted in this way, together with the analyses, made it possible to formulate
appropriate guidelines which are important in the process of designing a section of a powered roof
support and then using it on soft floor rocks.

Guidelines for Designing Powered Roof Supports to Work on Soft Floor Rocks
1. Construction of the powered roof support ought to ensure that the resultant pressure force
of the base on the floor is as close to the centre of the base as it is possible.
2. Location of the leg in the base and in the canopy influences the conditions of interaction
between the section and the rock mass. That is why for a given support it is possible to
determine optimum locations of spherical head connections.
3. Width of the base of a powered roof support ought to be properly designed for
the geological and mining conditions to ensure good interaction between the powered roof
support and the rock mass. In the analysed case the width of a single element of the base
is 692 mm.
4. Construction of the powered roof support ought to ensure a relatively monotonic course of
the lemniscate curve.
5. The beam of the advancing system in the powered roof support ought to be as narrow as it
is possible.
6. Tests of sections of powered roof supports designed to work on soft floor rocks may be
conducted according to the still valid standard of PN-EN 1804-1+A1:2010.

112
Guidelines for Coal Mines with Powered Roof Supports on Soft Floor Rocks
1. Ensuring the right reaction of the floor in longwalls is crucial to have the right interaction
between the support and the rock mass, and in this way to have the right conditions to use
and maintain a working.
2. Preventing or limiting significantly inflow of water to the longwall.
3. Using the powered roof support with the maximum setting load.
4. Preventing air locks in the hydraulic legs.
5. Ensuring regular and fast advance of a longwall.
6. Ensuring the canopy is parallel to the base of the section.
7. Ensuring full contact of the canopy of the powered roof support with the roof.
8. Avoiding linear support of the roof only with the canopy tip.

2.6.2 Task 5.2 Development of enhanced roadway floor and side stabilisation
methods utilising sprayed systems such as shotcrete, polymer based
spray on liners, improved reinforcement and/or closed support structural
section
The work is essentially subdivided into two sections:
· Structurally closed support designs including the application of shotcrete (Geocontrol)
· Rock reinforcement design systems (UK Coal and Golder Associates)

Structurally Closed Support Designs Including the Application of Shotcrete

In Task 4.4 the support of tunnels in weak creeping rock was modelled in order to determine the
most effective floor stabilisation method. The results have to be cross correlated with a field study
in order to make conclusions and recommendations on an optimised design.

Description of Field Site

The data has been collected from a development roadway of the General Plant 865 of the New Mine
of the firm S.A. Hullera Vasco Leonesa in León (Spain). The Company mines a seam of coal almost
vertical, (70º), and 30 m thick called “Competidora”. The roadway runs parallel to the coal seam,
in the wall of it, and 170 metres away. The mining method is called “soutirage”.
The study roadway is the main East roadway of the Plant 865 of the mine called “Galería General
Este P-865”. The kilometric point of the test place is between the KP 0+272 and KP 0+302.
Three sections for convergence measures in the test zone have been considered. One of them
includes wire extensometers. Every one of the excavation faces were rated and recorded after
excavation.

Test Results: Horizontal Convergence

In order to measure the real behaviour of roadways, convergence measures were undertaken using
extensometers.
Figure T5.2-1 shows the horizontal closure (in vertical axis) versus the distance to the excavation
face, for the three sections where convergence was measured.
It is important to take into account that these three sections have been installed at different
distances behind the excavation face. This distance is 14.9 m for GG-25; 0.7 m in GG-26 and 5.7
meters in GG-27. It is desirable to install the sections as near as possible to the excavation face
because otherwise some of the deformation is not recorded. In this case section GG-25 may have
missed more than 200 mm of movement compared to GG-26 and GG-27 may have missed more
than 100 mm compared with GG-26.

113
Figure T5.2-1 Horizontal Closure at the Study Site for Monitored Sections (a) section GG-
25, (b) section GG-26, and (c) section GG-27

The horizontal closure is about 4.2% to 5% which is well in agreement with Hoek and Marinos
(2000) forecast. In order to analyse creep the horizontal closure has been plotted against time
(days). In Figure T5.2-2, the convergences in all the sections monitored are shown.

Figure T5.2-2 Horizontal Closure in the Invert Plotted Against Time

Test Results: Horizontal Convergence with Wire Extensometers

Some measurements were taken with wire extensometers at the test site. These apply a known
tension to the wire in order to calculate how much the anchored point inside the rock has moved.
When the displacement is bigger than the range of the clock, the crimp in the outer point of the
wire has to be moved, so if large displacements are expected, it’s necessary to anticipate a reserve
of wire in the head of the extensometer. Figure T5.2-3 shows the deformation on the left hand
side of the roadway.

114
Figure T5.2-3 Wire Extensometer Results

Back analysis of test site

The first step has been to calculate the deformation due to the excavation itself, elastic and plastic
deformations, before the construction of the invert to support it. Normally it takes 15 days to fully
construct the invert and totally support the excavated ground.
The results showed that the time dependent parameters as well as the elasto-plastic ones
represented the behaviour of the ground at this stage very well.
The second step was to simulate the construction of the invert and increase the deformation time
to 40 days, Figure T5.2-4. The support offered by the invert and the decrease in the creep rate
after construction was clear. The increment of loads in the invert with the time dependent
movement could be estimated in this way and the effectiveness of different closed supports
evaluated.

Figure T5.2-4 Horizontal Displacement 40 days after the Construction of the Invert

Figure T5.2-5 (a) and (b) show, respectively, the yielded zones around the excavation and the
shear strain increments before the invert. Figure T5.2-5(a) shows differences to Figure T5.2-
5(b) of the first step for the yielded zones and in the second, the strain remains the same,
agreeing with the extensometers.

115
Figure T5.2-5 (a) Yielded zones 40 days after construction of the invert, (b) Maximum
shear strains 40 days after construction of the invert

Rock Reinforcement Design Systems

With respect to rock bolted design systems previous work packages have illustrated how a better
understanding of rib and floor deformation can be gained from improved instrumentation, WP1,
and associated analysis, WP2, complemented by numerical modelling, WP4. In WP3 laboratory and
field work pertaining to the improvement in individual support elements have been described,
notably for mesh, rib webbing/strapping, strata injection and sprayed liners.

Support Management Systems for Ribs and Floors

In field work continued under WP 5, however, attention has turned to the documentation of
improved aspects of support management addressing how rib and floor behaviour are linked and
how the control of their movement is now better managed. Deliverable 5.4 documents the
recommendations for improved stabilisation of rib sides. The recommendations have been listed
according to the support management system proposed in the PROSAFECOAL project, (RFCS, 2010).
The Support Management System is made up of 6 key processes:
· Planning
· Geotechnical investigation during roadway development, (design by monitoring),
· Monitoring of deformation after roadway development,
· Installation of additional support in front of the face,
· Monitoring of support success during extraction, and,
· Knowledge management.
Deliverable 5.3 describes floor control in UK coal mines. As indicated in Task 3.3 and Deliverable
3.3 floor support using using rock bolts is not undertaken in UK Coal mines and there is only
limited use of polyurethane injection. The floor deformation is managed by its removal commonly
known in the UK Coal industry as dinting. This involves simply removing the floor lift with
appropriate equipment designed for this purpose. Rib and floor deformation tend to be more
closely linked than roof and rib deformation as the floor is unsupported and it’s movement can
affect rib movement, and notably, dinting (removal) of floor material can also affect rib behaviour.
This section aims to illustrate how an improved understanding of their behaviour has led to the
improved roadway floor and side stabilisation with improved support systems and methods.

Enhanced Rib Stabilisation Daw Mill Colliery : Abolition of Manholes

In the UK, mining legislation requires refuge holes (“manholes”) to be excavated at pre-determined
intervals along gate entries for personnel protection where free steered vehicles (FSV’s) are in
operation. At Daw Mill, poor ground control conditions and even ground failures had historically
been associated with manhole positions. A study was undertaken to review side failure mechanisms
in relation to manhole positions. This included a monitored trial manhole construction to identify
the effect on the side condition and observe any subsequent time related deterioration in the
surrounding area, Figure T5.2-6. The investigation concluded that ground control risks were

116
increased by constructing manholes in the sidewalls at Daw Mill. The work was reviewed by the UK
Health and Safety Executive and it was agreed, based on balance of risk to persons working in or
travelling the roadway, that manhole construction should be discontinued. Consequently none were
used for subsequent entries, including those for 303’s panel. Alternative personnel safety measures
were introduced where FSV’s and other mobile plant were in use. This represented a major step
forward in terms of improving side control at Daw Mill Colliery.

Figure T5.2-6 Refuge Excavated in the Roadway Rib of Entry at Daw Mill Colliery

Enhanced Rib Stabilisation : Webbing

For high deformation ribs webbing is now used systematically, in conjunction with long tendon
reinforcement, especially prior to dinting and face retreat. At Daw Mill it was used in conjunction
with long tendon reinforcement and polyurethane injection; the webbing being installed to floor
level. The design at Kellingley is shown in Figure T5.2-7. At this site the webbing is secured 1 m
above floor level. This practice helps avoid loss of webbing tension following floor heave at this site
and also helps to reduce damage during dinting operations. At this site it is also installed more
proactively, at a set distance behind the heading machine, especially in the tailgate adjacent the
retreating longwall where a stress increase affects roadway conditions. Webbing is also used at
Thoresby in the pillar interaction areas to help retain rib movement.

Figure T5.2-7 Side Webbing Design at Kellingley Colliery

Management of Floor Control

As floor reinforcement is not currently feasible in UK Coal mines except for very site specific cases,
dinting or removal of the heaved material is required. Currently a variety of machine types are
deployed. The most common are the Hausherr dint and load bucket machines which are relatively
small, Figure T5.2-8(a). Gerrard Jones Engineering supplies the DCL Dinter Cutter Loader
machine which is a slightly larger machine with a range of bucket and cutter head attachment
options. Bucket shovels for weaker floor materials or cutter head for harder floors or sidewalls. In
2008, UK Coal purchased a Philips dinter cutter loader, Figure T5.2-8(b). This is a much larger
machine, with a 6.0 m wide cutting head similar to that of a continuous miner. It was used at Daw

117
Mill Colliery, where it worked underneath the coal conveyor. This machine is equipped with a
flexible “tail” enabling it to feed debris directly onto the conveyor.

Figure T5.2-8 (a) Dint and load bucket machine, (b) Phillips dinter loader
The main problem in managing floor and side movement is how to safely repair entries and restore
clearances, without major interruption to production operations.
Management considerations include:
· recognition that deformation is inevitable and resources must be allocated for on-going
repair. (Collieries have up to 10 dinter/dinter cutter loaders to maintain roadways servicing
one longwall production face),
· timing of dinting to restore operational clearances when required and avoid production
delays,
· planning of the number and size of dints undertaken. (multiple smaller dints are more
beneficial than fewer deeper ones, as the removal of heaved floor material removes
restraint to further floor and side movement),
· timing to minimise the consequences of subsequent re-activation of floor and side
movement, and,
· consideration of additional support measures needed to maintain stability post dinting.

Planning and the tasking of dedicated personnel from ground control teams to liaise with
production and planning staff is key. The control of floor heave can be broken into :
· Reactive Measures : removal of heaved floor material when it is at a level where
transport/ventilation is restricted.
· Pro-active Measures : application of monitoring and analysis and improved understanding in
order to predict levels of floor heave and :
o send in dinting machines early,
o improve side and roof support in order to help control floor lift (in the site specific cases
where this is shown to be applicable).

Enhance Management of Floors by Prediction of Floor Heave

Monitoring of floor heave development at Thoresby Colliery was undertaken to more fully
understand the floor behaviour in areas where vertical stress was increased by interaction from
previous workings in a seam 30-40 m below. Because future panels would be affected by similar
interaction areas, floor heave was measured to determine rates and levels of lift to determine if
they could be related to modelled vertical stress. Figure T5.2-9(a) shows the measured results
from one of the gate entries subject to pillar interaction stresses. Figure T5.2-9(b) shows the
measured results against predicted vertical stress magnitude indicating a close relationship
between the two. Vertical interaction stresses in future panels are predicted to reach 60-70MPa,
suggesting the magnitude of floor heave to be anticipated could be around 3 m. Understanding this
relationship enables management to plan dinting operations in advance ensuring suitable
equipment is available, especially if cheeking off of side squeeze is also required. Rib movement is
also linked at this site to vertical stress and indications are that similar relationships could be
deduced although rib deformation is dependent on factors such as support density and restraint
from heaved floor material.

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 3.5

Measured Floor Heave (m)

Over pillar 2.5
y = 0.0504x
2

1.5

Over waste 1

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Modelled Vertical Stress (MPa)

Figure T5.2-9 Measured Floor Heave at Thoresby Colliery from a Gate Entry Subject to
Variable Vertical Stresses and Relationship of Measured Floor Heave to Modelled Vertical
Stresses

Enhance Management of Floors and Ribs : Daw Mill 303’s

The final retreat panel at Daw Mill Colliery, 303’s, was a particularly challenging retreat panel at
depth, 750-810m, in weak geology. In addition, and for operational reasons, it was laid out so that
the gateroad entries were in the most unfavourable direction with respect to the horizontal stress.
In anticipation of the higher stresses the sidewalls were webbed and long tendoned on
development. This was also accompanied by the deployment of a member of the Colliery’s Strata
Control team dedicated to monitoring and reacting to ground movement as the panel retreated.
On retreat sidewall movement in the coalgate entry increased in response to the front abutment
stresses. The face side sidewall was systematically dressed back and rebolted, long dowelled,
meshed and webbed outbye of the stage loader. A ‘targeted’ placement of PUR was used to
strengthen highly deformed sides prior to cheeking off. PUR injection was targeted at the deeper
ribside, beyond the distance to be cheeked off, facilitated by packers inserted into the holes at the
appropriate depth. Because the PUR did not then strengthen the immediate rib, it was easier to
cheek off as in a fractured state bolts become detached when excavated by the dint machine
bucket.
A total of 5 dint machines were used in the main (coal) entry, removing a cumulative total of 4-5 m
of floor lift. Dinting below the original floor level triggered side and roof movement, but lifting the
dint to above the original floor level was very beneficial. In the areas where dinting adversely
affected rib condition, additional side bolts, meshing and extended webbing was installed. Outbye
of the dinting operations, the sidewalls were observed to be stable and in good condition with
approximately 300 mm total movement which had taken place during development.
303’s panel retreated at an acceptable rate in this difficult geotechnical environment. Despite the
quantity of repair work required to the sidewalls and floor they were still reportedly the best
conditions achieved at Daw Mill since operation started some 10 years previously in the new deeper
areas. Unfortunately Daw Mill closed in 2013, before 303’s had finished retreating, following a
major underground fire.

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2.7 CONCLUSIONS

Longwall Powered Support Monitoring and Design for Soft Floors

Guidelines for designing powered roof supports to work on soft floor rocks and guidelines for coal
mines with powered roof supports working on soft floor rocks were developed. These were based
on the research tools developed during the project: a monitoring system for powered roof support
operating in a test laboratory and underground, a hydraulic cushion to simulate soft floors in the
laboratory, analytical numerical model works made using ANSYS and PFC3D software and the GIG
software for calculating distribution of contact pressure on the canopy and the base of the support.
The powered support monitoring system was successfully designed, built and used to record data
on its geometry, hydraulic leg pressures and pressure exerted on its powered support canopy
during operation.
A hydraulic cushion was successfully designed and built to simulate the behaviour of weak floor
rocks in the laboratory. It is a unique design and build solution for both Poland and Europe and
allows successful simulation of a diverse range of site specific floor rock loading conditions which
could not be attained in any other method applied to date. Powered support testing can be
undertaken under symmetrical and asymmetrical load patterns in accordance with the relevant
standards; Polish standard PN-EN 1804-1+A1:2010, harmonized with the EU Machinery Directive.
The results were and can be used for site specific calibration of numerical models, analyses of load
patterns, displacements and forces existing in the powered support components.
Field measurement results obtained from Janina Mine using the monitored powered support system
developed during the project showed that the inclinometers and pressure sensors worked properly
in the underground conditions. However in high humidity and a dusty underground environment
the strain gauges didn't operate as anticipated. This highlights the need for a more robust design of
the strain gauge sensors.
The monitored powered support was used on three longwalls recording pressure in hydraulic props,
inclination angle of support base, inclination angle between base and canopy, and pressure ratio on
the support base. The most favourable pressure ratio was obtained with uniform distribution of
pressure on the base in conditions of dry and soft rocks thus contributing to a good daily retreat
rate of 6 m per day. The powered support worked less favourably where pressure in one of the
hydraulic legs was low at times, this resulted in lack of pressure on the whole base which can lead
to the support sinking into floor, which at times was wet at the field test site in this case. The use
of such a monitoring system distributed on a number of powered roof supports along a longwall
may have a positive impact on optimising the powered supports advance rate and the safety of the
crew.
Numerical calculations conducted within the project demonstrated that it was possible to represent
the loading conditions of powered supports on weak floors using the programme ANSYS. In
addition PFC3D software was used to simulate the base of a powered roof support on soft floor
rocks to enable recognition of behaviour characteristics occurring between the floor and base of a
working powered support. A strength calculation methodology for powered supports was developed
from the numerical modelling and forms a valuable additional tool to aid the selection and design of
appropriate longwall powered supports for different geological and mining conditions.
Improved Design and Support of Rockbolted Coal Mine Ribs and Floors
Improved instrumentation for quantifying soft ground and associated support systems
· Non-Destructive Testing, NDT, methods for determining the integrity of rockbolts and the
location of any breaks showed that the Radio Frequency and ultrasonic methods were still
limited. Time Domain Reflectrometry, TDR was investigated for the first time but showed
very few meaningful results. The Acoustic Method investigations indicated the feasibility of
this method subject to further developt.
· By pre-instrumenting Glass Reinforced Plastic, GRP, rockbolts the TDR method was able to
detect breaks and measure their location, however the method requires some refinements.
· An improved borehole camera was developed with depth recording in the hole;
investigations into the use of the borehole camera for geological logging show this was not
a reliable method for this purpose.
· The application of the borehole penetrometer in the current UK deep mining environment
to determine strata strength and stiffness is not currently practicable as typical
underground drilling produces holes significantly less than the 95 mm diameter required for
its use.

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Weak Rock Testing
Weak rock samples for testing can be successfully transported and preserved by a variety of
means: underground core samples can be wrapped in a plastic membrane and waxed; opencast
lump samples sealed by wrapping in cling film and weaker coal samples set in plaster.
Only 5-10% of weak strata underground cores can be sufficiently intact for conventional testing.
However investigations into alternative test strategies showed that the majority of a core could be
used for testing:
· UCS and triaxial testing of reconstructed (glued) weak strata samples concluded that this
technique worked well allowing representative properties to be obtained.
· Assessment of the strength properties of graded and crushed materials using soil
mechanics testing equipment such as direct shear and triaxial test rigs concluded that the
values obtained from direct shear testing of particulate samples do have application when
considering the behaviour of ‘critical state’ fractured soft rocks in a high stress
environment.
· Standard and large scale triaxial soil mechanics type tests performed on graded particulate
coal measure rock, produced lower friction angles than from the direct shear testing.
· Index testing (Point Load and Cone Indenter) of the weakest samples to obtain UCS values,
concluded, that for the samples tested, the Cone Indenter provided the more reliable
results.

Time dependency testing of mudstones over 60days showed insignificant creep with axial strains of
less than 0.5%. However, time dependant testing of the crushed material did give some indication
of time dependency.

Work on the examination of the characterisation of rock masses by analysing the post failure
behaviour of the samples concluded that the most appropriate model to use for our data was the
modified Hoek-Brown and for the residual behaviour of the rock mass ‘hypothesis E’, application of
the criterion of Hoek-Brown.

Strata Weathering
Climate chamber simulations showed that both temperature and humidity are important for
weathering, especially in the case of soft rocks, such as mudstone. The UCS and Young’s modulus
of the samples after weathering was noticeably lower than those before weathering. Samples that
had been submerged in water for up to 7 days showed a decrease in UCS values. However,
samples left longer than 7 days tended to deteriorate rapidly such that no UCS testing was
possible. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX)
provided useful qualitative insights into the effects of weathering on the microstructure and
chemical composition of rock samples but no definitive quantifiable effects.

In-situ Behaviour of Roadways with Soft Floors

Using in-situ observation, and application of appropriate instrumentation it was possible to
characterise the behaviour of soft floors and sides under specific geomechanical conditions.
Schematic sketches to illustrate holistically the failure modes were created for the study sites in the
project, these considered the interaction of roof, rib and floor together, along with driving
mechanisms and failure as predicted by numerical modelling. Pillar interaction areas due to multi-
seam mining are important for Thoresby, local geological changes and in-seam interaction are
important at Maltby and Kellingley, while at Daw Mill the thick seam and weak floor promote
substantial floor lift and higher rib and roof movements.

Support Elements and Testing Methodologies

· The optimum properties for a cuttable rockbolt were reviewed; three alternatives were
tested and efforts made to develop an improved alternative bolt, however the current GRP
versions remain the best products to use.
· Laboratory investigations comparing performance in the standard biaxial test and the split
cylinder test have led to the improved understanding of rotational failure of long tendons in
the laboratory and the potential benefits of the large diameter split cylinder test for low
confinement applications were demonstrated. The test technique was recommended for use
as a British Standard for evaluation of rib support systems.
· A test rig was developed with the ability to successfully test shear performance of cuttable
bolts in the field. This enables in-situ measurement of bolt properties for numerical
modelling studies and provides a test tool to evaluate performance to assist in the
development of products with improved bending and torsional strength.
· For rib support:

122
 o a new plastic rib mesh was successfully introduced with more reliable strength,
o pressurised specific placement of polyurethane resin for immediate rib
consolidation was introduced,
o a new injection product, Geofoam, was deployed allowing greater penetration into
the strata prior to foaming,
o improved anchorage techniques and rib webbing/strapping techniques were
introduced.
· Floor support has not been successful by using rockbolting and an up to date review
indicates that there are still difficulties with respect to drilling and installing suitably bonded
rockbolts. Trials with respect to the use of PUR injection for floor consolidation were
successful for very site specific cases, gate ends and facelines in order to aid the stability of
powered supports.

Numerical Modelling
· The Burger-Creep Viscoplastic model was the most appropriate constitutive model for soft
floor and side wall rocks in roadways. The 3D model was validated against the in-situ
measurements provided from Daw Mill Colliery.
· Stress distribution modelling, using MAP3D, forms an essential tool to determine areas of
elevated stress from current and previous workings and to date no modelling packages
more suitable than Map3D have been identified.
· FLAC modelling can be used to determine suitable support patterns and under GEOSOFT
simulation of ribbing off and floor dinting has been undertaken. Comparison of modelled
and measured results show that rib deformation can be simulated reasonably well but floor
deformation is always underestimated. Alternative, but more time consuming
methodologies, could be developed to resolve this problem.
· Simulations using current cuttable rockbolt technologies in the floor showed that if good
bond strengths could be achieved even low density patterns could have significant effect on
reducing floor heave.

Improved Stabilisation of Rib sides and Floors

Recommendations for the improved stabilisation of ribsides using the above conclusions have been
documented according to the support management system proposed in the PROSAFECOAL project,
(RFCS, 2010).
Floor control has been described and is managed by removal commonly known in the UK Coal
industry as dinting. Rib and floor deformation tend to be linked and through the development of
appropriate management control systems, it has been demonstrated how rib and floor control can
be controlled to acceptable levels. For example by predicting floor heave in order to better plan
deployment of dinters, by proactive additional support of ribs before dinting, and through not over
dinting in one lift.

Structurally closed support designs including the application of shotcrete

Shotcrete testing was successfully undertaken to characterise its fatigue behaviour for
incorporation into FLAC numerical modelling. The Burger-Creep model was identified as the most
appropriate constitutive model in FLAC to represent the measured behaviour however this required
modification by creating a FISH subroutine in FLAC. This managed to provide a constitutive model
for shotcrete that presented a viscoelastic behaviour with the three phases of creep and a plastic
behaviour through the Mohr-Coulomb rupture criterion.
Numerical modelling was undertaken to determine if a slab, curved anchored floor performed best
for tunnels driven in soft floor strata prone to deformation. The results showed that the curved
invert is the best solution, presenting smaller displacements although this containment of
displacements induces more compressions within the concrete.
A real scale in-situ test in Competidora mine to validate the numerical analysis described above
was carried out. Convergence and extensometer measurements were carried out and the required
geotechnical properties determined to enable back analysis to be performed comparing the field
measurements with the modelled predictions taking into account the creep phenomena. The results
obtained from the field have validated the numerical modelling work carried out and show that the
creep consideration in mine roadways is an essential tool to design the appropriate support system.
Experience in this mine had shown that flat inverts were a poor design solution due to the creep
behaviour which corresponds to the modelling indicating curved inverts were better.

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2.8 EXPLOITATION AND IMPACT OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS

2.8.1 Technical and Economic Potential for the use of the Results

Longwall Powered Support Monitoring and Design

Longwall exploitation in weak floor rocks is very difficult and requires safe efficient extraction of
coal at economically viable rates. One of the most important elements of longwall equipment is the
powered support which should be optimally designed for the prevailing geological and mining
conditions, in terms of geometry and support capacity.
The results of the GEOSOFT laboratory and underground tests, provided much information on the
characteristics of powered support operating on weak floor rocks. The work allowed guidelines to
be drawn up for:
· Designing powered roof supports to work on soft floors, and
· For coal mines with powered supports on soft floors.
Optimisation of the design and use of powered supports can help improved safe and efficient
extraction of coal by longwall mining.

The use of monitoring a larger number of powered roof supports in one longwall should have a
positive impact on optimising powered support advanced rates and also operator safety.

Improved Design and Support of Rockbolted Coal Mine Ribs and Floors
Rockbolted coal mine roadways need to be designed and adequately supported for their intended
use so as to allow safe and efficient longwall extraction of the coal. During this project work has
addressed both the planning and design tools as well as the monitoring and management tools that
then are required during longwall retreat to maintain rib and floor stability.
Having a range of high quality reinforcement products and understanding their performance is key.
A split cylinder laboratory test technique for evaluation rib reinforcement has been proposed. The
project did not identify an improved cuttable rockbolt but improvements in mesh, polyurethane
resin injection and strapping techniques.
Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for aiding design recommendations where stress, geological
and support performance parameters are known. It is important that the rock and support
behaviours are modelled to represent actual situations as well as possible. Under the project model
advances come from:
· Improved materials properties investigations : modelling input parameters have been
advanced by weak rock preservation, preparation and testing techniques from a range of
non-standard tests, based on reconstruction of sheared cores and also on soils testing
techniques to obtain data from soft rocks otherwise considered beyond testing.
· Improved constitutive models demonstrated that the application of the modified Burger
Creep visco-plastic constitutive model in the numerical model together with input data
based on laboratory test data modified to give rock mass properties, can yield a good
agreement with simple in-situ closure measurements taken over the whole length of a
mine roadway
· Improved modelling techniques allowing appropriate representation of practices used
underground such as cheeking off and dinting
· Improved understanding when comparing measured and modelled results so there is
increased confidence in the results and recommendations from them.
Instrumentation to monitor for design and safety purposes during longwall extraction is also key.
Instrumentation allows for a greater understanding of the deformation mechanics and can be cross
correlated with support design techniques such as numerical modelling to ensure compatability.

125
Structurally closed support designs including the application of shotcrete
Closed support designs, like rockbolted roadways, need to be designed and adequately supported
for their intended use so as to allow safe and efficient support during their anticipated life. During
this project work has addressed both the planning and design tools.
Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for aiding design recommendations where stress, geological
and support performance parameters are known. Stata deformation/creep can subject tunnel
linings to long term loading. Shotcrete properties and appropriate fatigue/creep parameters have
been determined in order to be able to cross reference with appropriate constitutive models for
more accurate simulation. A very effective shear test machine to measure in-situ shear behaviour
of bolts and GRP bolts has been developed and tested. The support property information allows
more accurate numerical modelling. Different design strategies for roadways subject to creep
phenomena have then been modelled. Curved inverts were shown to be the best design and the
least likely to incur maintenance costs due to the cracking.

2.8.2 Actual Application

Longwall Powered Support Monitoring and Design

The guidelines for designing powered supports and for mines with powered supports on soft floors
are currently being implemented. This is being undertaken by GIG by recommending the use of
these best practices in collaborative project work with the Polish coal mines and powered support
manufacturers involved.

Examples of implementation of guidelines and recommendations include:

For mines with powered supports operating on weak floor:

Leaving the layer of coal in floor of new-designed longwalls in “Janina” and “Sobieski”
collieries.

For coal mine requirements for designing of powered support:

Designing of the support to ensure the full contact of the canopy of the powered roof
support with the roof and floor according to GIG’s methodology at “Budryk” colliery where
new shield supports were to be purchased.

Additionally, based on results of laboratory and underground tests as well as on numerical

modelling carried out in GEOSOFT a PhD dissertation was realized in GIG. The scope of dissertation
is the impact of floor parameters on operating parameters of shield support in longwall. The results
of the work is a milestone in designing of powered roof support for given geological and mining
conditions.

Improved Design and Support of Rockbolted Coal Mine Ribs and Floors
During this project work addressing both the planning and design tools including improved
products and management strategies have been applied to maintain rib stability and control floor
heave.

Design tools
The monitored trial to determine the effects of manhole construction on rib stability at Daw Mill
concluded that ground control risks were increased by their constructing. Consequently none were
used for 303’s panel. This represented a major step forward in terms of improving side control and
safety at Daw Mill Colliery. This case study was accepted by the regulatory bodies, (UK Health and
safety Executive), as a legitimate ground control risk reduction measure. Manhole construction
within the rib-sides was subsequently not undertaken for the following long-wall panel, 33’s. They
were also not excavated on an incline access roadway where mobile plant was in operation; again
on a balance of risk. This again was recognised as a risk reduction control measure and an
improvement to the hazardous environment where this plant was operating.

Numerical modelling continues to be a powerful tool for aiding design in difficult mining
conditions. Early in the project a technique was developed to model the practice of cheeking-off
and dinting. These modelling outputs were used to make recommendations on the timing of this
practice and required support levels, Kellingley 501’s. This proved highly successful when applied
at Daw Mill Colliery for modelling rib deformation and support for 303’s panel subject to retreat

126
stresses. This was particularly important for the T junction area subject to the front abutment
stresses where there was a high level of activity in maintaining clearances. Because it is not
possible to install additional standing support in this area, the timing of dinting, ribbing off and
additional reinforcement became critical to maintain both stability and clearance. The modelling
was particularly useful for the Design Engineer to discuss with the Operational Engineers to ensure
the dinting and reinforcement activities were optimised, e.g. balancing and limiting the time
dependant effects of dinting on rib deformation.

Improved understanding of how numerical modelling underestimates floor behaviour for different
sites was gained through back analysis studies. This was applied during latter modelling during the
project to give increased confidence in the results and recommendations; this included Kellingley
504’s modelling and Daw Mill 303’s retreat modelling. These improvements will now be used for
modelling any UK coal mine site subsequent to this project.

Products
An alternative plastic mesh, (MinGrid), was sourced and applied which had woven intersections.
This alternative was sourced after issues with a product that used heat welded joints. These proved
to be more resistant to failure compared to the original product due to its inherent stronger woven
design and its less reliance on heat welded joints. It was introduced at all three of the UK Coal
mines, Kellingley, Thoresby and Daw Mill where it has been reported to have been used without the
problems its predecessor experienced at Kellingley.

Geofoam two part resin was a product introduced during the time of the Geosoft project at UK Coal
mines. It is a product that is used as an alternation to PUR’s. It was successfully used to
consolidate the face and roof above the powered supports at Daw Mill on 32’s; it was also applied
to similar situations for 303’s. In both cases the characteristics of Geofoam suited the ground
conditions where there was soft rock particularly prone to face slabbing. Geofoam has since been
used at both Kellingley and Thoresby Collieries for ground consolidation especially in ribs and floor;
at Kellingley on 504’s and 505’s longwalls and at Thoresby for DS4’s and 5’s longwalls. In addition
it has also been used at Kellingley in the floor at selected sites to consolidate and strengthen it to
allow for construction activities such as building air-crossings.

Rib webbing anchorage improvements using attachment points on rock bolt plates had been
applied at Daw Mill Colliery prior to the Geosoft project. It has now been applied at UK Coal’s
Thoresby and Kellingley Collieries to suit their site specific requirements along with the application
of anchoring the straps in lower parts of the roadway rib by grouting them into a hole using a GRP
rock bolt. At Kellingley Colliery it has been used on 503’s, 504A’s and is currently being installed
on 504B’s, at Thoresby Colliery on DS4’s and finally DS5’s.

Management
Targeted placement of PUR has been applied to strengthen highly deformed sides prior to cheeking
off, by selectively consolidating the rib beyond the cheek off depth, (by use of packers at the
targeted horizon). This was used for Daw Mill 303’s panel and was extremely successful and was
planned for use on subsequent longwalls prior to colliery closure.

In addition PUR injection was trialled to strengthen the floor in specific circumstances. This was
undertaken successfully on 32’s retreat panel. This led to its subsequent application on 303’s panel
at gate ends and along the face-line where particularly soft floor was again encountered, which
helped with an on-going issue of powered roof support stability.

The recognition that rib movement and floor dinting are related has led to the more proactive
application of additional support of the ribs before dinting, (including webbing for restraint), and
not over dinting in any single lift. This was particularly important for Daw Mill, especially 303’s
which had a weaker floor and higher horizontal stress. It has also been applied at Kellingley
Colliery on 504’s and 505’s, and at Thoresby Colliery for DS4’s longwall panel and since project
completion DS5’s.

Structurally closed support designs including the application of shotcrete

Geocontrol applied a real scale in-situ test in Competidora mine to validate the numerical analysis
developed in Task 4.4. The results obtained from the field have validated the numerical modelling
work carried out and show that the creep consideration in mine roadways is an essential tool to
plan the appropriate support.

127
2.8.3 Patent Filing
None

2.8.4 Publications and Other Results Dissemination

Publications
The following 4 publications were made:

Wanatowski,D., Marshall, A.M,. Stace, L. R., Geng, Y., and Aslam. R, Obtaining the Physical
Properties of Soft Rocks, 35th International Conference of Safety in Mines Research
Institutes, London, October 2013.

Geng, Y., Wanatowski, D. and Stace, L. R., An experimental investigation of the properties
of weak rocks surrounding mine workings, 46th US Rock Mechanics / Geomechanics
Symposium, Chicago, IL, USA, June 2012.

Prusek Stanisław (GIG), Rajwa Sylwester (GIG), Kasperkiewicz Witold (ZG Janina),
Budniok, Tomasz (BW): Assessment of performance of powered shield support used on
weak floor, 3rd World Mining Congress and Expo 2013, Montréal, Canada.

Kent, L., Moore, D., Bowler J., Walker, S., Meeting the Challenges of Floor and Sidewall
Control in UK Deep Coal Mines, 33rd International Conference in Ground Control in Mining,
Morgantown, VW, USA, July 29-31, 2014, pp134-143.

Other Results Dissemination

Two workshops were held at the end of the project, one in Poland where the results of the work
carried out by the GIG, BW and PKWSA were presented to a large group of designers and mine
specialists and one in the UK where all Partners presented their work to a group of attendees from
the UK coal industry.

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3 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Figure Title Page

number No.
T1.1-1 View of Support Unit BW 16/34 POz after Equipping with the Monitoring 15
System
T1.1-2 Outline of the Powered Support Monitoring System: (CC – pressure sensor, 16
TS – capacity strain gauges, INK – inclinometers, MMC – MINCOS device,
PS1.1, PS1.2-type device, ISR – splitter box, ZI – SVI feeder, SR1 –
flameproof distribution box, LWL – light pipe, PR – distribution frame)
T1.1-3 Controllers Deployed: (a) central MINCOS, (b) auxiliary PS1.1 and PS1.2 17
T1.1-4 Measurement Sensors: (a) pressure sensor, (b) inclinometer, (c) strain 17
gauges
T1.1-5 Distribution of Pressure Sensors on the Powered Roof Support Unit: (a) 18
hydraulic legs, (b) tilting cylinder
T1.1-6 Distribution of Inclinometers on Powered Roof Support Unit: a) canopy, b) 19
caving shield, (c) lemniscate link, (d) hydraulic leg, (e) base
T1.1-7 Distribution of Extensometers on Powered Roof Support UnitL a) canopy, (b) 19
base
T1.1-8 Visualisation System for BW 16/34 POz Powered Support: (a) ProVisIT based 20
on central controller MINCOS, (b) GWiRD based on PC computer
T1.2-1 TDR Readout Box and the Three Setups Identified for Measurement of Steel 22
Bolts
T1.2-2 TDR Traces from Underground Trials on GRP Continuity Bolts 22
T1.2-3 Ultrasonic Instruments (a) Krautkrammer USD10NF Instrument and the Two 23
Alternatives Tested, (b) Olympus Epoch 600 and (c), Krautkrammer
USN23LF
T1.2-4 Ultrasonic Test Results from a 1.2 m and 1.6 m Long KT Rockbolts, 2MHz 23
Probe with Ultra Gel II Couplant
T1.2-5 The Acoustic Vibration Method Equipment 24
T1.2-6 (a) Resonance from a 2.4 m long Free Bolt and, (b), Resonance from a 2.4 25
m Long Installed Bolt
T1.2-7 (a) Improved BICSR25C borehole camera system, (b) Original borehole 27
distance recording with tape measure (c) New borehole distance recording,
(d) Results from camera head orientation tool to measure borehole breakout
direction
T1.3-1 Photographs of the Hydraulic Cushion 28
T1.3-2 Hydraulic Cushion: (a) hydraulic cylinder, (b) placement of heads, (c) 28
general view
T1.3-3 Overflow Valves on the Hydraulic Cushion 29
T1.3-4 (a) Diagram showing the connections between Controller PS1.3 and the 29
support monitoring System, (b) Photograph of the PS1.3 controller, (c)
Photograph of the electronics inside the PS1.3 controller
T1.3-5 Visualisation System „PODUSZKA” that Presents the Pressure Value 30
Readings from the 24 Sensors in the Hydraulic Cylinders
T2.1-1 Strain/Time Results from the Long-term Shotcrete Behaviour Tests (A) 31
T2.1-2 Strain/Time Slow and Incremental Compression Shotcrete Tests (B) 32
T2.2-1 Coal Samples Set in Plaster before Transportation 33
T2.3-1 Example of (a) an Intact Sample and (b) a Reconstructed (Glued) Sample 35
T2.3-2 (a) UCS test data comparing intact and glued Samples, (b) Single stage 35
triaxial test data comparing intact and glued samples
T2.3-3 (a) UCS results comparison between intact and glued samples, (b) Glued 36
sample before and after triaxial testing
T2.3-4 Direct Shear Test Results for Coal: Load versus Horizontal Displacement for 37
all Particle Sizes
T2.3-5 Direct Shear Results for Coal: (a) maximum shear stress versus normal 38
stress and (b) maximum friction angle for all particle sizes
T2.3-6 Time Dependent Behaviour of Particulate Coal Measure Mudstone and 40
Crushed Coal
T2.3-7 (a) Comparative Stress-Strain behaviour of the 3 rocks in MPa (Confinement 42
Pressure = 0) (b) Comparative Stress –Strain behaviour of the 3 rocks in %
of peak strength (Confinement Pressure = 0)

129
T2.4-1 Environmental SEM apparatus (left) and SEM apparatus (right) 43
T2.4-2 SEM Scan of Sample left in in Acid Water for One Month 44
T2.4-3 EDX Analysis for a Mudstone Sample 45
T2.5.1 Time Dependent Changes in Floor Lift for Selected Locations in DS4’s Supply 47
Gate
T2.5-2 Representative Roadway Rib Convergence with Time from 501, 502 and 47
503’s Gate Roads as Recorded by Rib Laser Measurements from Selected
Points along the Maingate’s (except 501’s where the M/G was affected by
Faulting)
T2.5-3 Schematic to Represent Improved Understanding of Deformation 49
Mechanisms at Daw Mill Colliery
T3.1-1 View of Testing Machine and BW 16/34 POz Powered Support Unit Mounted 51
on the Hydraulic Cushion
T3.1-2 Results of Measurements of Forces in Components and Geometry of BW 53
16/34 POz Powered Support Unit – Test No 11
T3.1-3 Results of Measurements of Stresses in Components of BW 16/34 POz 54
Powered Support Unit (strain gauges 1-9), Test No 11
T3.1-4 Results of Measurements of Stresses in Components of BW 16/34 POz 54
Powered Support Unit (strain gauges 20 - 39) and Pressure in Support Legs
– Test No. 11
T3.2-1 Location of Longwall No. 136, Janina Mine 56
T3.2-2 Geological Profile for Longwall No. 136 56
T3.2-3 View of Cross-cut Aimed at Extending the Longwall No. 136 57
T3.2-4 Diagram of Powered Support Monitoring System for Longwall 136 58
T3.2-5 View of an Extensometer, Inclinometer and Pressure Sensor 58
T3.2-6 Views of Auxiliary Controllers Type BFS and Main Controller MINCOS 59
T3.2-7 Location of Longwall No. 700, Janina Mine 59
T3.2-8 Geological Profile for Longwall 700 60
T3.2-9 View of the Longwall Face 700 61
T3.2-10 Diagram of Powered Support Monitoring System 61
T3.2-11 View of Elements of BW 16/34 Support Including Strain Gauges Replaced 62
Field Measurement of Powered Support Behaviour in Longwall No. 141
T3.2-12 Location of Longwall 141, Janina Mine 62
T3.2-13 Geological Profile for Longwall 141 62
T3.2-14 View of the Longwall Face 141 63
T3.2-15 Diagram of Powered Support Monitoring System Longwall 700 63
T3.2-16 Example Graph of Pressure Sensors Values after Processing in Longwall 136 65
T3.2-17 Example Graph of Inclinometers Readings after Processing in Longwall 136 65
T3.2-18 Example Graph of Strain Gauges Readings after Processing in Longwall 136 66
T3.2-19 Panel CodeGear™ Delphi® 2007 Database Records and Figure of Surface 66
Pressure Presentation of Underground Measurement Results
T3.2-20 Percentage Distribution of Pressure in Hydraulic Legs in Longwall No. 136 67
T3.2-21 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle of the Base in Longwall 136 67
T3.2-22 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle Between the Base and Canopy in 68
Longwall 136
T3.2-23 Percentage Distribution of Pressure on the Base - Longwall 136 68
T3.2-24 Ratio of Pressure of the Front to Rear Part of the Base – Longwall 136 68
T3.2-25 Percentage Distribution of Pressure in Hydraulic legs in Longwall 700 69
T3.2-26 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle of the Base in Longwall 700 69
T3.2-27 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle Between the Base and Canopy in 69
Longwall 700
T3.2-28 Percentage Distribution of Pressure on the Base Longwall 700 70
T3.2-29 Ratio of Pressure of the Front to Rear Part of the Base – Longwall No. 700 70
T3.2-30 Percentage Distribution of Pressure in Hydraulic Legs in Longwall 141 70
T3.2-31 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle of the Base in Longwall 141 71
T3.2-32 Percentage Distribution of Inclination Angle Between the Base and Canopy in 71
Longwall 141
T3.2-33 Percentage Distribution of Pressure on the Base - Longwall 141 71
T3.2-34 Ratio of Pressure of the Front to Rear Part of the Base Longwall 141 72
T3.3-1 Laboratory Short Encapsulation Pull Test Results for the Webbing Covered 73
GRP Rockbolt
T3.3-2 Stress Strain Curves for Different Draw Ratios for the D117 Grade of 74
Polypropylene

130
T3.3.-3 Load Displacement Results from the Split Cylinder for the UK Long Tendon 75
Systems Deployed in Coal Mine Ribs
T3.3-4 Shear Test Machine for Field Shear Testing of Rockbolts 76
T3.3-5 Photograph of the Steel, ParaRib and MinGrid Mining Mesh Types used for 78
Coal Mine Sidewall Support
T3.3-6 Photographs to Illustrate Poor and Best Practice for Strapping Placement as 78
Part of a Rib Reinforcement Support System
T4.1-1 3D Model of BW16/34POz Powered Roof Support Produced by BeckerWarkop 81
T4.1-2 A tool in SolidWorks Software for Verifying Projects 82
T4.1-3 3D Model of a Powered Roof Support with Additional Elements, Used to 82
Simulate a Hydraulic Cushion (a) Hydraulic cylinders (b) Simplified hydraulic
cylinders
T4.1-4 ANSYS Design Modeller module (a) SolidWorks program (b) ANSYS program 83
T4.1-5 Algorithm for Conducting Numerical Calculations for Simulating the 83
Behaviour of a Powered Roof Support on a Hydraulic Cushion
T4.1-6 (a) Load and support of the model in the test machine and in the numerical 84
model, (b) Discrete model of a powered roof support
T4.1-7 Arrangement of Strain Gauges on the Canopy of the BW 16/34 POz Powered 84
Support Unit Under Tests (No. 1-5)
T4.1-8 Arrangement of Strain Gauges on the Base of the BW 16/34 POz Powered 84
Support Unit Under Tests (No. 1-5)
T4.1-9 Comparison of the Obtained Results of Stand Tests and Numerical 85
Calculations
T4.1-10 Comparison of the Obtained Results of Load of The Base on the Hydraulic 85
Cushion During Stand Tests And Bearing Reactions in the Places which
Simulate Cylinders in the Hydraulic Cushion During Numerical Calculations
T4.1-11 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric 86
Load and support of a Powered Roof Support, Height 3.3 m, Pressure in
Hydraulic Legs 25MPa (stress MPa): (a) canopy, (b) caving shield, (c) base,
(d) lemniscate link - right front (e) lemniscate link - left front, (f) lemniscate
link - right rear, (g) lemniscate link - left rear.
T4.1-12 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis For Symmetric 87
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height: 3.3 M, Pressure In
Hydraulic Legs: 25mpa (Deformation Scale 10x)
T4.1-13 Computational Models of Tests of a Powered Roof Support on a Hydraulic 87
Cushion: (a) elements with a spring support (b) elements modelling
cylinders of a hydraulic cushion (c) a hydraulic cushion simplified with
SPRING type elements
T4.1-14 Basic Discrete Models Used in Numerical Calculations: (a) Elements with a 88
spring support (b) Elements modelling cylinders of a hydraulic cushion (c) A
hydraulic cushion simplified with SPRING type elements
T4.1-15 Basic Discrete Models used in Numerical Calculations 88
T4.1-16 Basic Discrete Models used in Numerical Calculations 89
T4.1-17 Comparison of the Obtained Stand Test Results and the Numerical 89
Calculations
T4.1-18 Comparison of the Obtained Results of Load of the Floor Base on the 90
Hydraulic Cushion During Stand Tests and Support Reactions in the Places
Where Cylinders are Simulated on the Hydraulic Cushion During Numerical
Calculations
T4.1-19 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric 90
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height 3.3 m, Pressure in
Hydraulic Legs 25MPa (stress MPa): (a) canopy, (b) caving shield, (c) base,
(d) lemnsicate link - right front (e) lemniscate link - left front, (f) lemniscate
link - right rear, (g) lemniscate link - left rear
T4.1-20 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric 91
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height: 3.3 m, Pressure in
Hydraulic Legs: 25MPa (Deformation Scale 10x)
T4.1-21 Algorithm Verifying Usage of a Given Powered Roof Support on Weak Floor 91
Rocks
T4.1-22 Chart from PFC3D Program Concerning Rock Mass of Strength Rc=18 MPa 92
T4.1-23 Comparison of the Laboratory Test Results and the Numerical Calculations 92
T4.1-24 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric 93
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height 3.3 m, Pressure In
Hydraulic Legs 25MPa (stress MPa): (a) canopy, (b) caving shield, (c) base,

131
 (d) lemniscate link - right front (e) lemnsicate link - left front, (f) lemniscate
link - right rear, (g) lemniscate link - left rear
T4.1-25 Results of Numerical Calculations of a Numerical Analysis for Symmetric 94
Load and Support of a Powered Roof Support, Height: 3.3 m, Pressure in
Hydraulic Legs: 25MPa (deformation scale 10x)
T4.1-26 Comparison of Outcomes of Numerical Computations of Stress Values in 94
some Support Elements with ones Obtained During Underground
Measurements
T4.1-27 Example of Pressure Distribution on the Base and Canopy of the BW 16/34 95
POz Powered Support Operated on Longwall 136 in Seam 119/2
T4.1-28 (a) Geometrical Model of the Floor and Base; (b) Model of the Base Loading 95
T4.1-29 Displacements in Floor and Support’s Base: (a) the horizontal load is 96
directed towards the goaf, (b) the horizontal load is directed towards the
longwall face
T4.2-1 Schematic Representation of the Deviatoric Behaviour of the Burger-MC 97
Rheological Model
T4.2-2 Uniaxial 3D Creep Model (1 year) 97
T4.2-3 Creep 3D Model, Version 3, The Final Model 98
T4.2-4 Roadway Section Shapes in the 3D Creep Model (red points: measuring 99
mark)
T4.2-5 Model Prediction and In-situ Measurements of the Roadway Closure in 303’s 100
Gateroads at Daw Mill Colliery
T4.3-1 (a) Burger-Creep viscoplastic model, 85% of the UCS Test, (b) Two 102
component power law model
T4.4-1 Geometry of the Section of the Tunnel with Slab invert and Curved Invert 103
T4.4-2 Floor Displacements (m) 104
T4.4-3 Maximum Compressions in Floor Concrete (MPa) 105
T4.4-4 Table of Maximum Tensile Stress in Floor Concrete (MPa) 105
T4.4-5 Distribution of the Principal Stresses 105
T4.5-1 T06’s Roadway Deformation for a 90 m Pillar with an Intensive Bolting 107
Pattern with Rib Dowels
T4.5.2 Numerical Model Output from Daw Mill Colliery Simulating Broken Bolts, 107
Floor Dinting and Sidewall Cheek Off (Rib Off). (Stages 1, 2 and 3 represent
increasing front abutment stresses, Stage 3 = 2 m in front of the face)
T4.5-3 Example Plots to Show the Comparison of Modelled and Measured Rib 108
Movement
T4.5-4 Modelled Floor Heave for the Different Floor Support Patterns with Increasing 109
Vertical Stress
T4.5.6 Stress Contour Plot for T125’s with Barnsley Pillar 110
T5.1-1 Example of Computational Model of Interaction Between the Base of BW- 111
16/34-POz Support and the Rock Mass using PFC3D Software
T5.1-2 Comparison of Maximum Displacements and the Force of a Rock Mass 111
Reaction for Given Width of the Base of a Powered Roof Support
T5.1-3 Comparison of Maximum Displacements and Rock Mass Reaction Force for 112
given Locations of Spherical Head Connection in the Base
T5.2-1 Horizontal Closure at the Study Site for Monitored Sections (a) Section GG- 114
25, (b) Section GG-26, and (c) Section GG-27
T5.2-2 Horizontal Closure in the Invert Plotted Against Time 114
T5.2-3 Wire Extensometer Results 115
T5.2-4 Horizontal Displacement 40 days after the Construction of the Invert 115
T5.2-5 (a) Yielded zones 40 days after construction of the invert, (b) Maximum 116
shear strains 40 days after construction of the invert
T5.2-6 Refuge Excavated in the Roadway Rib of Entry at Daw Mill Colliery 117
T5.2-7 Side Webbing Design at Kellingley Colliery 117
T5.2-8 (a) Dint and load bucket machine, (b) Phillips dinter loader 118
T5.2-9 Measured Floor Heave at Thoresby Colliery from a Gate Entry Subject to 119
Variable Vertical Stresses and Relationship of Measured Floor Heave to
Modelled Vertical Stresses

132
4 LIST OF TABLES

Table Table Title Page

number No.
T1.1-1 Description of the Recording System Components for the Powered Support 16
Monitoring System
T2.1-1 Variation of Strain/Time in the Shotcrete Between Test Types (A) and (B) 32
T2.3-1 Comparison of Mohr-Coulomb Properties from Direct Shear Testing of Intact, 38
Reconstructed and Particulate Samples of Coal Measure Clay
T2.3-2 Comparison of Results from Triaxial and Shear Box Tests on Broken Coal 39
T2.3-3 Comparison of UCS Values given by Intact sample Testing, Cone Indenter 39
and Point Load Test for a Coal Measure Mudstone
T2.3-4 Summary of the Parameters to Model Thoresby’s Mudstone with the Modified 41
Hoek-Brown Model
T2.4-1 Water Solution Information 42
T3.1-1 Arrangement of Load Application on the Support Canopy in Accordance with 52
the Standard PN-EN 1804-1+A1:2010
T3.1-2 Additional Canopy Loading Specification 52
T3.2-1 Test Schedule for the Instrumented Powered Roof Support BW 16/34 POz 55
T3.3-1 Maximum Shear Force of Tested Cuttable Bolts 76
T3.3-2 Shear Strength of Tested Cuttable Bolts 76
T3.3-3 Deformation of Tested Cuttable Bolts 77
T4.2-1 Input Properties of the Rocks Used in the Preliminary 3D Model 98
T4.2-2 Burger Creep Model Properties used in the 3D Model 98
T4.2-3 Input Properties of the Rocks used in the Final 3D Model 99
T4.4-1 Properties used in the Calculations 103
T4.4-2 ICE Classification 104

133
5 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Acronym or Meaning LSEPT Laboratory Short

Abbreviation Encapsulation Pull Test
2D Two-dimensions LWL Light Pipe
3D Three-dimensions m Meter
3DEC 3D Numerical _m Hoek’s coefficient
Modelling Code criteria
_a Hoek’s coefficient mg/l Milligram per Litre
criteria MHz Mega Hertz
A Ampere MINCOS Automation and
A/D Analogue/Digital Communication
ANSYS Engineering Simulation Control Underground
Software Device
AT Australian/Advanced MinSim Numerical Modelling of
Technology (rockbolt) the Stress and Strain
BICSR25C Portable Camera Distributions
BOTDR Brillouin Optical Time mm Millimetres
Domain Reflectometry Mpa Mega Pascal
NCB National Coal Board
BW-16/34-POz Power Roof Support NCG Nottingham Centre for
c’ Cohesion Intercept Geomechancis
Carbofill Phenolic Resin Foam NDT Non Destructive
CC Pressure Sensor Testing
CRT Cathode Ray Tube PC Personal Computer
DC Direct Current PC-29A Pressure Sensor
EDX Energy Dispersive X- PFC3D 3D Particle Flow Code
Ray Spectroscopy pH Power of Hydrogen
Ei Young Modulus of (Chemistry)
Intact Rock PR Distribution Frame
F Driving Force pr Operational Pressure
F Shape Factor Psi Pounds per Square
FBG Fibre Bragg Gratings Inch
FEM Finite Element Method PUR Polyurethane Injection
FFT Fast Fourier Resin
Transformation pw Supply Pressure
FFT Fast Fourier Rc Rock Mass Strength
Transformation Re Reduced Stress
FSV Free Steered Vehicle RF Radio Frequency
FT500 Fibre Glass Bolt RH Relative Humidity
g/ml Gram per Millilitre RMR Rock Mass Rating
Geofoam Urethane-Silicate Resin _s Hoek’s coefficient
GRP Glass Reinforcement criteria
Plastic SEM Scanning Electron
GSI Geological Strength Microscope
Index Sig_ci Uniaxial Compressive
H Overburden strength of intact rock
HCA Hollow Cylinder SOF Standard Optical Fibres
Apparatus SolidWorks 3D Mechanical
Hr Hour Computer-aided
ICE Index of Elastic Design Software
Behaviour SQL Server Management
INK Inclinometer Studio
IRB Company SR1 Flameproof
ISR Splitter Box Distribution Box
K0 Initial Stress State SWR Standing Wave
kN Kilo Newton Resonance
kPa Kilo Pascal TDR Time Domain
KT Continuously Threaded Reflectometry
(Rockbolt) TS Capacity Strain Gauges
LN Natural Logarithm UCS Uniaxial Compressive
Strength

135
V Volt
v Velocity
W Width
XRD X-Ray Spectrometry
μ Mobility
μm Micro millimetres
σc Uniaxial Compressive
Strength
σci Uniaxial compressive
Strength of Intact Rock
σt Tensile Strength
σxx, σyy,σzz Hydrostatic Ground
Stress Field
τmax Shear Stress
φ Friction Angle

136
6 LIST OF REFERENCES

Barczak T.M., Tadolini S.C. (2006): Longwall shield and standing gateroad support designs – is
bigger better? Proceedings of Longwall USA, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, June 5–7.

BS 7861-2:2009, Strata reinforcement support systems components used in coal mines – Part 2:
Specification for flexible systems for roof reinforcement, British Standards Institution, ISBN 978 0
580 68800 3, 48p.

BS 7861-2:1997, Strata reinforcement support systems components used in coal mines – Part 2:
Specification for birdcaged cablebolting, British Standards Institution, ISBN 0 580 27904 9, 18p.

Brown, E. T. and Hoek, E. (1978), Trends in relationship between measured in-situ stresses and
depth, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 15, (4), 211–215.

Davis, Dunn, (1974), “From Theory to Field experience with non destructive vibration testing of
piles” Proc. Inst. Civ. Engs., 57(2); pp571-593.

Dyląg Z., Jakubowicz A., Orłoś Z., (1996): Wytrzymałość materiałów. Tom I. Wydawnictwa
Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa

Goodman, R.E. (1980). Introduction to Rock Mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, 1980, U.S.A.

Hartman, W., Lecing, B., Higgs, J., Tongue, D., (2010), Non Destructive Integrity Testing of Rock
Reinforcement Elements in Australian Mine, In: 2010 Underground Coal Operators Conference, 11-
12 February 2010, The AusIMM Illawarra Branch, pp161-170.

Halvorsen, Brown 1977, “Impulse Technique for Structural Response Testing Sound and Vibration
Journal, November 1977.

Heim, A. (1912). Zur Frage der Gebirgs- und Gesteinsfestigkeit. Schweiz. Bauztg, v50.

Hoek, E. and Brown, E. T. (1980). Underground excavations in rock, Chapter 8, page 95 and Table
17 on page 269, The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London.

ISRM (1981), Rock characterisation, testing and monitoring ISRM Suggested Methods, Editor E. T.
Brown.

Lawrence K. (2012), ANSYS Workbench Tutorial Release.

Lombard, M., (2011), Solidworks 2011 Assemblies Bible, John Wiley & Sons.

NCB (1977), NCB Cone Indenter, MRDE Handbook No.5.

Peng S.S. (1990), Design of Active Horizontal Force for Shield Supports for Controlling Roof Falls,
The Mining Engineer, pp 457-462.

Rakowski G., Kacprzyk Z.: Metoda elementów skończonych w mechanice konstrukcji. Oficyna
wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, Warszawa 1996.

Rakowski G.: Metoda elementów skończonych. Wybrane problemy. Oficyna wydawnicza Politechniki
Warszawskiej, Warszawa 1996.
RFCS, 2010, RFCR-CT-2007-00001. Increased productivity and safety of European coalmines by
advanced techniques, knowledge and planning tools enabling strata control of the face roadway
junction, PROSAFECOAL.

Roscoe, K.H. (1970), The Influence of Strains in Soil Mechanics. Geotechnique, 20(2), 129-170.

Taylor, R. K. and Spears, D. A. (1981), Laboratory investigation of mudrocks Q. J. Eng. Geology

Vol. 14, pp 291 – 309.

Szuścik W., Kuczyński J.: Wytrzymałość materiałów (Mechanika modelu ciała odkształcalnego i
ciała rzeczywistego). Część 1. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Śląskiej, Gliwice 1998.

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Talobre, J. (1957), La Mechanique des Roches. Dunod, Paris.

Barczak T.M., Gearhart D.F., (1992), Canopy and Base Load Distribution on a Longwall Shield.
United States Department of the Interior, Report of Investigations 9418.

138
7 DISCLAIMER

It should be noted that before any of the instruments, software, data or recommendations within
this Report are considered for practical application, advice should be sought from specialists to
ensure site specific suitability.
All work carried out in preparing this report has used, and is based upon, the Beneficiaries’
professional knowledge and understanding of the relevant local and European Community
legislation current at the date of project completion. Changes in the legislation may cause the
opinion, advice, recommendations or conclusions set out in this report to become inappropriate or
incorrect. However, in giving its opinions, advice, recommendations and conclusions, the
Beneficiaries have considered pending changes to mining legislation and regulations of which it is
currently aware. Following delivery of this report, the Beneficiaries will have no obligation to advise
the Commission of any such changes, or of their repercussions.
In the Conclusions and Exploitation sections of this report and in the Abstract and Final Summary,
the Beneficiaries have set out their key findings and provided a summary and overview of their
advice, opinions and recommendations. However, other parts of this report will often indicate the
limitations of the information obtained by the Beneficiaries and therefore any advice, opinions or
recommendations set out in the Conclusions and Exploitation sections of this report and in the
Abstract and Final Summary ought not to be relied upon until considered in the context of the
whole report.

139
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 KI-NA-26930-EN-N
GEOSOFT researched soft coal mine floor and side behaviour to develop
enhanced design and construction solutions.

Longwall mining on soft floor rocks is difficult and requires safe efficient
techniques to extract coal at economically viable rates. The Geosoft studies
have led to guidelines from the design and the optimisation of powered
supports operating on soft rock floors. These guidelines have been achieved by
laboratory testing of an instrumented powered support on a purposely designed
hydraulic cushion to simulate soft floor behaviour; then monitoring in-situ
underground and results from validated numerical modelling.
Rockbolted coal mine roadways need to be designed and adequately supported
to allow safe and efficient longwall coal production. Numerical modelling is
a powerful tool for aiding design and improvements have been made in its
use and application. Improvements in mesh, polyurethane resin products and
placement techniques, and better rib anchoring systems have been achieved
to improve rib support. Floor heave is primarily managed by removal and more
pro-active management practices have optimised the dinting process and rib
stability.
Understanding of closed support design where strata deformation can subject
tunnel linings to long term loading has been improved. Laboratory testing of
shotcrete creep properties allowed appropriate constitutive models to be
developed for numerical models for more accurate simulation of this support
method. Different floor support designs were modelled indicating that curved
inverts provided the lower maintenance solutions resisting cracking better than
slab inverts.

Studies and reports

ISBN 978-92-79-44078-6
doi:10.2777/773537

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