1.

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF A POINT MASS

A point mass is a geometric (0-dimensional) point that may be assigned a finite mass. Since a point has
zero volume, the density of a point mass having a finite mass is infinite, so point masses do not exist in
reality. However, it is often a useful simplification in real problems to consider bodies point masses,
especially when the dimensions of the bodies are much less than the distances among them.
Let us consider a point mass, m, that is supported on a frictionless surface (Figure 1.1), defined in a three
dimensional space. Let us denote by P the mass position.
The considered point mass is subjected to a set of n1 external forces, Fj (with j = 1, 2, …, n1). These
forces can be both driving and resistance forces. They are expressed by means of 3-D vectors the resultant
of which is vector Fe (Figure 1.2). Let us assume that the z axis of the absolute Cartesian coordinate
system coincides with the vertical direction and that the point mass is subjected to the gravitation field.
Therefore, a further force, W = m g, where g is the gravitational acceleration vector (- 9.81 m/s2) is acting
on the point mass.
In order to study the dynamic behaviour of the mass m it is necessary to isolate it, that is it is necessary to
remove the supporting surface and show the corresponding reaction force, Rvz, normal to the surface at
point P.
Let us denote by v the point mass velocity and t the unity versor that indicates the direction of v
(Figure 1.3). Besides, let us denote by Fx-y the resultant of the vector forces Fex and Fey : this vector is
contained in the plane γ (Figure 1.3) The absolute acceleration a of the point mass can be null or not
null. In the latter case, the acceleration vector a can be decomposed into the two projections, an and at,
normal and tangent, respectively, to the supporting surface.
The linear momentum or translational momentum, Q, (SI unit [kg m/s], or equivalently, [N s]) is the
product of the mass and velocity of an object. Like velocity, linear momentum is a vector quantity,
possessing a direction as well as a magnitude.
Q= mv (1)
Linear momentum is also a conserved quantity, meaning that if a closed system is not affected by external
forces, its total linear momentum cannot change. In classical mechanics, conservation of linear
momentum is implied by Newton’s laws.

Figure 1.1 Point mass moving on a 3-D surface Figure 1.2 Resultant of the external forces
 Figure 1.3 Projections of the resultant Fe of the external forces, along with weight and reaction force Rvz

Newton’s first law

Newton’s first law states that if the net force (the vector sum of all forces acting on an object) is zero,
then the velocity of the object is constant. Velocity is a vector quantity which expresses both the object
speed and the direction of its motion. Therefore, the statement that the object velocity is constant is a
statement that both its speed and the direction of its motion are constant.
The first law can be stated mathematically as:
⎛ n1 ⎞ dv
⎜ ∑ Fe j ⎟ + W + R v = 0 ⇔ =0 (2)
⎝ j =1 ⎠ dt
That is:
⎛ n1 ⎞
F=0 with: F = ⎜ ∑ Fe j ⎟ + W + R v (3)
⎝ j =1 ⎠
Consequently:
• an object that is at rest will stay at rest unless an external force acts upon it;
• an object that is in motion will not change its velocity unless an external force acts upon it.
This is known as uniform motion. An object continues to do whatever it happens to be doing unless a
force is exerted upon it. If it is at rest, it continues in a state of rest (demonstrated when a tablecloth is
skillfully whipped from under dishes on a tabletop and the dishes remain in their initial state of rest). If an
object is moving, it continues to move without turning or changing its speed. This is evident in space
probes that continually move in outer space. Changes in motion must be imposed against the tendency of
an object to retain its state of motion. In the absence of net forces, a moving object tends to move along a
straight line path indefinitely.
Newton placed the first law of motion to establish frames of reference for which the other laws are
applicable. The first law of motion postulates the existence of at least one frame of reference called a
Newtonian or inertial reference frame, relative to which the motion of a particle not subjected to forces is
a straight line at a constant speed. Newton’s first law is often referred to as the law of inertia. Thus, a
condition necessary for the uniform motion of a particle relative to an inertial reference frame is that the
total net force acting on it is zero. In this sense, the first law can be restated as:
In every material universe, the motion of a particle in a preferential reference frame Φ is
determined by the action of forces whose total vanished for all times when and only when the
velocity of the particle is constant in Φ. That is, a particle initially at rest or in uniform
motion in the preferential frame Φ continues in that state unless compelled by forces to
change it
Newton’s laws are valid only in an inertial reference frame. Any reference frame that is in uniform
motion with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame, i.e. Galileian invariance or the principle
of Newtonian relativity.

Newton’s second law

The second law states that the net force on an object is equal to the rate of change (that is, the derivative)
of its linear momentum Q in an inertial reference frame:
d Q d (m v)
F= = (4)
dt dt
The second law can also be stated in terms of an object’s acceleration. Since Newton’s second law is only
valid for constant-mass systems, mass can be taken outside the differentiation operator by the constant
factor rule in differentiation. Thus:
d (m v)
F= = ma (5)
dt
where F is the net force applied, m is the mass of the body, and a is the body’s acceleration. Thus, the net
force applied to a body produces a proportional acceleration. In other words, if a body is accelerating,
then there is a force on it.
Consistent with the first law, the time derivative of the momentum is non-zero when the momentum
changes direction, even if there is no change in its magnitude; such is the case with uniform circular
motion. The relationship also implies the conservation of momentum: when the net force on the body is
zero, the momentum of the body is constant. Any net force is equal to the rate of change of the
momentum.
Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a change in momentum that is not the result of an
external force. A different equation is necessary for variable-mass systems.

D’Alembert’s principle and generalized forces

D’Alembert’s principle introduces the concept of virtual wok due to applied forces Fi and inertial forces,
acting on a three-dimensional accelerating system of n particles whose motion is consistent with its
constraints. Mathematically the virtual work, δW, done on a particle of mass mi through a virtual
displacement δri (consistent with the constraints) is:
n
δ W = ∑ ( Fi − m i ai ) δ ri = 0 (6)
i =1

where ai are the accelerations of the particles in the system and i = 1, 2,..., n simply labels the particles.
In terms of generalized coordinates:
m n
∂ ri
δ W = ∑∑ ( Fi − m i ai ) δ qj = 0 (7)
j =1 i =1 ∂q j
this expression suggests that the applied forces may be expressed as generalized forces, Qj. Dividing by
δqj gives the definition of a generalized force:
δW n
∂r
Qj = = ∑ Fi i (8)
δ q j i =1 ∂ q j
If the forces Fi are conservative, there is a scalar potential field V in which the gradient of V is the force:
n
∂ ri ∂V
Fi = − ∇ V ⇒ Q j = − ∑ ∇ V =− (9)
i =1 ∂q j ∂q j
Being ∇ the gradient operator of a scalar function f (x1, x2, …, xn), that is:
∂f ∂f
∇f = e1 + " + en (10)
∂ x1 ∂ xn
In the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, this is given by:
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = i+ j+ k (11)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Therefore, generalized forces can be reduced to a potential gradient in terms of generalized coordinates.
The previous result may be easier to see by recognizing that V is a function of the ri , which are in turn
functions of qj, and then applying the chain rule to the derivative of V with respect to qj.
With reference to the point mass whose equation of motion is expressed by the eq.(5), if we denote by Fin
the inertia force given by:
Fin = − m a (12)
where a is the absolute acceleration of the mass m, it is possible to write:
F + Fin = 0 (13)
That is:
F = − m a = − m ( an + at ) (14)

Figure 1.4 Normal and tangential components of the Figure 1.5 Forces acting on the isolated point mass
point mass absolute acceleration

2. DIRECT AND INVERSE PROBLEMS OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Most of the problems in dynamics of mechanical systems can be subdivided into two main classes: direct
problems and inverse problems of mechanical systems. In direct problems the kinematic parameters of the
system are known, or they can be evaluated by means of a common kinematic analysis, while the
unknown of the problem may be a driving force or a resistance force (all the other forces are assumed to
be known).
In inverse problems all the driving and resistance forces are known, as well as the distribution of the
velocity vectors of the system at the current time, while the unknown of the problem is the distribution of
the acceleration vectors.
Direct problems of mechanics need to solve a set of linear or non-linear equations of motion. This
analysis can be performed at a given time or it can be repeated at several different instants. Conversely,
inverse problems of mechanics need to integrate a set of differential equations of motion, in the time
domain. This allows one to obtain the distribution of velocity and acceleration vectors of the system at the
current time and at subsequent instants. In this case, the trend of the time-varying driving and resistance
forces must be known.
The integration of the differential equations of motion can be performed using different adequate
numerical algorithms the choice of which mainly depends on the characteristics of the mechanical system
and the harmonic content of the driving and resistance forces. A further important parameter that must be
set for the numerical integration is the time interval used for the iterative computations.
The solution of inverse problems of mechanical systems may be rather onerous and time-consuming.
Besides, it requires the use of computer programs. Therefore, only direct problems of mechanics are
shown in detail in the present course. However, a very simple example of the solution of an inverse
problem is shown below.

A point mass m is moving on a curvilinear profile, q, contained in a vertical plane (Figure 2.1). Therefore,
the curve q is the absolute trajectory of the point mass. The position of the point mass is given by the
curvilinear coordinate s of the point P, that is: P = P (s). The point O is the centre of curvature of q,
evaluated in P, while ρ in the corresponding curvature radius. The unity versors n and t indicate the
normal and tangential directions in P to the curvilinear profile. The angle α is formed by the vertical
direction and the direction normal to the profile, in P. Therefore we have:
P = P ( s) ρ = ρ ( s) n = n ( s) t = t ( s) α = α ( s) (15)
That is, all the above mentioned parameters depend on the curvilinear coordinate s.
The point mass m is subjected to a driving force F1 and a resistance force F2, acting in the plane of
Figure 2.2, as well as to the weight W = m g , where g is the gravity acceleration. The forces F1 and F2
depend on the curvilinear coordinate s: that is, F1 = F1 (s) and F2 = F2 (s). These function are assumed to
be known.

Figure 2.1 Point mass trajectory Figure 2.2 External forces acting on the point mass

Let us remove the profile q, in order to isolate the point mass m. The reaction force, normal to the profile
in P, is N (with N = N (s) ). The point mass is assumed to move with an absolute velocity expressed by the
vector v (Figure 2.2)
Owing to the relative velocity and friction between the point mass and profile q, a friction force T (with
T = T (s) ) is applied to the mass m in the tangential direction indicated by the versor t (Figure 2.3). It is
well known that the force T is given by: T = fr N. Where fr is the kinetic friction coefficient between the
point mass and profile q.
The absolute acceleration, a, of the point mass is unknown. Anyhow it can be expressed by the sum of the
its normal and tangential components, an and at, respectively. That is:
a = a n + at = a n n + a t t (16)
Eq.(16) can be rewritten as:
v2
dv v ( s)2 d v ( s)
a= n+ t or: a ( s) = n ( s) + t ( s) (17)
ρ dt ρ ( s) dt
 Figure 2.3 Reaction force, N, and friction force, T, Figure 2.4 Normal and tangential components of the
acting on the point mass inertia force acting on the point mass

The last right term, at, of eq.(17) is unknown while the normal centripetal component on the absolute
acceleration a is known. Let us assume that the right versus of vector at coincides with the versus of the
velocity vector v. The normal and tangential components of the inertia force Fi are those illustrated in
Figure 2.4. That is:
Fi = − m a = Fi n + Fit = − m a n n − m a t t (18)
All the forces applied to the point mass can be projected in the normal and tangential directions, as shown
in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 Reaction force, N, and friction force, T, acting on the point mass

Then, it is possible to write the equilibrium of the forces in these two directions:
⎧ v2
⎪ − F − F − W + N + m =0
⎪
1n 2n n
ρ
⎨ (19)
⎪ F −F −W − T − m dv = 0
⎪⎩ 1t 2t t
dt
The only unknown in the first of eqs.(19) is the reaction force N. This term is given by:
v2
N =−m + F1n + F2 n + m g cos (α ) (20)
ρ
The friction force T is given by:
 ⎛ v2 ⎞
T = fr N = fr ⎜ − m + F1n + F2 n + m g cos (α ) ⎟ (21)
⎝ ρ ⎠
Therefore, the scalar value of the tangential acceleration at can be obtained as:

at =
dv
dt
=
1
m
( F1 t − F2t − Wt − T ) (22)

That is:

dv 1 ⎡ ⎛ v2 ⎞⎤
at = = ⎢ F1 t − F2 t − m g sin (α ) − f r ⎜ − m + F1n + F2 n + m g cos (α ) ⎟ ⎥ (23)
dt m ⎣ ⎝ ρ ⎠⎦
Eq.(23) allows the tangential acceleration a t to be evaluated at a given time t i , at which the point mass
velocity is v i and the corresponding position is si . A prediction of the point mass velocity v i +1 and the
corresponding position is s i +1 , at the time t i +1 = t i + Δ t i , can be obtained applying numerical
integration techniques like, Runge-Kutta, Newmark, Newton-Raphson, etc. . Likely, the simplest
integration method is Euler’s algorithm. The accuracy of the results provided by this methods often
depends on the choice of the integration time-step Δ t .
As an example, the prediction of the point mass velocity at the time t i +1 can be obtained as:

v i +1 = v i + a t (i ) Δ t i (24)
While the prediction of the corresponding position of the point mass is given by:

s i +1 = s i +
1
2
( v i +1 + v i ) Δ t i (25)

Then, a new set of the parameters ρ (s), α (s), n (s), t (s), F1 (s) and F2 (s) can be evaluated for the new
curvilinear coordinate s i +1 . The velocity v i +1 , given by eq.(24), can be substituted in eqs.(19 - 23) in
order to obtain a prediction of the tangential acceleration a t ( i +1) . Then, this iterative procedure can be
used to evaluate the kinematic parameters of the point mass for any subsequent time t (as said above, the
forces F1 (s) and F2 (s) are assumed to be known at any time t ).
This is a very simple example of an inverse problem of mechanics, that is a problem in which the known
data are:
- the initial position of the system;
- the initial velocity vectors of the system;
- the trend of the external driving and resistance forces.
Conversely, the problem unknowns are:
- the system accelerations at the initial time;
- the trend of the system displacements, velocities and accelerations at subsequent instants.

This way, the motion of the system caused by a set of known external forces can be predicted.