TERM PAPER

OF
ELECTRICALS
Submitted by:
Submitte
d to:
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to express my gratitude
to our guide Mr. ******* who encouraged me with her
critical and constructive suggestions in the project
work.
I am also thankful to my FRIENDS for their
invaluable guidance in this project. They benefited
me with their experience and skills in the project.
I again thank all the people who helped me in
my project for their support and encouragement.

Student sign

2
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

TRANSISTORS

Assorted discrete transistors

In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to

amplify or switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of
a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled (output) power can be much larger than the
controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic
devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer and other electronic
systems. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in
integrated circuits.

3
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

HISTORY:

A replica of the first working transistor.

The first patent for the field-effect transistor principle was filed in Canada
by Austrian-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld on October 22,
1925, but Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about his devices.
In 1934 German physicist Dr. Oskar Heil patented another field-effect
transistor. There is no direct evidence that these devices were built, but later
work in the 1990s shows that one of Lilienfeld's designs worked as
described and gave substantial gain. Legal papers from the Bell Labs patent
show that William Shockley and Gerald Pearson had built operational
versions from Lilienfeld's patents, yet they never referenced this work in any
of their later research papers or historical articles. On 17 November 1947
John Bardeen and Walter Brattain observed that when electrical contacts
were applied to a crystal of germanium, the output power was larger than the
input. Shockley saw the potential in this and worked over the next few
months greatly expanding the knowledge of semiconductors and is
considered by many to be the 'father' of the transistor. The term was coined
by John R. Pierce.

4
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

IMPORTANCE:
The transistor is considered by many to be the greatest invention of the
twentieth century. It is the key active component in practically all modern
electronics. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass
produced using a highly automated process (fabrication) that achieves
astonishingly low per-transistor costs.

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually-

packaged (known as discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority of
transistors produced are in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC,
microchips or simply chips) along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and
other electronic components to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic
gate consists of about twenty transistors whereas an advanced
microprocessor, as of 2006, can use as many as 1.7 billion transistors
(MOSFETs). "About 60 million transistors were built this year [2002] ... for
[each] man, woman, and child on Earth."

The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it a ubiquitous
device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical
devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and
cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to
carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control
function.

Because of the low cost of transistors and hence digital computers, there is a
trend to digitize information, such as the Internet Archive. With digital
computers offering the ability to quickly find, sort and process digital
information, increasing effort has been put into making information digital.
As a result, media is often delivered in digital form before being converted
and presented in analog form to the user. Areas influenced by the digital
revolution include television, radio, and newspapers.

USAGE:

5
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

In the early days of transistor circuit design, the bipolar junction transistor,
or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor. Even after MOSFETs
became available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for digital and
analog circuits because of their ease of manufacture and speed. However,
desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in low-power devices,
have made them the ubiquitous choice for use in digital circuits and a very
common choice for use in analog circuits.

BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration

Amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter configuration

How a transistor works:

Simple circuit using a transistor.

A transistor may be used to switch or to amplify. The image to the right

represents a typical transistor in a circuit. Its three components are the base,
emitter and collector which correspond to regions of the mixed
semiconductors from which the transistor is made. Current may flow from

6
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

the emitter to the collector depending on the voltage applied to the base, but
only if this voltage exceeds a certain value: this is depicted in the graph
below at A and is referred to as Vbe.

Transistor as a switch:

Operation graph of a transistor.

It can be seen from the graph that once the base voltage reaches a certain
level, shown at B, no more current will flow and the output will be held at a
fixed voltage. The transistor is then said to be saturated. Hence, values of
input voltage can be chosen such that the output is either completely off, or
completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation
is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.

Transistor as an amplifier:
A varying base voltage, Vin, as long as it exceeds Vbe, controls current
through the transistor and thus influences the output voltage Vout. The slope
of the graph is such that small swings in Vin will produce large changes in
Vout.

This occurs because the base voltage controls how much of the power
supply voltage Vcc causes current through the transistor itself, and how much
of it causes current through a load driven by Vout. It is important that the
operating parameters of the transistor are chosen and the circuit designed
such that as far as possible the transistor operates within a linear portion of
the graph, such as that shown between A and B, otherwise the output signal
will suffer distortion.

7
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

Advantages:
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum
tube predecessors in most applications are:

• Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of

miniaturized electronic devices.
• Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit
cost.
• Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for
small, battery-powered applications.
• No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power
application.
• Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
• Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
• Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices produced more than
30 years ago are still in service.
• Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of
complementary-symmetry circuits, something not possible with
vacuum tubes.
• Though in most transistors the junctions have different doping levels
and geometry, some allow bidirectional current flow.
• Ability to control very large currents, as much as several hundred
amperes.
• Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the
problem of microphonics in audio applications.
• More sensitive than the hot and macroscopic tubes

Disadvantages:
• Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1 kV,
SiC go to 3 kV.
• The electron mobility is higher in a vacuum, so that high power, high
frequency operation is easier in tubes.
• Silicon transistors, compared to vacuum tubes, are highly sensitive to
electromagnetic pulses.

8
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

Types:

PNP P-channel

NPN N-channel

BJT JFET
BJT and JFET symbols

P-channel

N-channel

JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET dep

JFET and IGFET symbols

Transistors are categorized by:

• Semiconductor material : germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide,

silicon carbide, etc.
• Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, "other types"
• Polarity: NPN, PNP (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs)
• Maximum power rating: low, medium, high

9
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

• Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio frequency

(RF), microwave (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is
denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition".
The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor
yields unity gain).
• Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta,
matched pair
• Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface
mount, ball grid array, power modules
• Amplification factor hfe (transistor beta)[10]

Thus, a particular transistor may be described as: silicon, surface mount,

BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch.

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
A transistor may be connected in any one of three basic configurations (fig.
2-16): common emitter (CE), common base (CB), and common collector
(CC). The term common is used to denote the element that is common to
both input and output circuits. Because the common element is often
grounded, these configurations are frequently referred to as grounded
emitter, grounded base, and grounded collector.

Figure 2-16. - Transistor configurations.

10
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

Each configuration, as you will see later, has particular characteristics that
make it suitable for specific applications. An easy way to identify a specific
transistor configuration is to follow three simple steps:

• Identify the element (emitter, base, or collector) to which the input

signal is applied.
• Identify the element (emitter, base, or collector) from which the
output signal is taken.
• The remaining element is the common element, and gives the
configuration its name.

Therefore, by applying these three simple steps to the circuit in figure 2-12,
we can conclude that this circuit is more than just a basic transistor
amplifier. It is a common-emitter amplifier.

11
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

Common Emitter:
The common-emitter configuration (CE) shown in figure 2-16 view A is the
arrangement most frequently used in practical amplifier circuits, since it
provides good voltage, current, and power gain. The common emitter also
has a somewhat low input resistance (500 ohms-1500 ohms), because the
input is applied to the forward-biased junction, and a moderately high output
resistance (30 kilohms-50 kilohms or more), because the output is taken off
the reverse-biased junction. Since the input signal is applied to the base-
emitter circuit and the output is taken from the collector-emitter circuit, the
emitter is the element common to both input and output.

Since you have already covered what you now know to be a common-
emitter amplifier (fig. 2-12), let's take a few minutes and review its
operation, using the PNP common-emitter configuration shown in figure 2-
16 view A.

When a transistor is connected in a common-emitter configuration, the input

signal is injected between the base and emitter, which is a low resistance,
low-current circuit. As the input signal swings positive, it also causes the
base to swing positive with respect to the emitter. This action decreases
forward bias which reduces collector current (IC) and increases collector
voltage (making VC more negative). During the negative alternation of the
input signal, the base is driven more negative with respect to the emitter.
This increases forward bias and allows more current carriers to be released
from the emitter, which results in an increase in collector current and a
decrease in collector voltage (making VC less negative or swing in a positive
direction). The collector current that flows through the high resistance
reverse-biased junction also flows through a high resistance load (not
shown), resulting in a high level of amplification.

Since the input signal to the common emitter goes positive when the output
goes negative, the two signals (input and output) are 180 degrees out of
phase. The common-emitter circuit is the only configuration that provides a
phase reversal.

The common-emitter is the most popular of the three transistor

configurations because it has the best combination of current and voltage
gain. The term GAIN is used to describe the amplification capabilities of the
amplifier. It is basically a ratio of output versus input. Each transistor

12
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

configuration gives a different value of gain even though the same transistor
is used. The transistor configuration used is a matter of design consideration.
However, as a technician you will become interested in this output versus
input ratio (gain) to determine whether or not the transistor is working
properly in the circuit.

The current gain in the common-emitter circuit is called BETA ( ). Beta is
the relationship of collector current (output current) to base current (input
current). To calculate beta, use the following formula:

(  is the Greek letter delta, it is used to indicate a small change)

For example, if the input current (IB) in a common emitter changes from 75
A to 100 A and the output current (IC) changes from 1.5 mA to 2.6 mA,
the current gain () will be 44.

This simply means that a change in base current produces a change in

collector current which is 44 times as large.

You may also see the term hfe used in place of . The terms hfe and  are
equivalent and may be used interchangeably. This is because "hfe" means: h
= hybrid (meaning mixture)

F = forward current transfer ratio

e = common emitter configuration

The resistance gain of the common emitter can be found in a method similar
to the one used for finding beta:

Once the resistance gain is known, the voltage gain is easy to calculate since
it is equal to the current gain () multiplied by the resistance gain (E =

13
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

R). And, the power gain is equal to the voltage gain multiplied by the
current gain  (P = E).

Common Base:
The common-base configuration (CB) shown in figure 2-16, view B is
mainly used for impedance matching, since it has a low input resistance (30
ohms-160 ohms) and a high output resistance (250 kilohms-550 kilohms).
However, two factors limit its usefulness in some circuit applications: (1) its
low input resistance and (2) its current gain of less than 1. Since the CB
configuration will give voltage amplification, there are some additional
applications, which require both a low-input resistance and voltage
amplification, that could use a circuit configuration of this type; for example,
some microphone amplifiers.

In the common-base configuration, the input signal is applied to the emitter,

the output is taken from the collector, and the base is the element common to
both input and output. Since the input is applied to the emitter, it causes the
emitter-base junction to react in the same manner as it did in the common-
emitter circuit. For example, an input that aids the bias will increase
transistor current, and one that opposes the bias will decrease transistor
current.

Unlike the common-emitter circuit, the input and output signals in the
common-base circuit are in phase. To illustrate this point, assume the input
to the PNP version of the common-base circuit in figure 2-16 view B is
positive. The signal adds to the forward bias, since it is applied to the
emitter, causing the collector current to increase. This increase in Ic results
in a greater voltage drop across the load resistor RL (not shown), thus
lowering the collector voltage VC. The collector voltage, in becoming less
negative, is swinging in a positive direction, and is therefore in phase with
the incoming positive signal. The current gain in the common-base circuit is
calculated in a method similar to that of the common emitter except that the
input current is I E not IB and the term ALPHA ( ) is used in place of beta
for gain. Alpha is the relationship of collector current (output current) to
emitter current (input current). Alpha is calculated using the formula:

14
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

For example, if the input current (IE) in a common base changes from 1 mA
to 3 mA and the output current (IC) changes from 1 mA to 2.8 mA, the
current gain () will be 0.90 or:

This is a current gain of less than 1. Since part of the emitter current flows
into the base and does not appear as collector current, collector current will
always be less than the emitter current that causes it. (Remember, IE = IB +
IC) Therefore, ALPHA is ALWAYS LESS THAN ONE FOR A COMMON-
BASE CONFIGURATION.

Another term for "" is hfb. These terms (and hfb) are equivalent and may be
used interchangeably. The meaning for the term hfb is derived in the same
manner as the term hfe mentioned earlier, except that the last letter "e" has
been replaced with "b" to stand for common- base configuration.

Many transistor manuals and data sheets only list transistor current gain
characteristics in terms of  or hfe. To find alpha () when given beta (),
use the following formula to convert  to  for use with the common-base
configuration:

To calculate the other gains (voltage and power) in the common-base

configuration when the current gain () is known, follow the procedures
described earlier under the common-emitter section.

Common Collector:
The common-collector configuration (CC) shown in figure 2-16 view C is
used mostly for impedance matching. It is also used as a current driver,
because of its substantial current gain. It is particularly useful in switching
circuitry, since it has the ability to pass signals in either direction (bilateral
operation).

15
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

In the common-collector circuit, the input signal is applied to the base, the
output is taken from the emitter, and the collector is the element common to
both input and output. The common collector is equivalent to our old friend
the electron-tube cathode follower. Both have high input and low output
resistance. The input resistance for the common collector ranges from 2
kilohms to 500 kilohms, and the output resistance varies from 50 ohms to
1500 ohms. The current gain is higher than that in the common emitter, but
it has a lower power gain than either the common base or common emitter.
Like the common base, the output signal from the common collector is in
phase with the input signal. The common collector is also referred to as an
emitter-follower because the output developed on the emitter follows the
input signal applied to the base.

Transistor action in the common collector is similar to the operation

explained for the common base, except that the current gain is not based on
the emitter-to-collector current ratio, alpha (). Instead, it is based on the
emitter-to-base current ratio called GAMMA ( ), because the output is
taken off the emitter. Since a small change in base current controls a large
change in emitter current, it is still possible to obtain high current gain in the
common collector. However, since the emitter current gain is offset by the
low output resistance, the voltage gain is always less than 1 (unity), exactly
as in the electron-tube cathode follower. The common-collector current gain,
gamma (), is defined as

and is related to collector-to-base current gain, beta (), of the common-

emitter circuit by the formula:

Since a given transistor may be connected in any of three basic

configurations, there is a definite relationship, as pointed out earlier,
between alpha (), beta (), and gamma (). These relationships are
listed again for your convenience:

16
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

Take, for example, a transistor that is listed on a manufacturer's data sheet as

having an alpha of 0.90. We wish to use it in a common emitter
configuration. This means we must find beta. The calculations are:

Therefore, a change in base current in this transistor will produce a change

in collector current that will be 9 times as large. If we wish to use this same
transistor in a common collector, we can find gamma () by:

To summarize the properties of the three transistor configurations, a

comparison chart is provided in table 2-1 for your convenience.

Table 2-1. - Transistor Configuration Comparison Chart

COMMON COMMON COMMON

AMPLIFIER TYPE
BASE EMITTER COLLECTOR
INPUT/OUTPUT PHASE
0° 180° 0°
RELATIONSHIP
VOLTAGE GAIN HIGH MEDIUM LOW
CURRENT GAIN LOW() MEDIUM() HIGH()
POWER GAIN LOW HIGH MEDIUM
INPUT RESISTANCE LOW MEDIUM HIGH
OUTPUT RESISTANCE HIGH MEDIUM LOW

Now that we have analyzed the basic transistor amplifier in terms of bias,
class of operation, and circuit configuration, let's apply what has been
covered to figure 2-12. A reproduction of figure 2-12 is shown below for
your convenience.

17
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

This illustration is not just the basic transistor amplifier shown earlier in
figure 2-12 but a class A amplifier configured as a common emitter using
fixed bias. From this, you should be able to conclude the following:

• Because of its fixed bias, the amplifier is thermally unstable.

• Because of its class A operation, the amplifier has low efficiency but
good fidelity.
• Because it is configured as a common emitter, the amplifier has good
voltage, current, and power gain.

2-28 and is related to collector-to-base current gain, beta (), of the

common-emitter circuit by the formula: Since a given transistor may be
connected in any of three basic configurations, there is a definite

18
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

relationship, as pointed out earlier, between alpha (), beta (), and
gamma (). These relationships are listed again for your convenience:
Take, for example, a transistor that is listed on a manufacturer's data sheet as
having an alpha of 0.90. We wish to use it in a common emitter
configuration. This means we must find beta. The calculations are:
Therefore, a change in base current in this transistor will produce a change
in collector current that will be 9 times as large Bipolar transistor consists of
two PN junctions, with two types: NPN and

P-N-P:
NPN Transistor has central p-type region sandwiched between two regions
of n-type material. In order to achieve thermal equilibrium a few electrons
go from the n-type silicon to the p-type silicon. This makes the p-region
slightly negatively charge and raises its valence and conduction bands; the
n-type regions become lightly lower in energy. At equilibrium, the chemical
potential is constant, and the energies of the valence and conduction bands
changes as a function of position. Just as in the diode, the system can be
understood in terms of a dynamic equilibrium in which electrons diffuse
from the n-regions into the p-regions due to the concentration gradient, and
this diffusion is exactly balanced by the drift that arises from the fact that
there is an electric field pushing electrons from the p-region back toward the
n-type region. At equilibrium these drift and diffusion processes exactly
balance. In use, the transistor is connected to two different voltage sources.
The voltage supplies are connected so that one PN junction is forward-
biased, and the other is reverse-biased, as shown below. Here, the junction
on the right is forward-biased and the junction on the left is reverse-biased.
The Fermi levels are no longer equal in the three regions, since we are no
longer at equilibrium. At the junction that is forward-biased, there is a flow
of electrons from the n-region into the central p-region, just as in a regular
forward-biased diode. The unique feature of a transistor is that the central
region is very thin. So, once the electron gets from the nregion at right into
the p-region, it has a significant probability of diffusing around until the it
sees the very strong electric field that exists between the p-region and the n-
region at left. So, by making the central region very thin, we get a net flow
of electrons from the “emitter” , through the “base” and into the “collector”.

19
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

N-P-N:
The figures above show the flow of electrons. Most of the electron flow is
from the emitter to the collector, while because the base is very thin only a
small fraction of the electrons leave via the base connection. So, the base
current is much smaller than the emitter or collector current.

The ratio of currents leads to one of the most important parameters of a

transistor, which is its “current gain”, often referred to as its “Beta”.
B
C
I
β≡I
Typical transistors have betas between 10 and 100. Since the flow of
currents is usually defined as the flow of positive charge, the NPN transistor
is more conventionally drawn as:
where the positive current flows into the base, and most of the current flows
from collector from emitter. Since charge must be conserved, it is always
true that:
BCEI+I=I
The tricky part about using transistors is that because the base-emitter
junction must be forward biased by ~ 0.6 V in order for the transistor to
function properly, the voltages at the emitter and collector must be adjusted
via resistive voltage dividers in order to keep the base at approximately the

20
TERM PAPER OF ELECTRICALS

correct voltage for the transistor to function properly. In many circuits, the
most positive supply is simply called Vcc and the most negative power
supply is called VEE. These terms come from the standard biasing
configuration of the bipolar NPN transistor. Do not confuse the power
supply Vcc with the voltage at the collector, Vc. For some circuits they may
be the same, but if there is a resistor between the collector and the power
supply they will be different !! Getting the biasing conditions correct is quite
tricky. The resistors lower the input impedance as well. We will not go into
biasing conditions for transistor amplifiers, but you should understand
something about the most common amplifier configurations.

21