APPLIED MECHANICS – GEC 214

Ajayi, O.O. MNSE, B. Sc (Ife), M.Eng (Nsukka), PhD (in View).

Mechanical Engineering Department
Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
Office No. P 51
Ext. 3379

I. PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS

I.1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT

Mechanics can be defined as the branch of physical science which studies the behaviour of a
body at rest or in motion under the action of forces.

It is basic to Engineering Sciences because of its use in the analysis and design of engineering
components and systems. A thorough knowledge of mechanics is a foundation tool for the
understanding of the physical phenomenon of engineering.

I.2 BRANCHES OF MECHANICS

Mechanics is a branch of physical sciences which is divided into three parts, namely: (i) Fluid
Mechanics; (ii) Mechanics of Deformable Bodies and (iii) Solid Mechanics.
Fluid Mechanics: This is the part of mechanics which deals with the behaviour of liquids and
gases under the action of balanced and unbalanced forces. It could be statics or dynamics.
A sub division of fluid mechanics include: Compressible fluid mechanics and incompressible
fluid mechanics.
Mechanics of Deformable bodies: This is the part of mechanics commonly referred to as
‘STRENGTH OF MATERIALS’. It studies the reaction of bodies to external forces i.e. it looks
into the resulting stress and/or deformation that arise as a result of application of external loads
(or forces). It is intermediate between fluid mechanics and solid mechanics.
Solid Mechanics: In this part of mechanics, the bodies are assumed to be rigid solids. Although,
in practical phenomenon, they are not actually absolute solids; they deform under the
compressible or tensile loads (or forces) to which they are subjected. These deformations are
however very small and do not cause problems to the conditions of equilibrium of such bodies.
A solid (or rigid) body can therefore be defined as that in which the distance between any two
points in the body remains ‘appreciably’ unchanged.
Sub division of solid mechanics
This include: (i) Statics and (ii) Dynamics.
Statics is the study of the behaviour of bodies at rest under the action of balanced forces; while
dynamics is the study of the bahaviours of bodies in motion under the action of unbalanced
forces. The emphasis in this course shall be on solid mechanics.

BASIC CONCEPTS
The basic concepts of mechanics are the concepts of time space mass and force.
Concept of time: This answers the question ‘when’. It gives the precise definition of when an
event takes place or will take place.
Concept of space: This answers the question ‘where. It gives the definition of the position. This
definition arises from the frame of reference that all point are defined from an imaginary origin
measured out in three direction called xyz axes.
Concept of mass: This answers the question ‘how much’ It gives the measure of quantity of a
body involved.e.g. 2kg of a body is placed on a tower.
Concept of force: This answers the question ‘what is the cause’ It defines what causes an action
to take place.

2.0 FORCE
Force is generally defined as ‘any effect or action’ that may cause a change in the state of rest or
motion of a body. It could be direct or indirect (i.e. at a distance).
2.1 KINDS OF FORCES
1. Contact Forces: These are forces which are in direct contact with a body on which they
act e.g. force of push or pull and friction.

2
 2. Force Fields: these are forces that act on a body from a distance. It can be gravitational,
electrical or magnetic in nature. These forces have a space of action around them where
any body brought into such space feels the effect of the force creating the field.

2.2 PROPERTIES OF FORCES

For adequate description of a force, it must have three basic properties: (i) Magnitude: This is the
size of the force represented by a number with a unit e.g. 10N, 50N.
(ii) Direction: This is the line of action to which the force is acting (or the effect of the force can
be felt) e.g. 10N North 45o South. Diagrammatically it is shown by a line with an arrow head
pointing in the line of action.
(iii) Point of Action: This is the point on a body on which the force is acting.

X 10N

A force of 10N, acting on a body at point X in the direction of the east.

2.3 TYPES OF FORCES

(1) Distributed Force: This is a force whose effect on a body is spread over many areas of the
body e.g. the weight of a beam.
(2) Concentrated Force: This is a force whose effect on a body is felt on very small area
compared to the entire surface area of the body.
Other types of forces include external force and internal force.

2.4 FORCE CONFIGURATION

Forces whose lines of action lie on the same plane are called coplanar forces. Spatial or space
forces have their lines of action lying in three dimensional space. Concurrent forces have their
lines of action passing through a common point, while for non concurrent forces, the lines of
action pass through different points. The following configurations are obtainable: (i) concurrent
coplanar
(ii) Non concurrent coplanar and (iii) Spatial; concurrent and non concurrent.

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2.5 LAWS OF SOLID MECHANICS
Owing to the contribution of Sir Isaac Newton to science, Newtonian mechanics still remains the
basis of engineering sciences. This gives rise to what is called NEWTON’S LAWS.
These laws govern the behaviours of bodies under the action of forces.
(1) ‘Newton’s’ First Law: States that a particle will remain at rest (if originally at rest) or
continues to move (if originally in motion) in a straight line with uniform velocity if no
force is acting on it..
N.B: The concept of ‘NO’ force can actually mean the resultant force is zero.

(2) ‘Newton’s’ Second Law: States that if the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero;
the rate of change of velocity with time is directly proportionally to the resultant force,
and takes place in the direction of the force.
Mathematically;
v
Fα where F = force, V = velocity and t = time
t

v
But = a where a = acceleration.
t

Thus; Fα a
Applying the principles of proportionality and dimensionality;
F = ma where m = constant of proportionality called mass.
Hence, m = mass of the particle.

(3) ‘Newton’s’ Third Law: States that the force acting on a body produces a reaction which
is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

4
 (4) ‘Newton’s Law of Gravitation: States that two bodies of masses M and m attract each
other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distance apart.
Mathematically;
Mm
Fα where F = force of attraction btw bodies, M and m are masses
r2

of the bodies and r2 is the square of their distance apart.

Mm
F= G = constant of proportionality called Universal constant or gravitation
r2
constant.

(5) The parallelogram law for addition of forces: states that if two forces acting on a body
can be represented by the two sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant can be
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram in magnitude and direction.
Diagrammatically;

(6) Principle of Transmissibility: States that if the point of action of a force is shifted from
one point to the other on the same line of action, it will produce no different effect
provided the magnitude and direction are retained.

3.0 RESULTANT OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

The Resultant of forces simply implies a single force that gives the same effect in magnitude and
direction, as the effect of two or more forces acting together simultaneously on an element.
Another name for resultant of a force system is ‘ EQUIVALENT FORCE’: the equivalent force
is the vector sum of the individual forces.

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3.1 RESULTANT OF CONCURRENT FORCES.
PRINCIPLES
The resultant of concurrent coplanar forces can carried out using any of (i) Parallelogram Law of
Forces described earlier, (ii) Triangle Law of Forces and (iii) Polygon Rule.
Triangle Law of Forces
This law sates that ‘if two forces acting on a body can be represented by the sides of a
triangle; then the third side drawn into size can represent the resultant in magnitude and
direction.’
For example , consider the figure below acted upon by two forces X and Y.

X
Y

If forces X and Y can be represented by the sides of a rectangle in magnitude and direction, the
third side will represent the resultant (sum of X and Y) in magnitude and direction. Hence,

Y Triangle law of forces like

the parallelogram law of
forces is used to find the
resultant of two coplanar
R forces
X+Y
X

Polygon Law of forces

This law states that ‘if three or more forces can be used to represent (in magnitude and
direction) the sides of a regular polygon; then the line which is drawn to complete the
polygon represents the resultant in magnitude and direction.’
For example: consider the body below, acted upon by the system of coplanar forces

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 X
Y X

M Z

If the forces X, Y, Z and M can be used to represent the sides of a polygon, then the line which
is drawn to close up the polygon will represent the resultant (sum of X, Y, Z, and M).
From the solution of the figure above, it is clear that, in application, polygon of forces is obtained
by drawing the forces (tip to base) starting from a particular force and maintaining the respective
orientation of the forces. The last side that would close the polygon is the resultant R.

METHODS OF SOLUTION
1. Graphical method of solution: This method makes use of the three laws explained above.
It is carried out by graphically drawing the forces in magnitude and direction using a
properly chosen line scale. The direction of each force is measured using a protractor.
The closing side of the figure represents the resultant.
2. The trigonometric method: This method makes use of the sine and cosine together with
the three laws explained above. This method gives a more accurate solution.
3. Rectangular component method: This is carried out by resolving the forces into their
rectangular components. i.e into their x and y components. The resultant is the
summation of the x and y components. For example, determine the resultant of the two
force system below:

7
 F1

30o

10o

F2

The resultant R = ΣRx + ΣRy Where ΣRx = ( f x )1 + ( f x )2

And ΣR y = ( f y ) + ( f y )
1 2

Then, the magnitude of R is found by :

R = Rx2 + Ry2

⎛R ⎞
And the direction is found by: tan −1 ⎜ y ⎟
⎝ Rx ⎠
Note: all angles are measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis.

4.0 MOMENT AND COUPLE

Moments of a force: The moment of a force about a point is defined as the product of the force
and the perpendicular distance measured from the point along the line of action to the force.
Three things are considered in taking moment about a point. Consider the diagram below: O is
the fixed point of reference. d is the perpendicular distance from O to F which is the force acting.

The moment of F about O is Mo = F x d

Conventional sign of moment: Clockwise moment is taken to be negative and anticlockwise
moment is taken to be positive.

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For systems in equilibrium; Sum of clockwise moment must be equal to sum of anticlockwise
moment about a particular point of reference.

Method of determining the moment of a force

Depending on the nature of application of a force; there are three methods that can be used to
determine the moments of a force (1) by direct method: Using the definition that moment is force
multiplied by perpendicular distance.
(2)By Varignon’s Theorem: This theorem states that the moment of a force about any point is
equal to the sum of the moments produced by the rectangular components of the force.
For this theorem to be applied adequately; the forces concerned will first have to be resolved to
their rectangular components after which each moment due to individual component is
determined and then summed in accordance with the sign convention of moment.
(3) By the Principle of Transmissibility: This principle is applied by moving a force from its
point of application to any convenient point ( for ease of calculation) along its line of action.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Determine the moment of force F about O

F = 24N

20o

0.7m
y

O x
2m

6m

Solution
(a) By direct method: Locate a perpendicular distance from F to O.

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Project F backwards to P where a line from O meets F at 90o

F = 24N

20o

0.7m
y
Q
O x
20o 2m
d
P

OP
Then, d = 4sin20o (since sin 20o = )
OQ
d = 1.4m
Therefore, moment Mo = F x d = 24 x 1.4 = 33Nm
(b) By Varigno’s Theorem: Resolve F into rectangular components.
Fx = Fcos20o = 24cos20o = 22.6N
Fy = Fsin20o = 24sin20o = 8.2N
Thus, Moment Mo = - ( Fx x 0.7 ) + ( Fy x 6 ) NB: clockwise Moment is –ve.
Mo = -22.6 x 0.7 + 8.2 x 6 = 33Nm
Hence, Moment is 33Nm anticlockwise.

( c) By Principle of Transmissibility: Take the force to Q, a convenient point along the line of
action of b F
Moment Mo = F x d = Fy x 4 = 33Nm

Fy 0.7m
y
Q Fx
O x
2m

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Couple: This is defined as two equal and opposite parallel forces acting on a body. Consider the
diagram below. F1 must be equal to F2.

F1

a a
x y
d

F2

Moment of a couple: This is defined as the product of one of the force and the perpendicular
distance between the forces. i.e. Moment of couple = F1 x (a + b)

Addition of couples: Two or more couples acting in a plane or parallel planes can be added
algebraically by taking into cognizance the sign convention of moment.
Equivalent couples: Two couples acting on the plane or parallel planes are said to be equivalent
if they have the same moment acting in the same direction.

4.1 Replacing a force with a force – couple system.

a a
x y
d

F
Fig. 2
Consider the diagram above. If it is required to move the force F away from X to a point Y at a
perpendicular distance d away; without altering its mechanical effect. Then, two equal and
opposite forces ( both equal to F) will be placed at Y. Making the point Y have a force and a
couple formed by the opposing force F and the original force F at X. See diagram below (fig. 3&
4).

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 F

a a
x y
d

F F

The two Fs at Y counsels each other out and thus, maintains the mechanical effect of F at x. F at
X forms a couple with F at Y. The moment of the couple is F x d.

a a
x y
d
My

By this F has been transferred from x to y without any alteration of its mechanical effect.
WORKED EXAMPLE
Consider the couple system below. (1) Determine the resultant moment of the two couples and
(2) Replace the couples by 2 forces applied at point x and y. determine the magnitude of the
forces.

12
 5KN
10KN

30o

4m
30o
10KN
5KN

Solution
To determine the resultant; resolve the 5KN to its component forces
Fy = 5sin30o = 2.5kN
Fx = 5cos30o = 4.3kN
The couple system becomes

10KN
2.5KN
4.3KN

4m
4.3KN
10KN

2.5KN

Resultant Moment = summation of individual moments of forces:

∑M = + (10 x 4) + (-4.3 x 4) + (-2.5 x 4)
= 40 – 10 – 17.2 = - 12.8kNm.
Moment is 12.8kNm clockwise.

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(2)

A x

d 4m
F F

y 4m c

To cal. line /xy/.

[ xy ] = [ xc ] + [ yc ]
2 2
= 42 + 42 = 5.7m

But moment = 12.8kNm

F.d = 12.8
F = 12.8 / 5.7 = 2.2kN

5.0 RESULTANT OF NON- CONCURRENT COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

As was defined earlier for non-concurrent coplanar forces; there’s not the same point of action
for non- concurrent coplanar forces. Therefore, the location of the line of action of the resultant
force is not immediately known.
Estimating the resultant and its line of action
Resultant: To find the resultant, its magnitude and direction, can be calculated using the
rectangular component method introduced earlier. This gives rise to the Rx and Ry components
of the resultant and then, its magnitude and resultant and direction can be estimated from:

R = Rx2 + Ry2 and the direction α = tan-1( Ry / Rx) ( in its proper sense).

Line of Action of the Resultant: To find the line of action which can also be called the location of
the resultant; the principle of moment is employed.

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This is done by equating the sum of individual moments of the forces to the moment of the
resultant i.e. ∑M = R. x where ∑ M = sum of moments and x =
distance of resultant From point of reference.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Consider the system of non- concurrent coplanar forces below.

F1
F3
F4

∅3 ∅4

F5

F2

To Estimate The Resultant

Resolve the forces to their rectangular components.
F1 = 0 + ( - F1y) ; F2 = 0 + F2y ; F3 = (F3cos∅3)x + (F3sin∅3)y ;
F = ( F4cos∅4)x + ( - F4 sin∅4)y ; F5 = 0 - F5y
The Resultant R is given by: R = Rx + Ry .
Rx = F1x + F2x + F3x + F4x + F5x
Ö Rx = 0 + 0 + F3Cos ∅3 + F4Cos∅4 + 0
And:
Ry = F1y + F2y + F3y + F4y + F5y
Ö Ry = -F1 + F2 + F3Sin∅3 + F4Sin∅4 - F5

Hence, knowing the values of F1,F2,F3,F4 and F5 can lead to the final determination of Rx and
Ry and thus, R in magnitude and direction.
To estimate the location or line of Action of Resultant.
- Find the individual moment of the forces about a reference point
- Sum up all the values of moment found above

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 - Equate this sum to the moment |R|.x
- Compute x from the values of the moment and magnitude |R|.
Thus;
From diagram above; taking moment about point A.
M1 = F1X1; M2 = F2X2; M3 = F3X3; M4 = F4X4; M5 = F5X5
∑MA = M1 + M2 + M3 + M4 + M5
Then;
|Ry|.x = |∑MA| Use the positive value of ∑MA
Hence, x = |∑MA|
|Ry|

And |Rx|. y = |∑MA|

.’. y = |∑MA|
|Rx|

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Replace the forces acting on the beam in diagram below with a single resultant force
and determine its point of application along the beam.

7N 20N 80N 100N

3m 1m 2m 2m
A B

Solution
The question is all about finding the resultant and location of resultant
(a) To find the resultant, resolve the forces to its rectangular components
Rx = 0 i.e. no force in the horizontal direction
Ry = -7 - 20 - 80 + 100 = -7N

R = p(02 +72) = 7N

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 R = 7N in the downward vertical
(b) To find the location of Resultant:
Take moment about A
∑MA = 0 + (-20) x 3 + (-30 x 4) + 100 x 6
= 0 - 60 - 320 + 600 = 220 Nm
.’. ∑MA = 220Nm counterclockwise
-To find location for Rx – direction:
|Rx|.y = 220 No location since Rx is zero.
-To find location for Ry
|Ry|.x = 220
x = 220 = 31.3m
7
Hence, R (in downward vertical direction) is 31.3m on the left side of A

2. Determine the magnitude of the vertical force F if the resultant of the three forces acting on
the object passes through the bearing O.

Fcos30

12N
70m
60o 17N 30m
30o O

80m

Solution
Taking moment about point O.
Clockwise Moment = Anticlockwise Moment
(FCos 300) x 70 = (17 x 80) + (12 x 110)

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Ö 60.6F = 1360 +1320 = 2680
.’. F = 2680 / 60.6 = 44.2N

3. Determine the resultant of the forces on the truss and its location along AB.

8N 35N 10N

10m

3m 2m 37o 2m 4m

7N

For the Resultant:

Rx = 7Sin370 = 4.2N
Ry = -8 - 35 - 10 -7Cos370 = -58.8 N

.’. R = p(4.2)2 + (-58.6)2 = 58.8 N

R = 58.8 N α = 2740
For the location:
Take moment about A
∑MA = (-8 x 3) + (-35 x 5) + ((-7Cos 370) x 5) + (-10 x 7)
= -24 - 175 – 28.0 - 70 = -297 Nm
.’. ∑MA = 297 Nm clockwise
Ry.x = 297
x = 297 = 5.1m
58.6

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 And Ry is 5.1m to the right of A

6.0 RESULTANT OF DISTRIBUTED LINE LOADS

A distributed load is one whose effect is felt across an area of the body on which it is
applied. It occurs when the load applied is not concentrated at a point, but is spread over an
area, along a line or throughout the entire solid body e.g. Weight of a beam; loads caused by
wind pressure and liquid pressure etc.
Types of distributed Load
1. Triangular Load: see figure below:
F = ½ Pb

This is define as a distributed load whose intensity (or effect) varies uniformly from zero to a
maximum intensity P. e.g. Liquid pressure
2. Uniformly distributed Load: see figure below

F = Pb
The resultant of a distributed load can be determined by replacing each distributed load by its
equivalent concentrated load, placed at its centroid. The line of action of the equivalent
concentrated load always passes through the centroid.

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WORKED EXAMPLE
Determine the equivalent resultant force of the distributed loads of the figures below.
1.

5KN/m

2KN/m

8m 2m 3m

2.

20
 7KN/m
3KN/m

6m 1m

3.

8KN 6KN

1m 1m 2m 4m

CENTROID OF AREAS OF COMMON SHAPES

1. RECTANGLE:

1
/ 2h
c
h
1
/ 2h

1 1
/ 2b / 2b

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 A = LXB

2. TRIANGLE

2
/ 3h
h
c

1
/ 3h

1 2
/ 3b / 3b

A = ½ bh

3. PARABOLIC SPANDREL

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 2
/ 3h
h
c

1
/3 h

1 3
/ 4b / 4b

A = 1/3bh

4. SEMICIRCLE

c
r

4r
/3

A = 1/2 π r2
Assignment: Write and draw other centroids of areas of common shapes into your note.
Solution to examples

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STEPS TO SOLUTION.
(i) Divide the loading diagram into the component load distributions.
(ii) Calculate the total load equivalent of the distributed loads.
(iii) Evaluate the centroids of the associated area of its loading diagram.
(iv) Determine the magnitude of the resultant ( or equivalent) load.
(v) Determine the location or line of action of resultant from the total moment about a
fixed point.

1. The loading diagram can be divided into a triangle and a rectangle.

Thus;

3KN/m

2KN/m

A B

Let F1 = total load equivalent of rectangle = 2x10 = 20kN

Let F2 = total load equivalent of triangle = 1/2 x 2 x 3 = 3kN
The centroid of rectangle = ½ b = ½ x 10 = 5m
The magnitude of the resultant is given by:

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 20N 3KN

A B
5m 4.3m 3.7m

Ry = - 20 – 3 = -23kN.
∴ R = 23kN downwards.
The location of the line of action.
Taking moment about A
∑MA = - 20 x 5 + (- 3 x 7.3) = - 100 – 21.9 = -121.9kNm
∴ ∑MA = 121.9kNm clockwise.
Thus;
/Ry/.x = 121.9

x = 121.9/23 = 5.3m
.’. R = 23kN downwards at 5.3m to the right of X.

2. There are 2- types of loading: rectangular and parabolic spandrel shape.

Hence;

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 4KN/m
21KN 1.3KN

3KN/m

y 3.5m 3.25m 0.25m

Equivalent load of rectangle = 3kN/m x 7 = 21kN

“ “ “ Spandrel = 1/3 x 1 x 4 = 1.3kN.
Centroids: For rectangular = ½ b = ½ x 7 = 3.5m
For Spandrel (from tip) = (¾ x 1) + 6 = 6.75m
Magnitude of resultant
Ry = -21 – 1.3 = -22.3kN
R = 22.3kN downwards.
Location of the line of action.
Taking moment about Y
∑My = ( - 21 x 3.5) + ( - 1.3x 6.25) = - 82.405kNm
My = 82.405kNm clockwise.
Thus;
/Ry/.x = 82.405
x = 82.405/22.3 = 3.7m.
Therefore; Resultant is 22.3kN downwards at 3.7m to the right of y

3. The distributed load is of 2-types: a rectangle and a triangle. It also contains a

concentrated load of 8KN

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 8KN
12KN 12KN

7KN

u z
1m 2m 2.30m 2.70m

Total equivalent load on triangle =1/2 x 4x 6 =12

Total equivalent load on rectangle = Lxb = 2x6 =12
Concentrated load = -8KN
Magnitude of Resultant
Ry= -12KN -12KN – 8KN = -32KN
R = 32KN downwards.
Centroids : for triangles = 2/3x b = 2/3 x 4 = 2.71m
For rectangle = Lxb =1/2x6 = ½ x 2 = 1m

Location Of the Line Of Action:

Taking moment about z
∑Mz = (-12 x 2.7) + (-12 x 5 ) + (-8x7) = -148.4KN
Mz = 148.4KNm clockwise
Thus:
/Ry/. x = 148.4
x = 148.4/32 = 4.6m.

7.0 APPLICATION OF VECTORS TO RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

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Vector quantities are quantities which have both magnitude and direction. The magnitude is the
scalar quantity represented by real numbers while the direction is given in terms of rectangular
components x and y (coplanar forces) as i and j respectively.
The i and j can also be said to be unit vectors which are in the direction of the positive
sense of x and y axes respectively. For instance, if a force F can be represented in its rectangular
components by Fx and Fy; then, vectorially, the force is written in magnitude and direction as Fxi
and Fyj
Thus:
F = Fxi + Fyj
Diagramatically:

F
y

Ф
x

Where Fx = FCos∅
Fy = FSin∅
⎛ Fy ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Fx ⎠
The magnitude of F can also be computed as before as:

F = Fx2 + Fy2

EXAMPLES
1. A force of 500N is exerted on a particle as shown in the diagram (a) below. Determine
the horizontal and vertical components of the force and write the force in its vectorial
form.

28
 2. Diagram (b) below shows that the tension in the rope T is 80N. (i) Determine the
horizontal and vertical components of the Tension. (ii) Compute the direction of the
Tension T and write out the vector form of the Tension.

T
x 3m
30o

4m
500N
b
a

Solutions
1. Representing the force in its triangular components gives:
Fx = FCos∅ = 500Cos 300 = 433N
Fy = -FSin∅ = -500Sin 300 because Fy is in the negative sense of y;
or Fy = FSin(360 - 30)0 (∅ = 330o)
= 500Sin3300 = -250N
Horizontal Component = Fxi = 433Ni
Vertical Component = Fyj = -250Nj
Vectorially, f = (433i – 250j) N

2. Representing the Tension in its triangular form:

Computing ∅
Tan ∅ = ¾ = 0.75
∅ = Tan-1 0.75 = 36.870
Thus; Tx = TCos ∅ and Ty = -TSin∅
Tx = 80Cos (36.870) and Ty = -TSin∅
Tx = 64N and Ty = -48N
(i) The Horizontal Component = Txi = 64Ni

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 The Vertical Component = Tyj = -48Nj
(ii) Direction of Tension is:
α = tan-1 Ty = tan-1 -48
Tx = 64
α = 3230 and T = (64i – 48j) N

8.0 RESULTANT OF COPLANAR FORCES IN VECTOR FORM

Just as the vector form of representing forces can be adapted suitably with resolution of coplanar
forces; it can also be used effectively in the analysis of the resultant of coplanar forces.
Since the resultant of a set of forces acting on a body is the sum total of the individual effect of
each force making up the system of forces; the resultant R can then be analysed as:
n
R = ∑ Fi where Fi is the individual force making up the system of forces.
i =1

Meaning that, if F1, F2, F3, …, Fn are the forces acting; the resultant R is given by
R = F1 + F2 + F3 + … + Fn in resulting magnitude and direction.
Therefore, component wise, the resultant R will be:
R = ∑ Rx i + ∑ Ry j --------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

For example: Assume the forces acting on a body are T, P and Q

The Resultant R = T + P + Q
Resolving each force into its rectangular components gives:
Rxi + Ryj = (Txi + Tyj) + (Pxi + Pyj) + (Qxi + Qyj)
= (Tx + Px + Qx)i + (Ty + Py + Qy)j
It follows by vector rule that:
Rx = Tx + Px + Qx and Ry = Ty + Py + Qy -------------------------------- (2)
Equations (2) and (1) therefore agrees.
We can then conclusively say that the components Rx and Ry of the resultant R of a system of
forces can be obtained by adding algebraically the corresponding scalar components of the
individual forces.

RULE FOR ANALYSIS

30
To use the vector form of analysis to solve for the resultant of a system of forces; the following
rule must be adhered to for easy estimation.
1. Resolve the individual force in the system to its rectangular components
2. Sum up the forces, component by component to determine the resulting components of
the Resultant
3. Using the values derived from above step; write out the resultant R as R = Rxi + Ryj

4. Compute magnitude of R as R = Rx2 + Ry2

Ry
5. Compute the direction of R as tan α = where α is the required direction in its proper
Rx
sense.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Using the vector method of analysis, find the resultant of the following systems of forces

31
 y
1. 40N 2. y

50N
o
45 x

50o x
62N 30o
35N 50o
y 80N

4. y
3. 10N
30N

10N x
10o 50o
x
30o 15o

80N
10N

5. If the Resultant of the system of forces shown is zero. Find the values of P and Q.

6.
5. T= 50N
Q

Q S= 150N
o
50
30o
50o
T= 80N
10o

6. If the Resultant of the system is zero. Determine the values of P and Q

32
Solutions
1. Resolve into rectangular components
F1x = (40Cos 450)N = 28.30N
F1y = (40Sin 450)N = 28.30N
F2x = (35Sin 300)N = 17.5N
F2y = -(35Cos 300)N = -30.3N
F3x = -(62Sin 500)N = - 47.5N
F3y = -(62Cos 500)N = - 39.9N
Summing by Components
.’. Rx = F1x + F2x + F3x = (28.3 + 17.5 + (- 47.5)) N = -1.7N
Ry = F1y + F2y + F3y = (28.3 + (-30.3) + (-39.9)) N = -41.9N
Writing the vector
R = (1.7i – 41.9j) N i.e resultant is in the 3rd Quadrant
Magnitude of R

|R| = pRX2 + RY2 = p(-1.7)2 + (-41.9)2 = 41.9N

Direction
Tan α = Ry = -41.9 = 24.647
Ry -1.7
α = tan-1(24.647) = 87.80
In the proper sense, direction is 1800 + α = 1800 + 87.80 = 267.80
2. T1x = 0N
T1y = 50N
T2x = -(80Sin500)N = -61.3N
T2y = -(80Cos500)N = -51.4N

.’. Rx = T1x + T2x = (0 + (-61.3N)) = -61.3N

Ry = T1y + T2y = (50N + (-51.4N)) = -1.4N
Ö (-61.3i – 1.4j) N

.’. |R| = p(-61.3)2 + (1.4)2 = 61.3N

33
 ⎡ −1.4 ⎤
α = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ = 1.3o
⎣ −61.3 ⎦
.’. Direction = 180 + α = 181.30

3. T1x = 10N
T1y = 0N
T2x = -80Sin300 = -40N
T2y = -80Cos300 = -69.3N
Rx = T1x + T2x = 10 + (-40) = -30N
Ry = T1y + T2y = 0 + (-69.3) = - 69.3N
R = (-30i – 69.3j) N

( −30 ) + ( −69.3)
2 2
R = = 75.5 N

−69
α = tan −1 = 66.6o
−30
Direction = 1800 + α = 246.60 (in the 3rd Quadrant)

4. T1x = -30Sin 100 = -5.2 N

T1y = 30Cos 100 = 29.5 N
T2x = 10Sin 500 = 7.7 N
T2y = 10Cos 500 = 6.4 N
T3x = 10Cos 150 = 9.7 N
T3y = -10Sin 150 = -2.6 N
Rx = T1x + T2x + T3x = (-5.2 + 7.7 + 9.7) N = 12.2 N
Ry = T1y + T2y + T3y = (29.5 + 6.4 + (-2.6)) N = 33.3 N
.’. R = (12.2i + 33.3j) N

(12.2 ) + ( 33.3)
2 2
R = = 35.5 N

33.3
α = tan −1 = 69.9o
12.2
Direction = α = 69.90 (in the 1st Quadrant)

34
5. If the Resultant R = 0
Then R = Rxi + Ryj = 0
Rx = 0 and Ry = 0
Therefore; Tx = 50Cos 300 = 43.3 N
Ty = 50Sin 300 = 25 N
Qx = 0 and Qy = Q N
Px = -PSin 100 N and Py = -PCos 100 N
Rx = Tx + Qx + Px = 43.3 + 0 – PSin 100 (1)
Ry = Ty + Qy + Py = 25 + Q – PCos 100 (2)
But Rx = 0 and Ry = 0
Then: (1) becomes
43.4 – PSin100 = 0
Ö PSin 100 = 43.3
43.3
And P = = 249.4 N
sin10o
And (2) becomes
25 + Q – PCos 100 = 0
Substitute the value of P
Ö 25 + Q – 249.4Cos 100 = 0
Q = 249.4Cos 100 – 25 = 220.6 N
Thus: P = 249.4 N and Q = 220.6 N

6. If the Resultant R = 0,then Rx and Ry = 0.

Therefore,
Px = PSin 500 N
Py = PCos 500 N
Qx = -QSin 500 N
Qy = QCos 500 N
Tx = 80N, Ty = 0N
Sx = 0 N, Sy = 150 N
.’. Rx = Px + Qx + Tx + Sx = PSin 500 + (-QSin 500) + 80 + 0 =0

35
Ö Rx = PSin 500 – Qsin 500 + 80 = 0 (1)
Ry = Py + Qy + Ty + Sy = 0
= PCos 500 + QCos 500 + 0 + 150 = 0
Ry = PCos 500 + QCos 500 + 150 = 0 (2)
Equation (1) can be written as:
PSin 500 –Qsin500 = -80 (3)
Equation (2) can be written as:
PCos 500 + QCos 500 = -150 (4)
Solve equations (3) and (4) simultaneously
From (3) and (4)
PSin 500 = -80 + QSin 500 (from (3))
PCos 500 = -150 – QCos 500 (from (4))
Divide (3) by (4)
Psin 500 = -80 + QSin 500
PCos 500= -150 – Qcos 500

Tan 500 = -80 + QSin 500 N.B: Tan∅ = Sin∅

-150 – Qcos 500 Cos∅

1.192 = -80 + QSin 500

-150 –Qcos 500
Cross Multiply:
(1.192)(-150-QCos500) = -80 + QSin 500
Ö -178.8 – 0.8Q = -80 + QSin 500
Collect like terms:
-0.8Q – Qsin 500 = -80 + 178.8
-Q(0.8 + Sin 500) = 98.8
98.8
Q= = −61.8 N
−1.6
Put the value of Q into (3)
PSin 500 – (-61.8)Sin 500 = -80

36
 PSin 500 + 61.8Sin 500 = -80
.’. PSin 500 = -80 -61.8Sin 500
−80 − 61.8sin 50o −127.3
P= = = −166.2 N
sin 50o 0.766
Thus:
P = 166.2N in opposite direction to diagram and Q = 61.8 N in opposite direction to diagram.

9.0 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE

A particle is said to be in equilibrium when the resultant of all the forces acting on it is zero i. e.
R = ∑F =0

Meaning that, if a body is acted upon by two or more forces, the equilibrium condition is
satisfied if the resultant of all forces equals zero. Hence, summarily, it could be said that “for a
system in equilibrium; sum of forces in one direction must equal sum of forces in opposite
direction.”
Mathematically,

∑F x =0

∑F y =0

9.1 VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION

Coplanar forces (forces in x-y plane) are represented in magnitude and direction by showing its x
and y components in the proper sense of i and j unit vectors.
Algebraically, coplanar forces in the x - y component representation are described in vector form
as:
F = Fxi + Fyj
The resultant of a system of forces is represented as: R= Rxi + Ryj
For a system of forces in equilibrium, the condition that must be satisfied is:
Rx = 0
Ry = 0

37
9.2 MOMENT CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRUIM
Just as was stated for the force conditions of equilibrium, there is also a similar condition
adapted to the moment of forces keeping the system in equilibrium. This condition states that
“For a system in equilibrium under the action of external forces, the moment of all the forces
about a fixed point is zero”. This means that, the moment condition for equilibrium can also be
stated as that “the sum of moments in one direction is equal to the sum of moments in the other
direction”.
i.e. Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment.
Mathematically;
For a system in equilibrium;
Total moment about a fixed point = 0

∑M = 0
Hence,
Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments

9.3 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

According to Newton’s first law of forces: there are basically two types of equilibrium: (1) Static
Equilibrium and (2) Dynamic Equilibrium.

Static Equilibrium: this is the state of a body at rest. In which case, the velocity of the body is
zero i.e. rate of change of distance with time is zero.

Dynamic Equilibrium: this is the state of a body moving with uniform velocity; in which case
the acceleration remains zero i.e. the rate of change of velocity with time is zero.
Hence, a body moving in a straight line with uniform velocity, or a body rotating about a fixed
point with constant angular velocity is said to be dynamically stable.
Whatever is done after to alter the equilibrium condition of a body will also alter simultaneously
the velocity state of the body.

38
WORKED EXAMPLE
1. Determine the magnitude and direction of the force F1 which will keep the box of 50kg,
acting on an inclined plane of 20º to the horizontal in equilibrium. (g=10m/s2)

20o

50kg

For the box to be in equilibrium, it must be moving in a direction Ø=20º to the horizontal.
Completing and using the triangle of force resulting from the system:

F
sin 20o =
Mg
F = MgSin20º
= 50 x 10 x Sin20º = 171.0 N
F = 171.0 N in direction Ø = 20º to the horizontal
2. Using the angle measurements only, determine the magnitude of T1 and T2 that keeps the
system in equilibrium.

39
 T2 T1 15m
6m

γ
α
7m 9m

100N
Solution
Using the triangles ACB and DCE to find the angles:
Consider triangle ACB
Tan α = 6
7
α = Tan-1 (6/7) = 40.6º
And also consider triangle DCE
Tan γ = 15
9
γ = Tan-1 (15/9) = 59.0

Hence,
Σfx = -T2Cos40.6º + T1Cos59º = 0
T1Cos59º = T2Cos40.6º
T2 cos 40.6o
T1 =
cos 59o
T1 = 1.5 T2 ------------------------- (1)
Also, ΣFy = T2Sin40.60 + T1Sin590 – 100 = 0
T2Sin40.60 + T1Sin590 = 100 --------------- (2)

40
 Put (1) into (2)
T2Sin40.60 + (1.5T2) Sin590 = 100
T2 = 100 = 51.6 N
0 0
(Sin40.6 + 1.5Sin59 )
T2 = 51.6 N

PRACTICE QUESTION
Two ropes attached to the top of two poles (as shown in the diagram) are used to hold a boat on
the sea in position. If the effective weight of the boat is 2.6Kg. Calculate the value of the Tension
T. (Take g = 10m/s2)

T T
4m
4m

3m 3m

41
10.0 FREE BODY DIAGRAM
A free body diagram is defined as a diagram which shows clearly a body isolated from its
support and indicating all the external forces acting on the body.
In solving a problem involving equilibrium, it is important that only all the forces
(external) acting in the system be considered. An omission of one or the addition of one will lead
to a change in the conditions of equilibrium and produce an untrue result of the system.
A properly drawn free body diagram gives a detailed account of all the external forces
acting on the body in question. The solution of statics problems depends to a large extent on the
correct construction of free body diagram.
The free body is only a schematic diagram of the real body isolated from its supports and
represented by lines.

10.1 COMPONENTS OF A FREE BODY DIAGRAM

1. Applied Forces: Those are the loads subjected to a body. They must be shown by their
magnitude and direction and point of action.h
2. Reactions: These represent the constraints of supports or connected bodies. The showing
of the reactions is such that they obey Newton’s Law of action.
3. Weight: This is the gravitational attraction of a body due to the earth. It is always
vertically downward through the centre of gravity of the body in question.
4. Dimensions and Angles: The significant line and angle distances must be shown clearly
by a free body diagrams.

10.2 FREE BODY DIAGRAM OF THREE FORCE SYSTEM IN EQUILIBRIUM

42
These forces are shown to point round a triangle in a direction head to tail. This shows that
the resultant of the system is zero. Hence, system is in equilibrium.

43
 DYNAMICS LECTURE NOTE
11.0 INTRODUCTION
The word dynamics is also known as dynamo which means motion. In essence, it can simply be
defined as the study of a body in motion under the action of forces. It is divided into two broad
headings: Kinematics and Kinetics.

12.0 KINEMATICS
This is study of a body in motion without reference to the force producing it. It can also be
defined as the study of the geometry of motion. It considers the displacement, distance, speed,
velocity and acceleration of a given body in relation to time. While KINETICS is defined as the
study of the force producing the motion .It considers the energy responsible for a given motion.
The following sub-topics would be considered in a concise manner.
Particle kinematics, rigid body kinematics, Kinetics of particles and rigid body kinetics
respectively.

12.1 PARTICLE KINEMATICS

The concept of particles does not mean that reference is directed to small matter but it stretch to
mean the consideration of a whole body as a single entity, thus, the behavior of a body as a
whole single unit will be considered. Consideration will not be given to any rotation or motion
about its own mass or, else, it would be considered as a rigid body.
The principle of particle kinematics is the performing of the first and second order differential
equation of a function which maps the position of the particle at any given instance with respect
to an inertial frame of reference, to obtain the velocity and acceleration of the body at such
instance. The path of a particle can be described by three major co-ordinates namely (1)
Rectangular coordinate (2) Cylindrical coordinate and (3) polar coordinate. These three are
discussed later.

13.0 THE GEOMETRY OF MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

By the word geometry of motion, reference is made to the position, velocity and acceleration of
motion with respect to the time. A particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear

44
motion. Thus to define the position, velocity and acceleration of such a motion, a reference point
which at times may be called ‘the fixed point’ is chosen and the motion is described in relation to
that fixed point. Thus we can have displacement, velocity and acceleration of a motion described
from the fixed point of reference.
Displacement of a body: This is the distance a body moves from the reference point in a
particular direction. It is a vector quantity.

Velocity: This is the time rate of change of displacement. It differs from speed only in the fact
that it is a vector quantity while the latter is a scalar.

Acceleration: This is the time rate of change of velocity. It is the measure of how far or slow per
time interval a moving body is. It is a vector quantity.

Concepts of Average and Instantaneous geometry of motion

Average displacement: this is defined as the magnitude of the change in position of a particle in a
specific direction. It is mathematically expressed as X= Xf – Xi where Xf = final position, Xi
=initial position

Instantaneous displacement: This is defined as the magnitude of the change in position of a

particle in a specified direction at any instant of time. Its value depends on the instant time of
consideration. If x is the instantaneous displacement dependent on the time, t, it can be
mathematically expressed as:
X (t) = Xf (t) – Xi (t) m

Average Velocity: This is defined as the change of average displacement with time. It is
expressed mathematically as:
V=Δx /Δt m/s

Instantaneous Velocity: This is defined as the time rate of change of instantaneous displacement.
It is expressed mathematically as:
V = dx / dt m/s

45
Average acceleration: This is defined as the change in average velocity with time. It is expressed
mathematically as:
a = Δv/ Δt m/s2

Instantaneous Acceleration: This is defined as the time rate of change of instantaneous velocity.
It is expressed mathematically as:
a = dv/ dt m/s2

In terms of instantaneous displacement, it is expressed as:

a = d2x / dt2 m/s2

Thus, the instantaneous velocity and acceleration of a particle motion can be obtained by
differentiating the instantaneous displacement. Also, the instantaneous displacement can be
obtained from instantaneous velocity and acceleration by integrating them. i.e.
x =∫v dt = ∫∫a dt

Class Examples
1. The motion of a particle is defined by the relation x = 8t3 − 8t2 + 5 where x and t are
expressed in m and seconds respectively. Determine the position, the velocity and
acceleration when t = 5s.
2. the motion of a particle is defined by the relation
x = 10 t3/3 − 7t2 / 4
3. The motion of a slider is defined by the relation
x = 20cos (t − 0.5t2), where x and t are expressed in m and seconds. Consider the range
0 < t < 2, and determine the position and acceleration of the slider when v = 0.
4. If the motion of a particle is described by the relation A = 7t3 + 2 m/s2, and the initial
velocity of the motion is zero when t = 0 and the distance is 2m, t = 0.5s. Determine the
velocity and displacement when t = 10s
5. Starting from rest and at zero displacement a particle motion is given by a = 10√ (v2 +
15) m/s2. Determine the position and velocity of the particle when v =12m/s and x = 20m.

46
 6. A particle travels in a straight line with velocity v = (12– 4t2) m/s where t is in seconds.
When t = 1s, the particles position is 10m from the reference point. Determine the acceleration
when t =4s, the displacement from t= 0 to t= 15s, and the distance the particle travels during this
time period.
7. The position of a particle in a straight line by given by s= (t3 – 9t2 + 15t) m, where t is in seconds.
Find the position the particle reach in 10s.

Equations of linear motion

When the motion of a particle takes place in a straight line with uniform acceleration, it can be
represented by the following relations:
V = u + at
S = ut + ½ at2
V2 = u2 + 2aS
Average distance =1/2 (u + V) t

Class Examples
1.A car has an initial speed of 25m/s and a constant deceleration of 5m/s2.What will be its velocity
when t= 3s and the displacement of the car during the 3s time interval? How much time
would be needed to stop the car?
2.the speed of a particle at an instant when t= 1s is 12m/s. after moving for 5s, it accelerates to a
velocity of 20m/s. Determine (a)The acceleration of the particle at this time and the total
distance it has moved.
3.A train leaves train station at 10:05am for a city 100km away. If the train moves with a speed of
5km/min at about 10:15am. What is the acceleration of the train, and at what time will the
train reach its destination.

14.0 GENERAL CURVILINEAR MOTION

Curvilinear motion occurs when a particular object (in this case a particle) moves along a curved
path. To describe the kinematics of this motion, three different types of coordinates can be used. These
include: Rectangular, Cylindrical and Polar coordinates respectively.

47
14.1 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
In this, the coordinates are represented by x, y, and z.

k k

j
y
i

If at a given instant, the particle, p, is performing a curvilinear motion in the rectangular

coordinate represented above, the position vector r, of the particle will be given as:

R = xi +yj + zk
Where x, y, z are scalar quantities defining the position with respect to an inertia reference frame
within the coordinates, and I, j, k are unit vectors in the directions specified in the diagram
above.
By the equation (1) above, velocity and acceleration of the particle can be composed to be:
dx dy dz
V= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt

V= Vx i+Vy j+Vz k

dv d 2 r dvx dv y dv
a= = 2 = i+ j+ z k
dt dt dt dt dt
a=a x i + a y j + az k

Where v and a are velocity and acceleration respectively. The magnitudes of these vectors
expressed as:

48
r = ( x2 + y2 + z 2 ) m

V = (v x 2 + v y 2 + v z 2 ) m/s

a = (a 2x i + a y2 j + az2 k ) m/s2

Class Examples
1. A particle undergoes a curvilinear motion defined by x = 9t m along the horizontal with
the equation of the trajectory being y = X2/16. Find
(a) The distance of the particle when it moves for a time, t = 2s.
(b) The magnitude of the velocity for this time (c) The magnitude of the acceleration and
(d) The directions of the velocity and acceleration respectively.

Solution
X= 9t and y= X2/16.

(a) r = xi + yj

182
When t=2s, x =9(2) =18m and y = = 20.25 m/s2
16

Distance, r= √(182 + (20.25)2] = 27.09m

(b) V= Vx i+Vy j

dx
Vx = = 9m / s .
dt
dy 2 xvx 2(18)(9)
Vy = = = = 20.25m / s
dt 16 16
Therefore, V = 9i + 20.25 j

49
 V= (9 2
)
+ 20.252 = 22.16m / s

(c) a = ax i + a y j

d 2x
a x = 2 = 0m / s 2
dt

d 2 y 2 xax 2vx vx 2(18)(0) 2(9)(9)

ax = 2
= + = + = 10.13m / s 2
dt 16 16 16 16

a = 0i + 10.13 j

a= (0 2
)
+ 10.132 = 10.13m / s 2

(d) Direction of velocity:

θ = tan-1 (vy/vx) = tan-1 (20.25/9) = 66.040
Direction of acceleration:
θ = tan-1 (ay/ax) = tan-1 (10.13/0) = 900
2. A fly moves a curvilinear motion tracing the path described by y = 10 t3 m and x = 5 t2 m.
where t is time in seconds. Determine the distance moved by the fly in 10 s, and the magnitudes
of the velocity and acceleration in this time.
Solution
3 2
y = 10t and x = 5t
r=xi+yj
When t = 10s, x = 5(10)2 = 500m, y = 10(10)3 = 10,000m

Distance, r = ( 500 2
+ 100002 =)
dx dy
Velocity, V = vx i + v y j = i+ j
dt dt
Therefore, V = 10ti + 30t 2 j
When t = 10, V = 100i + 3000 j

50
 V= (100 2
)
+ 30002 = 3001.67 = 3km

(Solve for the acceleration on your own)

Practice Question
1 At the instant shown below, the particle A travels with a velocity of Vx = 10m/s
and acceleration of a =2 m/s. find the initial speed Vo of another particle B so that
when it is fired at the same time from the angle 53 to the vertical, it hits B. At
what speed does it strike A. ( ans : vo = 15.3 m/s, vb = 81.7 m/s)

B Vo

530

100m

A x

2. A particle travels from A to B in 1s. If it takes 2.5s to go from A to C determine its average
velocity when it goes from B to C. (Ans Vav = 16 i – 10j)

51
 Y

20m

X
A C

3. A particle moves with a velocity v (t) = 0.6 t2 i+5 t j+ 2t1/2 k. Determine the magnitude and
coordinate direction of the acceleration. Also find the magnitude of the displacement.

14.2 CYLINDRICAL- COORDINATES

The position vector R of a particle at a given instant can be obtained in cylindrical coordinate as:

Particle, P

52

R
R = rε r + zk --------------------- (i)

dR . . . .
V= = r εr + r εr + z k + z k
dt
. . .
But ε r = θ ε θ and k =0
Therefore;
. . .
V = r ε r + r θ ε θ + z k --------------- (2)

V = vr ε r + rωεθ + vz k -------------- (3)

. .
V = r ε r + vθ εθ + z k

dv .. . . . . .. . . .. . .
a= = r ε r + r ε r + r θ εθ + r θ εθ + r θ εθ + z k + z k
dt
. .
But ε θ = − θ ε r
.. . . . . .. . 2 ..
a = r ε r + r θ εθ + r θ εθ + r θ εθ − r θ ε r + z k

⎛ .. . 2 ⎞
⎛ . . ..
⎞ ..
a = ⎜ r − r θ ⎟ ε r + ⎜ 2 r θ + r θ ⎟ ε θ + z k --------------- (4)
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠

53
 a = arε r + aθ ε θ + az k
Therefore, equation (1), (2) and (4) are the equations of motion in a cylindrical coordinate. This
coordinate considers that the particle is in space. However, there are special cases when the
particle is performing motion in r-θ plane. The coordinate system is called polar coordinate. This
is a modification to the cylindrical coordinate given above. It is derived by assuming that the 3rd
.
plane (i.e plane Z) does not exist and that z = 0.

Thus, in a polar coordinate, the equation above becomes:

R = rε r
. .
V = r ε r + r θ εθ
⎛ . 2⎞
⎛ .. ⎞
a = ⎜⎜ r − r θ ⎟⎟ε r + ⎜ r θ + 2rθ ⎟ε θ
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The 2- component system is called the radial and transverse component. If the coordinate is used
to describe motion in a circle then, it is called motion in the x-y plane and the consideration is
that the components are radial and tangential respectively.
This is derived by modifying the cylindrical component system and it is given by assuming that
. .
the Z- plane does not exist and that r = z = 0 . Thus,

ar
Vt

.
V = r θ εθ

54
V = rωε θ
.
And a = rθε θ − r θε r

= a = rαε θ − rω 2ε r .

Where ε r , ε θ and K are units vectors in the direction specified

14.3 NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL COMPONENTS

When the path along which a particle is moving is known, at times, it is convenient to describe
such notion using the normal n, and tangential t, components respectively. This in retrospect, is
similar to the phenomenon of motion in a circle, in which, there can be the normal component
(acting towards the centre) and the tangential component (acting along the tangent to the circle).
These two components affect the velocity and acceleration of the motion.

o
Un

Ut t

The velocity is simply given by:

R=r
dr
V=vut = ut ---------------------- 1
dt
dv
a= = vu
 t + vut
dt

55
 But ut = θun

 t + vθun
a = vu ------------------------ 2

v
θ Can be expressed as
ρ

v2
Hence, a = vu
 t +v un ------------------- 3
ρ
v
Note: θ = ω =
ρ
Where ρ = radius of curvature of circle of motion
Equation (1) can be written as a = at ut + anun

Class Examples
1. A vehicle moves in a circular track of radius 30m. if the speed of the vehicle was
increased at a constant rate of 7m/s2, determine the time for it to reach the maximum
acceleration of 10m/s2. Take initial velocity to be zero. What is the speed at this time?
Solution
This is the situation of motion in a circular path. Hence, normal and tangential components can
be used.
Take acceleration = 10m/s2

aT = (a t
2
+ an 2 ) (1)

v2
But aT = 7 m , an =
s2 ρ
Calculating for V
v = u + a tt
v = 0 + 7t
7t 2 49t 2
an = = = 1.63t 2 m 2
30 30 s

aT = (7 + (1.63t ) ) = 10
2 2
2

56
 t= 2.09 s
The speed at this instant is: v = 7t = 7 x 2.09 = 14.63 m/s2
2. The motion of a particle is described by the relations:
2 = 1- 5t2, r = 2t – 5t2. Where θ is in radians, t in seconds, and r in meters.
Calculate the (a) magnitude and direction of the velocity (b) magnitude and direction of the
acceleration after it has moved for about 30o
(This is a motion in which the particle is instantaneously rotating and translating
simultaneously).
2 = 1–5t2 and r = 2t – 5t2

When θ = 30o = 30 × π = π rad = 0.524rad

180 6

θ = 1 – 5t2 = 0.524 rad

t = 0.095s
Since, the z-component is not represented, a polar coordinate results

 ------------------------------------- 1
V = rε r + rθε θ

r = 2 − 10t = 2 − 10 ( 0.095 ) = 1.048 m

2
s
r = 2t − 5t 2 = 2 ( 0.095 ) − 5 ( 0.095 ) = 0.178m
2

r = 10 m

s2
θ = 1 – 5t2 = 1 – 5(0.095)2 = 0.96 rad
θ = 1 – 10t = 1 – 10(0.095) = 0.05 rad/s
θ = -10m/s2
V = 1.048ε r + 0.178 ( 0.05 ) εθ = 1.048ε r + 0.0089ε θ m/s

V= (1.048 2
)
+ 0.00892 = 1.048 m
s
⎛ 0.0089 ⎞
Direction θ: = tan-1 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.5
o

⎝ 1.048 ⎠
⎛ . 2⎞
⎛ .. ⎞
r − r θ ⎟ ε r + ⎜ r θ + 2rθ ⎟ ε θ
a = ⎜ 
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

57
(Substitute in values and carry out the solution on your own)

15.0 KINEMATICS OF RIGID BODY

The concept of rigid body owes its meaning to the assumption that, in a rigid body there’s no mean
displacement of its parts. The kinematics of rigid body deals with relations existing between time,
positions, velocities and acceleration of various particles making up a rigid body.
Types of rigid body motion.
1. Translation: this is the movement of all the particles forming the body along a straight
path. This can either be rectilinear translation (if the paths are straight lines) or rectilinear
curvilinear (if the paths are curved lines).
2. Rotation about a fixed axis: The motion of the particles moves in circles about the same
fixed axis. If the fixed axis called sometimes as the axis of rotation, intersect the body,
the particles on this axis have zero velocity and acceleration.
3. General plane motion: This is the motion in which all the particles perform neither
translation nor rotation but a combination of both e.g. rolling wheel, sliding door.
4. Motion about a fixed point: This is a type of motion in which all the particles making up
the rigid body moves about a fixed point. (Do not confuse this for rotation).
5. General motion: The motion of a rigid body which cannot be categorized into any of the
above is called a general motion.

Translation
This is the movement of all the particles making up the rigid body in straight line. This can
either be rectilinear translation (if the paths are straight lines) or rectilinear curvilinear (if the
paths are curved lines. Consider a rigid body in translation (either in rectilinear or
curvilinear), and the two points A and B in the body. Let the position vector from a reference
frame of A and B be rA and rB, with rA/B the vector joining A and B.

58
 Z
A

rA/B
rA
B
rB

x
rA = rB + rA/B …………… (i)
Differentiating with respect to t gives
VA = VB + VA/B………….. (ii)
But rA/B is always constant, since there is no relative change in position of the particles or
points making up a rigid body. Hence (iii) becomes:
VA = VB …………… (iii) (Since VA/B = 0)
Differentiating further with time to get acceleration gives:
aA = aB……………… (iv)
This equation (iii) and (iv) gives the principle governing the translation of a rigid body that:
“when a rigid body is in translation all the points of the body have the same velocity and the
same acceleration at any given instant”.
(Beer et al., 2004).
Rotation about A Fixed Axis
Consider a rigid body about a fixed (the Z- axis), having a point p on its body. The position
vector from a fixed frame is r.

59
 Z

N
P
θ
r
Y

X
The position of p on the rigid body is defined by the agle θ the position vector makes with the
Z plane. This angle θ in radian is known as the angular coordinate of the body. The distance
s, moved by p when the body rotates through θ is given as
S = (NP) θ = (r sin) θ.
Knowing that velocity = s/t or ds/dt.
Written in vector form, gives:
V = ds/dt = ω x r = dr/dt……………….. (i)
To get acceleration:
a = dV/dt = d (ω x r)/dt = α x r + ω x V ……….. (ii)
a = α x r + ω x V …………………………….. (iii)
Note that α = αk = (dω/dt)k = (d2θ/ dt2) k
Substituting (i) into (ii) gives:
a = α x r + (ω x (ω x r)) ………………………. (iv)
Resolving (iv) to normal and tangential components gives at = αk x r = rα and an = -ω2r = rω2
Equation of rotation of a rigid body
ω = dθ/dt…………. (v)

α = dω/dt = d2θ/dt2…………. (vi)

α = ω (dω/dθ)…………………. (vii)

60
 For uniform rotation
In this case, the angular acceleration is zero and the angular velocity is constant.
Therefore,
θ = θo + ωt………….. (viii)
For uniform accelerated rotation
The angular acceleration is constant, hence,
ω = ωo + αt
Similar to equations of linear motion.
(θ - θo) = ωo t + ½ α t2
ω2 = ωo2 + 2α (θ - θo) …………………................ (xi)
Note that (viii) can only be used when α = 0 and (xi) can only be used when α = constant.
Class examples
1. A body rotates with θ = 4t3-12t2 + 15, where θ is in radians and t in seconds.
(a) Find the angular velocity and angular acceleration when t = 0 and t = 2.5s. (b) Find
the angular distance and acceleration when the ω = 0.
(c) If the body in addition to the rotation moves in a straight line, what will be its linear
distance, speed and acceleration when t = 5s and the radial coordinate is r = 3m.
Solution
θ = 4t3 - 12t2 + 15
Angular velocity is given as:
ω = dθ/dt = 12t2 – 24t
(i) When t = 0; ω = 12(0)2 – 24(0) = 0 rad/s
(ii) When t = 2.5s; ω = 12(2.5)2 – 24(2.5) = 15 rad/s.
Angular acceleration is given as:
α = dω/dt = 24t – 24
(i) When t = 0, α = 24(0) – 24 = - 24 rad/s2
(ii) When t = 2.5, α = 24(2.5) - 24 = 36 rad/s2
(b) when ω = 0
ω = dθ/dt = 12t2 – 24t = 0
Factorizing gives
12t (t – 2) = 0
t = 0 or t = 2s.

61
 Thus, at t = 0 and t = 2s; ω = 0
Therefore, angular distance is given as
θ = 4t3 – 12t2 + 15
When t = 0, θ = 15 rad.
When t = 2s, θ = 4(2)3 – 12(2)2 + 15 = -1 rad
Angular acceleration is given as;
α = 24t – 24
When t = 0, α = 24(0) – 24 = -24 rad/s2
When t = 2s α = 24(2) – 24 = 24 rad/2

2.

Consider the diagram above. The load A and B are moved by the double pulley as shown. Load
A and B are connected to the pulley through inextensible cables. The radii of the outer and inner
circles of the pulley are given as 50cm and 30cm respectively. If the motion of the cable x
controls the motion of the pulley, with velocity and acceleration of 3m/s and 0.5m/s2. Calculate
(a) The number of revolutions of the pulley in 1s; (b)distance moved by B and the velocity in 1s.
(c) The acceleration of A at t = 1s.
Solution
The velocity and acceleration will be equal to the tangential velocity and acceleration of
A. Thus, VA = 3m/s and aA = 0.5m/s2

62
 The number of revolution of pulleys
θ = ω0t + ½ α t2 ……… (i)
ω0 = V/r = 3/0.5 = 6rad/s.
α = a/r = 0.5/0.5 = 1 rad/s2
Therefore, (i) become:
θ = 6(1) + ½(1) (1)2 (since t =1s)
= 6.5 rad.
The number of revolutions = 6.5/2π = 1.03 rev
Velocity and distance moved by B
Vt = rω = 0.3(ω)…………….. (ii)
But ω = ω0 + αt = 6 + (1 x 1) = 7 rad/s
Thus, (ii) becomes:
Vt = 0.3(7) = 2.1m/s
And SB = rθ = 0.3(6.5) = 1.95m upwards
The acceleration of A
The acceleration of a = the tangential acceleration of inner circle
aA = rα = 0.3 x 1 = 0.3m/s2
General Plane Motion
A general motion can always be considered as the sum of a translation and a rotation. Thus when
the equation of a general plane motion is written it can be divided into translation part and a
rotation part.
Consider the rod AB in the diagram below:

B l
ω
VB
A
VA

63
 If B is the fixed point.
The point A and B moves with velocities VA and VB respectively with the rod AB rotating about
itself with ω. The length of the rod is l.
VA = VB + VA/B………….. (1)
VA = VB + ωk x rA/B…….. (2)
Where rB/A is the displacement of A relative to B.
From equation (1) and (2) it is clear that the mathematical relationship between VA/B and rA/B is
given in vector form as;
VA/B = ωk x rA/B………… (3)
Note: the angular velocity ω of a rigid body in plane motion is independent of the reference
point. That is, if the reference point is change from A to B, thus having VB = VA + VB/A =VA +
ωk x rB/A………… (4)
The angular velocity ω, of the rod in its rotation about B for equation (1-3) and in its rotation
about A for equation (4), is the same.
However, the sense of the relative velocity changes i.e. VA/B = VB/A. This is due to the reference
point selected. Thus, the change is in the direction of r.
Examples

A 5m
ω
VA
B
O
30 VB

Fig. 1.

2m
B
4m
C

A
40o

Fig. 2.

64
1. Consider fig. 1 above. If point A is fixed and B moves with velocity VB = 20i. Calculate
the (a) velocity of A relative to B, (b) angular velocity ωAB. However, if the point can move with
velocity VA = 10j. What will be the velocity of B relative to A, in magnitude and direction?
2. For the diagram of fig. 2 the crank AB has a clockwise angular velocity of 2000rpm.
Determine the angular velocity of the connecting rod BC and the velocity of point C, if the point
A is fixed. (use vector triangle after getting VB).
Solution
1. VA = 0m/s, VB = 20i
(a)VA = VB + VA/B
VA/B = VA-VB = 0i- 20i = -20i
(b)VA/B = ωABk x rA/B = - 20i
- 20i = ωABk x (- 5 Cos300i – 5 Sin300j)
- 20i = - 4.33 ω j + 2.5 ω i
By similarity of vector components:
- 20 = 2.5 ω
ω = - 20/2.5 = - 8 rad/s
(c) VB = VA + VB/A
20i = (0i + 10j) + VA/B
VA/B = (20i + 0j) – (0i + 10j)
VA/B = 20i – 10j
VA/B = (202 + 102) = 22.36 m/s
Direction, θ = tan-1(10/20) = 26.57

Try solving number 2 on your own.

65
Acceleration of a general plane motion
v A = vB + v A / B
v A = vB + ω × rA / B
vA = vB + ω × rA / B + ω × rA / B
vA = vB + α × rA / B + ω × (ω × rA / B )
a A = a B + ar From equation above:
aB = vB
ar = α × rA / B + ω × (ω × rA / B )
ar = at + an
ar = at 2 + an 2

v A = vB + v A / B 5

vA = vB + ω × rA / B 6
Differentiating velocity to get acceleration gives:
vA = vB + ω × rA / B + ω × rA / B 7
Thus,
vA = vB + α × rA / B + ω × (ω × rA / B ) 8

This equation 8 is the equation for the acceleration of a general plane motion. It contains both the
linear component and the rotational component. Thus, it can be summarized as:
a A = aB + ar 9
Where the linear component is given as:
aB = vB 10
And the rotational component is given as:
ar = α × rA / B + ω × (ω × rA / B ) 11

The rotational component can be further broken down to tangential and radial components
respectively as:
ar = at + an 12
The magnitude is given as:

ar = at 2 + an 2 13

Class example: Solve for acceleration in the last examples

66
16.0 Relative motion of two particles

When several particles (in this case two particles) move independently along the same line,
independent equations of motion can be written for each of the particles. These equations take
their references from the same point and the same instant. However, when it is necessary to
compare the motion of one particle relative to another, the concept of relative motion suffice.
This leads to the phenomenon of relative displacement, relative velocity, and relative
acceleration respectively.
Consider two particles A and B moving along a straight line as shown in the figure
below. If the position coordinates of particles A and B are xA and xB respectively, moving in
the direction as shown in the figure, and measured from the same reference point. The relative
position of B with respect to A is given as:

xA xB/A x
xB

xB/A = xB - xA (1)
Therefore, xB = xA + xB/A (2)

Where xB/A is the relative position of B with respect to A.

Hence equation 1 above is the relative displacement of B to A

Relative velocity
The relative velocity is obtained from the relative displacement and is defined as the rate of
change of relative displacement. Differentiating equation (1) gives:

VB/A = VB – VA (3)

Rearranging:

67
 VB =VA+VB/A (4)

A Positive VB/A means that VB is on the right of VA and vice-versa for negative .

Relative acceleration
This is the rate of change of relative velocity.
aB/A = aB – aA (5)
Therefore,
aB= aA + aB/A (6)

Equations 5 and 6 give the equations of relative velocity and acceleration respectively.

Class Examples

1) The geometry of the particle motions are given by the relation xA=5t3- 2t2 + 5 m and VB=7t -
8t2 + 9t3 m. When t = 0, xB was 20m. Find
a) The distance of B relative to A.
b) The speed of A relative to B.
c) The velocity of B relative to A
d) The magnitude of the acceleration of B relative to A when the time elapsed, t is 10s.

2) The relative instantaneous velocity of a particle A relative to B is given as VA/B = 3ti + 4tj -5tk
If the instantaneous displacement of A is given as xA=14ti + 2tj + k. Find the
a) Instantaneous velocity of B.
b) The relative instantaneous acceleration of B to A.
c) The magnitude and direction of VB
d) The magnitude and direction of aB/A .

3) If a particle moves with a speed given by: VA= 5t - 2t2 + 3t2 m/s and particle B moves with a
displacement xB= 7t3 + 3t3 + 5 m. Find
a) Relative velocity of B to A.

68
 b) The acceleration of B to A
c) The velocity of A relative to B
d) The acceleration of a relative to B. Given that the interval is 20s.

17.0 DEPENDENT MOTION OF PARTICLES

This arises when the position of a particle depends upon the position of another particle, thereby,
meaning that the location, movement, speed, acceleration, etc of the particle will depend mostly
on the geometry of the other particle(s) motion. An example of the dependent motion is found in
the pulley system. Consider the figure below:

xA xB

A B

The geometry of A is linked to B by the relation:

xA + 3xB = l (1)
Where xA = displacement of A, xB = displacement of B and l = total length of the rope.

To get the velocity and acceleration; all that is needed is to differentiate equation (1) above:
Thus,

VA + 3VB = 0
And aA + 3aB = 0.

69
Worked examples

1) Consider the diagram below:

D E
x
F
y A C
8m B
o

Particles A and C are connected by a cable via three pulleys D, E and F through particle B. The
pulleys D and E are fixed while F is free to move with a constant velocity of 2m/s. At t = ts,
particle A moves from rest from y to o with a constant acceleration and velocity 4m/s. Determine
a) The change in elevation of C.
b) The velocity and acceleration of C when particle A is at o.

Solution
xA + 2xB + xc = l (1)
VA + 2VB + vc = 0 (2)
aA + 2aB + ac = 0 (3)

a) To calculate the change in elevation of C, we would need to know the change in elevation
of A and B using equation (1)
xA = 8 m (from diagram)
Using the equation of motion:
VA2 = UA2 + 2aAxA
4 = 0 + 2 aA(8)
aA= 4/2(8) = 1m/s.

Therefore,

70
 VA= UA + aAt= 0 + t
t = VA/1 = 4s.

VB = xB/t, xB = VB x t = 2 x 4 = 8m.

Therefore, from equation (1)

xA+ 2xB + xC = l

The l remains unchanged despite the position of A, B, C; hence,

Δxa+2Δxb+Δxc= 0
8 + 2(8) + xc =0
xc = - 24m.
xc = 24m upwards.

b) The velocity

Va +2Vb +Vc = 0
4 + 2(2) + Vc = 0
4 + 4 + Vc = 0
Vc = -8m/s
Vc = 8m/s upwards

The acceleration
aA +2aB + ac = 0
1+ 2(0) + ac = 0
ac = -1ms2
ac = 1m/s2 upwards

2) Consider the diagram below: the displacement of A and B are given as xA= 2t2 + 5t and xB= 4t
+ 5 respectively. Calculate the

71
 a) Displacement of C.
b) The velocity and acceleration of C.
c) What will be the magnitudes of these when t = 1s, 2s, and 3s respectively.

A C
B

3) Block C starts from rest and moves downward with a constant acceleration. Knowing that
after block A has moved for 12s, its velocity was 4.5m/s. Calculate
a) the acceleration of A, B and C, if the velocity of B at this time is 2.5m/s.
b) the change in position B after 8s.

A C
B

(Solve number 2 and 3 on your own).

72
 18.0 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation
The instantaneous centre of rotation is the point about which you can assume a body is rotating
at a given instant, as you determine the velocities of the point of the body at that instant (Beer et
al., 2004). The instantaneous centre of rotation method of finding the velocities of points or
particles in a rigid body is an alternative way of solving problems involving the velocities of the
various points of a rigid body undergoing general plane motion. Other methods include vector
analysis, trigonometry or triangle of velocities, and graphical methods respectively. We have
dealt with vector analysis method while going through previous topics. However, it is worth
while to note that only velocities can be solved by instantaneous centre method, acceleration can
not.
Location of the instantaneous centre of rotation
Case 1: when the velocity of a point, say A, and the angular velocity ω, of the body are known.
a. Produce a diagrammatic representation of the body
b. From A draw a line perpendicular to VA on the side from which it is viewed as having the
sense as ω.
c. Determine the instantaneous centre on the line from the fact that r = VA/ ω, where r =
distance between point A and instantaneous centre.
Class example
Determine the position of the instantaneous centre for the body with point A, having absolute
and angular velocities as 2 m/s and 0.5 rad/s respectively.

ω A
VA

73
Solution

VA
A

Therefore, r = VA/ ω = 2/ 0.5 = 4 m.

Hence, the instantaneous centre is located 4 m from point A.

Case 2: if the directions of the velocities of two points A and B on the rigid body are known and
different from each other.
a. Produce a diagrammatic representation of the body
b. From points A and B, draw perpendicular lines to VA and VB respectively. The point at
which these lines intersect is the instantaneous centre.. However, if the velocity of one of
the two points is know, the angular velocity of the body ω, can be determined by using:

ω = V/ r, when it has been drawn to scale in a graphical representation.

Class example
Consider the body in fig. 2 below. (1) Determine the position of the instantaneous centre
(2) Determine the velocity VB. if the body rotates clock wisely with angular velocity 2.5 rad/ s
and VA = 5 m/s

4m

VB
A
VA

Fig. 2a

74
 A 4m
3m

B
C ω
30o
VA

Fig. 2b

Solution

1. B
C

VB
VA
A

From VA = ω (AC)
a. AC = VA/ ω = 5/ 2.5 = 2 m.
The instantaneous centre is 2 m from point A as shown in the figure above.
b. the velocity VB = ω (BC)
From the triangle ACB, determine BC
BC = (42 – 22)1/2 = 3.46 m
Therefore, VB = 2.5 (3.46) = 8.66 m/s.
C

2.
A 30o
θ β
B
C 30o VA α VB

75
Since C is fixed, VC = 0, hence, VA = VA/C = 5 m/s
To calculate α:
3 4
=
sin α sin 30
⎛ 3sin 30 ⎞
α = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 22
o

⎝ 4 ⎠
α =θ
β = 90o − α = 68o
From triangle ACB
Let γ =30o + θ and angle ABC = β
AC BC 4
= =
sin β sin γ sin C
Thus, AC = 4.28m and BC = 3.64m
Therefore,
vA
= ωBA = 1.17m
AC
vB = ( BC ) ωBA = 4.26

Case3: If the velocity of two points A and B are known and are both perpendicular to the line
joining A to B as shown in Fig.3 below.

A B

VA

VB

a. Produce a diagrammatic representation of the body

b. Draw a line through the two points A and B perpendicular to VA and VB
c. Draw a second line through the tips of points A and B to meet the first line.
This is shown below:

76
 C A B

VA

VB

VA = ω (AC) and VB = ω (BC)

Where ω = angular velocity of the body and AC and BC are distance of C fro A and B
respectively. C is the position of the instantaneous centre of rotation for the body at the instant
shown.
Example
For the Figure above, if ω = 5 rad/s, VA = 10m/s and distance between points VA and VB is 3m,
when the angle BCE = 20o. Calculate VB

19.0 Kinetics of Particles

19.1 Introduction
Kinetics has been previously defined as the study of the forces producing a particular motion. It
basically deals with forces and the effects these forces have on the system on which they act.
However, the fundamental laws governing the subject of kinetics are those of the scientist called
Sir Isaac Newton. These laws are referred to as the Newton’s laws of motion. They are three
laws. The first and third laws of motion were extensively used in the subjects on statics for
stationary bodies. These laws also form the basis for dynamics in conditions when concentration
would have to be focused on motion under changing velocities.
In this part of the study of dynamics we shall basically be focusing on the second law of
Newton, looking at the subject on work, energy, impulse, momentum are the moment of inertia
respectively.

77
Newton’s laws of motion
This is divided into three:

Newton’s first law of motion: This state that a body will continue in its state of rest or if moving
continues in its uniform motion unless acted upon by external forces. This means that, if the
resultant external forces acting on a body is zero, that body will continue to perform the same
operation of uniform motion or if static, remain in the same position, unless something is done to
alter its external force situation. This law is sometimes referred to as the law of inertia.

Newton’s second law: This law states that, the force acting on a body is directly proportional to
the change in momentum and it takes place in the direction of the force.
Mathematically, this is expressed as
F = ma N
Where F = force, m = mass, a = acceleration
This law is the foundation of particle and rigid body kinematics and kinetics
It relates kinetics to kinematics.
Newton’s third law of motion: this law states that to every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Newton’s second law

F = ma
This states that, as the force changes the acceleration changes in a proportional relationship. If
the resultant force ∑F is zero, the acceleration is also zero and the particle is at rest or moving
with a uniform velocity. Thus, suggesting that a uniform motion is a motion of zero force.
Moreover, if the particle is originally at rest, it will continue to remain at rest, with respect to a
Newtonian reference frame. If it is originally moving under the condition of no force, it will
continue to move with constant velocity. This is the reason the Newton’s first law is referred to
as an extension or a particular case of the second law and hence, can be omitted from the
fundamental principles of mechanics (Beer et al, 2004)

78
19.2 WORK
Work is said to be done when a force moves in particular direction. Mathematically, it is
work = force × distance moved in the direction of force.
U=F×r
Consider a particle p which is originally at position r. If after a force is applied, it moves to
position r/ where the change in position is dr. then, the work done by the force in moving the
particle from r to r1 is given as.
dU = FcosӨ × dr --------------------------- 1
Since F and r are vectors, we can express equation (1) in term of scalar product of two vectors. It
is therefore written as:

dU = F. dr
Where dU = change in work done from r to r1.

θ dr

r r/

fig.1
The S.I unit of work is the Joule.
There are some cases in which the direction of the force is the same as that of the
displacement. Then work is simply expressed as;
dU = F dr ------------------------------------------- 2

79
 From the relations (1) and (2) above we can deduce that;
dU/ dr = F (differentiating work with respect to distance gives the force)
Also, U = ∫Fdr (Integrating force with respect to distance gives work)

Relating the phenomenon of work to different aspects

1. work of a force exerted by a spring:

Consider the spring system of figure 2.

x
Fig. 2

The force exerted on the spring to produce the extension x is given as:
–F = kx
where k = spring constant in Nm
The negative sign is as a result of its restoring nature.
If this spring force is used to do a particular work from a point x1, to another point x2, the work
done by the force is given as
dU = – Fdx.

x2 x2
1 2 1 2
U = − ∫ F .dx = − ∫ kx.dx = kx1 − kx2
x1 x1
2 2
2. Work done by the force of gravity:
The effect of gravity on the mass of a particle is the weight of the particle. Hence, the work done
by the force of gravity in felling a body from a particular height h to another is given as
dU = −Wdy

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Where W = weight = mg
The negative sign is because; the movement of the fall is to the negative y axis.

x2

U = − ∫ W .dy = U = Wy1 − Wy2 = W ( y1 − y2 )

x1

Where y2 is the higher vertical distance and y1 is the lower.

3 work of a constant force in a linear motion

dU = F .dx

U = ∫ F .dx

This is obtained when the force moves in the direction of the change in displacement dx. But,
when the force is inclined to the direction, it is:
dU = ( F cos θ ) dx
U = ∫ ( F cos θ ) dx

Where Ө = angle of inclination

4. work done by gravitational force

The gravitation law (Newton’s law of universal gravitation), is given as;

GMm
F= Where F = force of gravitational attraction between masses M and m at a
r2
distance of r apart. G = Universal constant of gravitation.
When this force does work, its work is expressed as:

GMm
dU = − F .dr = − dr
r2
r2
GMm ⎛ 1 ⎞ GMm GMm
U = −∫ 2
dr = −GMm ⎜ 2 dr ⎟ = −
r1
r ⎝r ⎠ r2 r1

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20.0 Kinetic Energy of a Particle
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Just like work, the unit of energy is joule. The kinetic
energy which is a form of mechanical energy is defined as the energy used up by a body (particle
in this case) in moving from one place to another. It is expressed mathematically as:
1 2
T= mv
2
where T = kinetic energy, m = mass and v = velocity of the particle.
20.1 PRINCIPLE OF WORK AND ENERGY
This principle relates the work done by a force on a particle to the kinetic energy of the particle.
Consider a particle of mass m, acted upon by a force F and moving in the direction as shown in
figure below, from position 1 to 2.

F
X
m 2
1

By the Newton’s second law of motion

dv dv ds dv
F = ma = m = m . = mv
dt ds dt ds
Giving:
Fds = mvdv
Integrating from position 1 to 2 gives:
s2 v2
1 2 v2 1 2 1 2
∫ Fds = m ∫ vdv =
s1 v1
2
mv bv1 = mv2 − mv1
2 2
……………… (1)

The left hand side of the equation (1) above is the work done by the force F in moving from
position s1 to s2.
Hence, equation (1) becomes:
U1− 2 = T2 − T1
⇒ ΔU = ΔT
Better written as:
U 2 − U1 = T2 − T1

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This principle expressed mathematically above states that, the change in work done by a force in
moving a particle (or body) from one point to another is equal to the change in the kinetic energy
of the particle in moving from that point to another.
Class examples

1. 10m

30o

F = 30N

Consider the diagram shown above; the weight of the box is 100kg and moves from rest 8m up
the incline from the position shown. Determine (a) the velocity of the box and (b)the work done
by the force
2. A satellite of mass 250kg is placed in a circular orbit 6400km above the earth surface. If the
orbital speed is 25,000km/h, what is the kinetic energy of the satellite?
3. A 2kg stone is dropped from a height h, and strikes the ground with a velocity of 12m/s. (a)
Find the K.E of the stone as it strikes the ground. (b) The height h from which it was dropped.
4. The force acting on a particular body is changing with displacement as F = 5s 2 + 2s + 5 .
Where s is in meters, and F is in Newton. Calculate (a) the work done in moving the body from a
distance of 10m to 15m. (b) The value of the velocity of the motion in this period when the mass
of the body is 100kg

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22.0 Impulse and Momentum
Impulse of a force can be defined as the product of force and the time. It is mathematically
expressed as:
I = F ×t
The S.I unit of impulse is Ns.
Where N = Newton and s = second
Momentum of a particle can be defined as the product of the mass of the particle and the
velocity. It is mathematically expressed as:
M = mv
The S.I unit of momentum is kg m/s,
where kg =kilogram, m = mass and s = second
A force which acts on a body (or particle) during a very short time interval producing a change in
the momentum of the particle is called an impulse force. The resulting motion is called an
impulsive motion. Hence, impulsive force creates an impulsive motion, having a definite change
in linear momentum. An example of impulsive force is the force of impact.
22.1 Principle of Impulse and Momentum
The principle governing impulse and moment relates the impulse of a force to the momentum of
a particle caused by the force. This relationship is derived from Newton’s second law of motion,
and is given as:
dv
F = ma = m
dt
Fdt = mdv
Integrating from an initial position (1) to (2):
t2 v2

∫ Fdt = m ∫ dv = mv2 − mv1 …………………………………1

t1 v1

The equation (1) above shows the change in momentum of a particle as equal to the impulse of
the force. However, considering the equation (1), and assuming that there is no impulsive force,
then the momentum is said to be conserved i.e.

t2

∫ Fdt = mv
t1
2 − mv1 = 0

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Therefore,
mv2 = mv1
Hence, momentum is said to be conserved when the initial momentum is just equal to the final
momentum
Class examples
1. A tennis ball was given an initial speed of v = 30m/s in a certain direction. When it hits
an object at an instant of t = 0.1s, it changes direction and travels in the opposite direction
with a speed of 20m/s. determine the impulsive force exerted on the ball.
2.

2 30o

The box (1) on the inclined plane shown above moves downward with a speed of v1 = 10m/s. It
hits box (2) at the base of plane and joins together. Both travel together with a velocity 5.5m/s in
the horizontal direction. (a) what is the impulse of the force. (b) if the force of impactis 5N, what
is the time of impact? m1 = m2 = 5kg
(c) what amount of energy got lost in the impact.

3. 3m/s Vm/s 0.2m/

=
A B A B

mA = 2kg mB = 5kg

Consider the diagram above. If particles A collides with B which is originally at rest and the two
moves separately with their velocities as shown. (a) Find the velocity of A after the collision. (b)
what amount of energy got lost as a result of the collision.

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Solution
1. v1 = 30m/s, t = 0.1s, v2 = -20m/s (by making the initial direction, the positive direction)
Ft = mv2 – mv1
Ft = m(-20 – 30) = - m(50) = - 50m.
−50m
F= = −500m N
0.1
If the mass had been given, the value of F would be known. Here it is only expressed in
terms of mass.
2. m1 = m2 = 5kg, = 300, v1 = 10m/s, v2 = 5.5m/s
(a) Ft = miv1 – (m1 + m2) v2
I = 5 × cos 30o − ( 5 + 5 ) × 5.5 = −11.70 Ns

(b) 5t = 11.70

11.70
t= 2.34s
5
NB: the negative sign is removed because it only signifies that the direction of the force is
opposite the direction of the boxes.
1 1
m1 ( v1 cos 30o ) + m2 ( 0 )
2 2
(c) K.E before impact =
2 2
1
= 5 (10 cos 30o ) + 0 = 937.5 J
2

1 1
K.E after impact = ( m1 + m2 ) v2 = ( 5 + 5) × 5.5 = 27.5 J
2 2
Energy lost = 937.5 – 27.5 = 910 J
3. (a). Momentum before collision = momentum after collision (since no impulsive is
involved at this stage).

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 m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f − m2 v2 f
2 ( 3) + 5 ( 0 ) = 2 ( v1 f ) + 5 ( 0.2 )
6 = 2v1 f + 1
2v1 f = 6 − 1 = 5
5
v1 f = = 2.5m / s
2
1 1
(b). Energy before collision = m1v 21i + m2 v 2 2i
2 2
1 1
=
2
( 2 × 32 ) + ( 5 × 0 ) = 9 J
2
1 1
Energy after collision = m1v 21 f + m2 v 2 2 f
2 2
1 1
2 × 2.52 + 5 × ( 0.2 )
2
=
2 2
= 6.25 + 0.1 = 6.35J
Energy lost = 9 – 6.35= 2.65 J

Reference
Beer, F.P, E.R. Johnston, Jr., E.R. Eisenberg and W.E. Clausen, 2004. Vector Mechanics for
Engineers: Statics and Dynamics, 7th edn., McGraw-Hill, New York.

Bibliographies
Cheng, Fa-Hwa, 1997. Statics and Strength of Materials, 2nd edn., Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, Ohio.
[TA 351. C52]

Hibbeler, R.C., 2004. Engineering Mechanics: Statics & Dynamics, 10th edn., Prentice Hall, NJ

Silverberg, L and J.P. Thrower, 2001. Mark’s Mechanics, Problem solving companion, McGraw-
Hill, New York. [TA 350. S65]

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