INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The IC engines or “Diesel Engines” as they are referred to, are named after Rudolf
Diesel, who invented these engines in 1893.

The first working engine was built in 1897. It weighed 5 tonnes and produced 20 hp at
172 rpm with an efficiency of about 26%. (Modern low speed diesel engines can have
thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%).

In 1912 the first ocean going ship to have installed diesel engines was “Selandia” which
was powered by twin, 1010 BHP B&W, 8 cylinder, 4 stroke engines, which were direct
coupled.

The worlds largest diesel engine is Wartsilla Sulzer 14RTA96-C common rail marine
diesel of about 113,210 hp @ 102 rpm output.
Figure I.2 A 20 bhp engine built in 1898 by Burmeister & Wain to drawings supplied by
Dr. Diesel, for experimental and demonstration purposes. MAN built the first diesel
engine—a 250 mm bore/400 mm stroke design—in 1893
Thermodynamic Otto Cycle: Air Standard Cycle

Four stroke thermodynamic Otto cycle was invented by the German scientist Nicolaus
August Otto in the year around 1862

Introduction

Four stroke internal combustion (IC) engines using gasoline as the fuel work on the
principle of thermodynamic Otto cycle. These engine are also called Spark Ignition (SI)
engines and are employed extensively in the vehicles used in our day-to-day life.

The four strokes of the Otto cycle or four-stroke engine are: suction of fuel, compression
of fuel, combustion and expansion of fuel and exhaust of burnt fuel.

Otto Cycle :
Various Processes of Ideal Otto Cycle

The ideal Otto cycle comprises of two isentropic (an isentropic process is an idealized
thermodynamic process that is adiabatic and in which the work transfers of the system are
frictionless; there is no transfer of heat or of matter and the process is reversible) and two
constant volume processes. The Otto cycle is an open cycle or non-cyclic process since
the fresh air-fuel mixture is inducted inside the engine during each cycle and the burnt
mixture is released to the atmosphere. Refer the P-V diagram given at the top.

1) Air-fuel intake process 1-2: During this process the inlet valve of the engine is open,
the piston moves towards the bottom position inducting air-fuel mixture at constant
pressure.

2) Isentropic compression process 2-3: During this process the inlet and exhaust valves
of the engine remain close and the air-fuel mixture, which has been inducted inside the
cylinder, is compressed to the minimum volume.

3) Combustion of air-fuel mixture at constant volume 3-4: Thereafter, the air-fuel

mixture inducted inside the cylinder is combusted by the spark at constant volume; hence
these engines are called spark ignition engines. This leads increase in temperature and
pressure inside the cylinder.

4) Isentropic expansion process 4-5: Due to extremely high pressure, the piston is
pushed again towards the bottommost position of the cylinder. It is during this process
that the actual work is produced from the engine.

5) Constant volume process 5-6: During this process the exhaust valve opens and all the
exhaust gases are ready to be released to the atmosphere. The pressure inside the cylinder
falls drastically.

6) Exhaust process 6-1: During this process the exhaust valve is open and the piston
moves upwards and removes all the exhaust gases inside the cylinder at constant
pressure.

Thereafter the exhaust valve closes, the piston starts moving in downward direction, the
inlet valve opens and fresh air-fuel mixture is inducted. The whole cycle is completed in
four strokes of engine, hence it is called four-stroke engine.
Thermal Efficiency : Since thermal efficiency of a cycle represents the heat converted
into work per unit of heat added the thermal efficiency of an Otto cycle is given by

Thermal Efficiency = 1-(T4 – T1)/(T3 – T2)

Using the relationships of perfect Gas laws, the thermal efficiency can also be written as

Thermal Efficiency = 1 – (1/r)^(k-1)

Where r is compression ratio and k is a constant depending on the properties of the

working substance.

Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle: Air Standard Cycle

Four stroke Diesel cycle was invented by Rudolf Diesel in the year 1897. The principle of
Diesel cycle is used in the compression ignition (CI) type of internal combustion engines
using diesel as the fuel.

Thermodynamic Diesel cycle corresponds to the four stroke internal combsution diesel
engines used by us in our vehicles and machines. In these engines the air is compressed
to high pressures and then combustion of fuel takes place, hence they are also called as
Compression Ignition (CI) engines.

 Introduction

Apart from Otto cycle, thermodynamic Diesel cycle is one of the most popularly used
cycles. Like petrol engine running on the principle of Otto cycle, the Diesel engines also
comprise of four strokes: suction of air, compression of air, combustion and expansion of
fuel and exhaust of burnt fuel.

In diesel engine initially only air is inducted inside the cylinder and it is compresses to
very high pressures. Thereafter the diesel fuel is injected inside the cylinder and its
combustion takes place to high temperature of the compressed air. Since the combustion
of fuel takes place due to compression of air, the diesel engine is also called Compression
Ignition (CI) engine.
p-V Diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 1-4 in clockwise
direction.

 Processes of Ideal Diesel Cycle

The ideal Diesel cycle comprises of two isentropic, one constant volume, and one
constant pressure processes. The Diesel cycle is an open cycle or non-cyclic process since
the fresh air and fuel is inducted inside the engine during each cycle and the burnt
mixture is released to the atmosphere

1) Air intake process : During this process the inlet valve of the engine is open, the
piston moves towards the bottom position inducting air at constant pressure.

2) Isentropic compression process 1-2 : During this process the inlet and exhaust valves
of the engine remain close and the air, which has been inducted inside the cylinder, is
compressed to the minimum volume. The compression ratio of air is between15 to 20.
High compression ratios are very important in the Diesel cycle as it increases the
efficiency of the cycle and also allows uniform burning of fuel.

3) Injection of fuel and its combustion at constant pressure 2-3 : During this process
the fuel valve opens and fuel is injected inside the cylinder consisting of hot air at high
pressure. After injection the combustion of fuel takes place instantly. Since the
combustion of fuel occurs due to high pressure, the diesel engine is also called
Compression Ignition engine. Due to combustion of fuel, high pressure and temperature
is generated.

4) Isentropic expansion process 3-4 : Due to extremely high pressure, the piston is
pushed again towards the bottom most position of the cylinder. It is during this process
that the actual work is produced from the engine.

5) Constant volume heat rejection process 4-1 : During this process the exhaust valve
opens and all the exhaust gases are ready to be released to the atmosphere. The pressure
inside the cylinder falls drastically.

6) Exhaust process : During this process the exhaust valve is open and the piston moves
upwards and removes all the exhaust gases inside the cylinder at constant pressure.

Thereafter the exhaust valve closes, the piston starts moving in downward direction, the
inlet valve opens and fresh air is inducted. The whole cycle is completed in four strokes
of engine, hence it is called four-stroke engine.

Thermal Efficiency : The thermal efficiency is calculated like before by dividing the
amount of heat converted into work by the total amount of heat supplied and it gives

Thermal Efficiency = 1 – 1/k (T4 – T1/T3 – T2)

k being dependent on the working substance and is a constant

Hence you can see that the thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle is different from the
thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle by the figure in the curly brackets. That figure is
always greater than unity hence the efficiency of the diesel cycle will be lesser than that
of the Otto cycle. The only way to overcome this deficiency is to use higher compression
ratios in case of real engines to offset the effect of lower efficiency.

Just to give an example the thermal efficiency of a diesel cycle engine having a
compression ratio of 14 would be greater than an Otto cycle engine having
compression ratio of 7 due to this offset effect.

Differences between spark ignition engines (otto) and compression ignition (diesel)

Mechanically, there are no major differences between spark ignition engine and
compression ignition engines.
They are distinguished by their theoretical cycle. The spark ignition engine operates on
the Otto cycle and compression ignition as the diesel cycle.

The fundamental differences between the two types of engines are derived from the
differences in their cycles:

 introducing fuel into the engine

In most engines spark ignition (Otto cycle), air and fuel are introduced into the
combustion chamber in the form of gaseous mixture. The mixture is carried into the
carburetor, and the regulation of the quantity of mixture introduced is obtained by means
of a butterfly valve.

In compression ignition engines (diesel cycle), air is introduced into the chamber through
ducts, while the fuel is introduced directly by means of an injector. The air-fuel mixture
ignition takes place in the combustion chamber

 On the fuel

The spark ignition engine (Otto cycle) requires an ignition system to generate in the
combustion chamber a spark between the electrodes of a spark plug, in order that the
combustion can be initiated.

The compression ignition engine (diesel cycle) uses high temperature and pressure
obtained by compressing the air in the cylinder to begin combustion when the fuel is
injected.

 Compression ratio

The value of the compression ratio in spark ignition engines (Otto cycle) varies from 6-
10, except in exceptional cases, while in compression ignition engines (cycle diesel)
ranges between 14 and 22.

In the spark ignition engine (Otto cycle), the upper limit of the compression ratio is
essentially determined by the fuel antiknock quality (raising the temperature and pressure
at which auto ignition occurs) in the market for compression-ignition engines

In (diesel cycle) it is determined mainly by the weight of the engine structure, which
increases with increasing compression ratio.

 Heat transfer

In Otto cycle heat transfer is at constant volume where as in Diesel cycle it is at constant
pressure.
  Motor Weight

The compression ignition engine (diesel cycle) is usually heavier than a spark ignition
engine (Otto cycle) of the same capacity, because it works considerably at higher
pressure.
 DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

Modern Diesel engines operate on Dual Combustion Cycle which is a combination of

Constant Volume (Otto) and Constant Pressure (Diesel) cycle is shown in the sketch.
The area of the diagram represents the work done on the piston during one cycle.
Starting from point C, the air is compressed adiabatically to a point D. Fuel injection
begins at D, and heat is added to the cycle partly at constant volume (shown by vertical
line DP), and partly at constant pressure ( shown by horizontal line PE). At point E
expansion begins. This proceeds adiabatically to point F when the heat is rejected to
exhaust at constant volume.
The exhaust and suction strokes are shown by horizontal line at C, and this as no effect
on cycle.

This theoretical cycle deviates from practical cycle due to

 Unavoidable thermal, hydraulic and mechanical losses.
 The manner in which, and the rate at which, heat is added to the compressed air is
a complex function of fuel injection equipment.
 The compression and expansion strokes are not truly adiabatic. Heat is lost to the
cylinder walls to an extent which is influenced by coolant temperature and by
design of the heat paths to the coolant.
 Some of the useful work is expended to perform the induction and exhaust process.
Greater losses are involved during exhaust as the unused energy is lost by
compressed hot gases when the exhaust valve opens before the piston arrives.
 Action arising out of reciprocating, rotating and rubbing components also
contribute to losses.
 Some energy is used to drive auxiliaries like lub oil pumps, jacket water pumps,
etc.
 4 STROKE CYCLE

Nickolaus Otto invented the 4 stroke cycle in 1862.In 1893 Rudolph Diesel
invented the compression ignition engine, now named after him.

The four stroke cycle is so called because it takes four strokes of the piston to
complete the process needed to convert the energy in the fuel to work.
Because the engine is reciprocating, this means the piston has to move up and
down the cylinder twice, and therefore the crankshaft must revolve twice.

The four stroke of the piston are known as induction stroke, compression
stroke, power stroke and the exhaust stroke.

Induction Stroke : The crankshaft is rotating clockwise and the piston is

moving down the cylinder. The inlet valve is open and the fresh charge of air
is drawn inside the cylinder at a pressure existing in the intake manifold. The
inlet valve closes at the end of the stroke.

Compression Stroke : Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed and air is
compressed by the piston as it moves up in the cylinder. Because energy is
transferred into air the pressure and temperature of the air increases.

Power stroke : Just before piston is reaching the TDC ( top dead centre) fuel is
injected into the cylinder by fuel injector. Fuel is ignited by the high
temperature produced at the end of compression and the expanding gases
forces the piston down the cylinder. The gases expand until at the end of the
stroke when exhaust valve opens.

Exhaust Stroke : As the piston is approaching the BDC ( bottom dead centre) ,
the exhaust valve opens. As the piston moves up the cylinder the exhaust
gases are expelled from the cylinder.

As the piston approached the TDC again the inlet valve starts to open and the
cycle repeats itself.
Timing Diagram : Position of crank at which each operation during the cycle
is commenced and completed.

1-2 : Completion of aspiration. Air inlet valve closed. 145-155 BTDC

2-3 : Compression.
3-4-5 : Fuel Injection. From 10-20 BTDC to 10-20 ATDC
5-6 : Expansion.
6-7-8 : Exhaust. Exhaust valve opens 120-150 ATDC
8-9-10 : Overlap. Air inlet valve opens 70-80 BTDC
10-1 : Aspiration. Exhaust valve closed. 50-60 ATDC
1-etc : Aspiration continues for next cycle.

4 and 9 are TDC positions and 1 and 7 are BDC positions.

 2 STROKE CYCLE

Two stroke cycle was invented by Sir Dugald Clerk in 1881.

The two stroke cycle is so called because it takes two strokes of the piston to complete
the process needed to convert the energy in the fuel to work.

The working of two stroke cycle engine differs from that of four stroke cycle engine
because of complete absence of two distinct strokes of induction and exhaust. A part of
each of compression and expansion strokes in a two stroke engine is utilized for the
process of induction and exhaust.

Induction and Compression Stroke : Air is admitted as the scavenge ports are uncovered
by the piston. The cylinder is filled up with the charge of fresh air at the beginning of
compression. The air is compressed by the piston moving upwards in the cylinder and
pressure and temperature of air is increased.

Expansion and Exhaust : Fuel is injected towards end of compression and heat is added to
the mass of air and fuel starts to burn as piston is passing over TDC. The expanding gases
push the piston downwards.
At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust is opened first , the pressure drops below
the scavenge manifold pressure and fresh air is admitted through scavenge ports. The
cylinder is cleansed of residual products of combustion by incoming air and the cycle is
repeated.
1-2 : Completion of scavenge. Scavenge ports close 130-150 BTDC
2-3 : Post scavenge . Exhaust closes 110-150 BTDC
3-4 : Compression
4-5-6 : Fuel injection. Begins at 10-20 BTDC and ends at 10-20 ATDC
6-7 : Expansion
7-8 : Exhaust blowdown. Exhaust opens 110-120 ATDC
8-1 : Scavenge. Scavenge ports open 130-150 ATDC
1-etc : Scavenging then continues for next cycle.

Position 1 represents BDC and position 5 represents TDC.