2014 5th IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT Europe), October 12-15, Istanbul

Optimization of an Air Conditioning Unit

according to Renewable Energy availability and
User’s Comfort
Ana K. Cabrera, Hasan Ul Banna, Cosmin Koch-Ciobotarus Siddharta Ghosh
Electrical Engineering Department School of Electronics and Computer Science
Technical University of Catalunya University of Southampton
Spain Southampton, United Kingdom
a.cabreratobar.2012@ieee.org sg2@ecs.soton.ac.uk

Abstract— the integration of renewable energy sources (RES) in

the electrical system can be achieved on all voltage levels using I. INTRODUCTION
both large power plants and individual/local small distributed In recent years, concerns regarding the use of fossil fuels as
renewable generation units. The present paper focuses on a low the primary source of energy have become an issue in many
voltage consumer: a house with a dedicated photovoltaic system
countries. One main reason is due to the climate change which
which supplies energy to an air conditioning unit. However the
problem is the variability of this energy during the day. The
could have been caused by the carbon emissions from these
solution proposed, in this paper, is the development of a home types of fuels. Therefore many treaties have been signed in
energy management system (HEMS), in which the air order to reduce these emissions. One of them was the
conditioning unit is controlled according to the solar irradiation agreement reached at the G8 summit in 2008 to reduce CO 2
during the day and the desirable inside temperature of the house emissions by 50% in 2050 in comparison to 1990 [1].
between the hours of 9:00 to 18:00. The algorithm considers the To meet the global target on ecological and economic aspects,
thermodynamic model of the house and the photovoltaic panels’ it is necessary to increase the use of renewable energy in a
model to maximize the use of solar energy during the day. This sustainable way. However, there is a problem related to the
optimization is implemented in CPLEX and the complete
stochastic behavior of renewable energy during the day [2]-
algorithm and a graphical user’s interface (GUI) is developed in
JAVA. At the end, the test simulations shows that the inside
[8]. For instance, solar energy shows fluctuation depending on
temperature during the day is closed to the desirable the weather; if it is clear or cloudy [9]. Commonly, one of the
temperature in which the air conditioning unit is on according solutions is the use of storage devices which must save energy
the algorithm developed especially on those moments with high when there is an overproduction, then this energy can be used
irradiation. In the study, a comparison between the normal during the day according the user needs [8]-[11]. Another
control of an air conditioning unit and the HEMS is developed. solution is the interconnection with the electrical grid at
moments of lack or overproduction of renewable energy,
developing a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) [16]
Keywords—Air conditioning unit, microgrids, optimization, with or without storage.
renewable energy, home energy management.
The number of consumers is variable depending on the
capacity installed. The actual trend is the use of photovoltaic
NOMENCLATURE panels at the rooftop of the houses and the loads commonly
controlled are: air conditioning units and heating. The
FF: fill factor; scheduling of other loads as washing machines, dishwasher,
Pmax: maximum power and dryers can also be implemented. In any case, the HEMS
N: number of cells play an important role, controlling the load and the source
Isc: short circuit current (A); according the user’s behavior, and weather forecasting [17]-
Voc: open circuit voltage (V); [21] The present work focuses in the design of an algorithm
T: temperature (Ԩ) for HEMS in a house located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The
Rs: series resistance of the cell; load is an air conditioning unit which is supplied by
Ro: internal resistance. photovoltaic panels or by the grid depending on the weather
T c: cell temperature (Ԩሻ; characteristics. This microgrid1 has the objective to maximize
Text: externalt temperature (Ԩሻ; the use of solar energy during the day by the adequate control
G: Irradiance (W/m2); of the air conditioning unit. The desirable temperature of the
ߚൌ 1.9 mV*N/Ԩ; house and the solar panels characteristics are chosen by the
K= Boltzman constant;
STC = standard conditions;
C= operational conditions; 1
According to U.S Department of Energy (DOE) a microgrid has a group of
loads and a distributed energy resource (DER) which can be managed and
controlled working in two modes of operation: islanding or non-islanding.

978-1-4799-7720-8/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE

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user in a GUI. The acceptable margin of temperature in the

house is േͲǤͷԨ within a schedule of 9:00 to 18:00.
The HEMS is developed in JAVA, in which the
thermodynamic model of the house and the photovoltaic
panel’s model are developed. They depend on the
meteorological data as external temperature and the solar
irradiation. Then, the optimization is done in CPLEX with the
constraint of user´s thermal comfort. The user can introduce
the data of the photovoltaic panels and the desirable
temperature in a screen with a graphical user´s interface
developed also in JAVA. This paper is divided in six sections.
Section II discusses about the physical architecture of the
microgrid. Section III, explains the algorithm designed to Fig. 1 Architecture of the microgrid
control the microgrid. It also explains the thermodynamic
model of the house and the solar panel model. A further
discussion about the computing tools is on Section IV, plus
the results and the discussion are in Section V. Then the
conclusions about the project are in section VI.
II. MICROGRID ARCHITECTURE
The architecture proposed, represented in Fig. 1, has the
following components: meteorological data, the photovoltaic
system (PV system), the air conditioning unit, the grid and the
graphical user’s interface. All the parts are linked and
controlled by HEMS.
x Meteorological data. This component would receive the
weather data from a forecast station; in this case, RENES 2
permits access to this data. The data considered is the
external temperature and the solar irradiation. Fig. 2 Normal control of an air conditioning unit
x Power system. It considers the photovoltaic (PV) panels
and the electrical grid with the corresponding power
electronics to guarantee an AC voltage of 120V and a x Home energy management (HEMS). It is in charge of
frequency of 60 Hz. The point of common coupling (PCC) the control and management of the microgrid. It receives
is critical in this section. The microgrid is concern about the meteorological and the user’s data to control the air
which type of source will be active at different moments of conditioning unit and the power system at the point of
the day. Besides, the use of any storage device is not common coupling (PCC).
considered in the system because the load is not critical
and therefore it can be interrupted at any time. Each of the parts of the microgrid is linked among them by the
x Graphical User’s interface (GUI). It helps to the user to home energy management system. The following section
introduce the data of the desirable temperature and the explains the control algorithm and the models developed at the
power, current, and voltage of the solar panels. Also, the core of the microgrid.
user can see the behaviour of the temperature of the house
during the day comparing it with the desirable temperature III. MICROGRID CONTROL ALGORITHM
together with the temperature from outside the house.
Another visual aid is the power developed by the solar The HEMS receives and read the meteorological data
panels together with the solar irradiation. forecasted for the day. The HEMS must develop two models
x Air conditioning unit (ACU). Normally an air i)the thermodynamic model of the house, and ii) the
conditioning unit works according to the thermostat photovoltaic solar panels model. After the model is developed,
information. If the temperature of the house is higher than the optimization is done and permits that the air conditioning
the desirable, then the air conditioning unit will be turn on, unit will be supplied, more time, by the solar panels than the
in other case it will be off with an acceptable margin of electrical grid. The air conditioning unit and the power system
is controlled after the algorithm has the complete model with
±0.5Ԩ (Fig. 2). In the present work, the thermostat control
the optimization result. Fig. 3 is a block diagram of the parts
is replaced by the signal of control of the algorithm
involve in the control algorithm of the microgrid.
developed in the HMES and also works with the same
margin because the user should not notice any difference.

2
Renewable Energy estimator. http://www.intelligence.tuc.gr/renes/
 3

Fig.4. Control of the air conditioning unit with the new algorithm
Fig. 3. Block diagram of the HEMS

A. Thermodynamic model of the house

୲ ୋ౪
The present work uses a modification of the model proposed ‘… ୲ ൌ ୣ୶୲ ൅ ሺ െ ʹͲሻǤ ሺԨሻ; (1)
଼଴଴
by Siddharta Ghosh in [22]. The model calculates the internal ୋ౪
temperature of the house for the next time slot 3 considering
the present internal temperature (‫ܖܑ܂‬ ‫ܜ‬
ǡ Ԩሻ, the ACU behaviour
and the characteristics of the house.
The air conditioning unit will be on or off according the result
of the control algorithm. The time that ACU is on, at each
time slot, is defined by Ɂሺ–ሻ (Fig. 4). The decrease of
temperature during this time is defined by a constant value:
࣬ሺԨሻ. In addition, the characteristic of the house as losses
due to wind, ventilation, and windows characteristics is
defined by the leakage: ‫( ׎‬unitless). The mathematical model
is represented in (1).
‫ܜ‬ା૚ ‫ܜ‬ ‫ܜ‬
‫ܖܑ܂‬ ൌ ‫ܖܑ܂‬ െ जǤ ઼‫ ܜ‬െ ‫׎‬ሺ‫ܖܑ܂‬ െ ‫ ܜࢇ܂‬ሻ;
The estimation of the values of ࣬ and ‫ ׎‬is crucial for the
•…ୡ୲ ൌ  Ǥ •…ୗ୘େ Ǣሺʹሻ
ଵ଴଴଴
(2)
୏ాǤ ୘ୡ౪ ‫୒כ‬ ୋ౪
‘…ୡ୲ ൌ ‘…ୗ୘େ ൅  Ž ቀ ቁ െ Ⱦሺ… ୲ െ ʹͷሻ; (3)
୯ ଵ଴଴଴
The maximum power is calculated by the fill factor at
operational conditions. The fill factor (FF) is the relation of
the maximum power with the correspondent current and
voltage (5). The calculation of the FF’s value in operational
conditions depends on the series resistance (Rs) which does
not depend on the panel conditions. Thus, Rs can be calculated
with values of the solar panel at standard conditions (6) in
function of the internal cell resistance ܴை (7) and a variable
value, ‫ݎ‬௦ ; this is calculated by the relation in (8). Here, appears
(1) the ideal FFo which is determined by a logarithmic relation
with the voltage calculated at each solar cell (9,10).
ƒšୗ୘େ ൌ •…ୗ୘େ Ǥ ‘…ୗ୘େ Ǥ ୗ୘େ  per panel (5)
thermodynamic model of the house. The present work does
not evaluate these values. The values used are 0.15 Ԩ for ࣬  ୗ ൌ ”ୱሺୗ୘େሻ ‫୓  כ‬ሺୗ୘େሻ (6)
and 0.008 for ‫ ׎‬thanks to the work done in [22].
୴୭ୡ౏౐ి
‘ୗ୘େ ൌ Ǣ (7)
୍ୱୡ౏౐ిǤ
B. PV model
୊୊౏౐ి
”ୱሺୗ୘େሻ ൌ ͳ െ (8)
The model of the PV panels calculates the output power at ୊୊ో ሺୗ୘େሻ

each time slot according to the meteorological data (irradiation

୴୭ୡ౏౐ి ି୪୬ሺ଴Ǥ଻ଶା୴୭ୡ౏౐ి ሻ
and temperature). This model is based on the theory  ‘ୗ୘େ ൌ (9)
ଵା୴୭ୡ౏౐ి
explained by Tomas Markvart in [23] and [24]. ୚୭ୡ౏౐ి
˜‘…ୗ୘େ ൌ  Ǣ (10)
୏Ǥ୘౏౐ి Ǥ୒
The model considers the calculation of data for a solar panel
with 36 solar cells at normal operation conditions (c) as the Having the value of RS, the fill factor for operational
cell temperature (2), the short-circuit current (3), and the conditions at each time slot can be calculated. First, the
open-circuit voltage (4) for each time slot based on the normal calculation needs the voltage of the solar cell (11), and then
operating cell temperature (NCOT)4, the external temperature the ideal fill factor is calculated (12). The ideal resistance and
(Text), the irradiation (G) and the electrical data at standard the value of rs can be determined at operational conditions
conditions (STC). (13,14). Then, the real fill factor is calculated (15). Finally, the
maximum power is obtained for each time slot according the
3
The present work considers that the day is devided in spaces of ten minutes operational conditions (16).
called time slots. In total, there are 144 time slots of ten minutes during the ୚୭ୡ౪ౙ
˜‘…ୡ୲ ൌ  Ǣ (11)
day. The algorithm does the analysis for each time slot. ୏Ǥ୘ୡ౪ Ǥ୒
4
The value of NOCT can change depending the photovoltaic panels data. The
present work assumes a value of 45 Ԩ.
 4

˜‘…ୡ୲ െ ŽሺͲǤ͹ʹ ൅  ˜‘…ୡ୲ ሻ house which has to be inside the margin elected (Fig. 4). Thus,
 ‘େ ୲ ൌ  ሺͳʹሻ
ͳ ൅ ˜‘…ୡ୲ the algorithm maximize the use of the power developed by the
PV system during the day and it reduces as maximum as
୴୭ୡ౪ౙ possible the dependency on the electrical grid.
‘େ ୲ ൌ  Ǣ (13)
୍ୱୡ౪ౙ Ǥ

ୖୱ
The implementation of the complete algorithm is studied in
”•େ ୲ ൌ , (14) the next section.
ୖ୭ి ౪

D. Algorithm implementation
 ୡ ୲ ൌ ‘େ ୲ ሺͳ െ ”•େ ୲ ሻ (15)
The implementation of the two models is developed in JAVA
ƒšୡ ୲ ൌ •…ୡ୲ Ǥ ‘…ୡ୲ Ǥ ‘େ ୲ , per panel
 based on the work of Siddharta Gosh [22]. The algorithm for
In the case of low irradiation value (less than 125 W/m2),
another model must be considered, according to [25].
However, the air conditioning unit will not use the power from
the PV panel at irradiations lower than 200 W/m2. Thus, the
model presented satisfies the behavior of the PV panel
according the irradiation and the temperature. This model is
used in the following section to develop the algorithm of
optimization.
C. Optimization algorithm
The aim of the optimization problem is to maintain the
internal temperature of the house close to the desirable
temperature with a margin of ±0.5Ԩ between 9:00 and 18:00.
The air conditioning unit will be on or off according the
production of solar power and the internal temperature of the
house (Fig. 4). The energy consumed by the ACU, at each
time slot, is calculated by (17).
 ‫ ܧ‬௧ ൌ  ߜ ௧ ‫ݔܽ݉ܲ כ‬௖ ௧ ; (17)
In order to guarantee that the air conditioning unit will use the
power from the PV panel during high values of irradiance, the
optimization algorithm must maximize the load consumption
of solar energy. The objective function and constraints are
indicated as follows:
 ݉ܽ‫ݔ‬ఋ σ்௧ୀ଴ ߜ ௧ ‫ݔܽ݉ܲ כ‬௧ ,
(18)
Subject to:
Ͳ ൏ ߜ ൏ ͳͲ݉݅݊
‫ ܩ‬൐ ʹͲͲ W/m2
ȁ୧୬ െ †‡•‹”ƒ„Ž‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ȁ ൏ ͲǤͷԨ
The optimization algorithm finds the ߜሺ‫ݐ‬ሻvalues, at each time
slot, to control the air conditioning unit along the day.
According to the algorithm and the optimization program
developed, ߜሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ is high (closed to 10 min) if the power
developed by the PV panels is also high. If solar irradiation is
low then the panels will not produce so much power, thus the
air conditioning unit will be on for a very small ߜሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ .
The number of time slots that the air conditioning will be on,
with thisߜሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ, depends on the internal temperature of the
(16) programming language. The thermodynamic model of the
house used to validate the proposed control algorithm was
the PV model is completely implemented at the present work.
The common variable of the two models is ߜሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ which value
is determined by the optimization algorithm. The software
which helps to do the mathematical calculation to find ߜሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
is IBM ILOG CPLEX. This provides mathematical tools for
linear programming, mixed-integer programming, quadratic
programing and quadratically constrained programming
problems. In this case, the objective function and the
constraints has linear characteristics, thus IBM ILOG CPLEX
is able to find the solution.
IV. GRAPHICAL USER’S INTERFACE
The interface is developed in JAVA and is linked with the rest
of the algorithm. The interface developed has three screens:
the first screen (Fig. 5) shows the internal and external
temperature of the home, and the user can set the desirable
temperature. The second screen (Fig. 6) permits to the user set
the data regarding the PV panels –number of panels,
maximum output power, short-circuit current and open-circuit
voltage at standard conditions- and the data of the air
conditioning unit. The third screen (Fig. 7) shows the internal
temperature of the house in real time compared with the
ambient temperature and the desirable temperature. In the
same screen another plot helps to visualize the solar
irradiation and the power generated by the PV panels during
the day.
Fig. 5. Screen to set the desirable temperature and visualize the
internal and external temperature of the house.
 5

Fig. 6 Screen to set the PV panel data and the air conditioning unit.

Fig. 8 Behavior of the internal temperature with a set point of 22 Ԩ

Fig. 7. Screen to visualize internal ( ), external ( ), desirable temperature

( ) and the solar irradiation (- ) together with the power generated by the
PV panels ( ).

After the graphical user’s interface was developed, the

complete algorithm with the corresponding models was tested.
The results and the discussion is detailed in section V. Fig 9. Control of the air conditioning and power output from the PV
panel in contrast with the irradiance (22 Ԩሻ
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The fig. 9 shows the control signal of the air conditioning unit
In the present paper, it is going to be assumed that the values
for this case. The start time of the control signal is at 6:00,
of the photovoltaic panel and the air conditioning unit are the
though the HEMS preset the working time of the air
one given in table 1.
Table I. Initial data
conditioning unit from 9:00 to 18:00. This is because the
Panels 4 HEMS should maximize the load consumption of solar energy
Pmax(W) 85 to have the desirable temperature at the hour set (9:00 to
Voltage(V) 22.5 18:00). So, the air conditioning unit will turn on at 6:00 until
Current (A) 4.9 9:00 for small periods of time to not permit that the internal
Air conditioning unit power(W) 100
temperature of the house will rise more than 24 Ԩ. From 9:00
to 18:00 the air conditioning unit will turn on for higher
A. Cases study periods of time in order to have a temperature closed to 22 Ԩ
The cases studies, to validate the algorithm developed, are with a margin of േͲǤͷԨ and maximizing the use of the power
selected according to the desirable temperature set by the user. supplied by the PV panels.
The first case study is for a desirable temperature of 22Ԩ. In
this case the change of the internal temperature of the house The second case study is for a desirable temperature of 25 Ԩ.
during the day is illustrated in Fig. 8. This figure also shows In this case the change of the internal temperature of the house
the variation of the external temperature along the day during the day is illustrated in Fig. 10. This is compared with
according to the meteorological data. The internal temperature the external and the desirable temperature. The result is an
of the house stays close to the desirable temperature with a internal temperature closed to 25 Ԩ with a margin of േͲǤͷԨ
margin of േͲǤͷԨ from 9:00 to 18: 00. This result is due to from 9:00 to 18: 00. The control signal of the air conditioning
the algorithm developed to control the air conditioning unit by unit is plot in Fig. 11.
funding the ߜ value, at each time slot.

This signal starts at 10:00, in contrast with the first case study.
This behavior is because the desirable temperature is higher
than the first case so the HEMS can have a better control of
the internal temperature during the working set time (9:00 to
18:00) without the need to turn on the air conditioning unit
before that time.
Comparing the figures 9 and 11, can be observed the change
of the control signal according the power generated by the PV
panels and the external temperature of the house. There is a
correspondence between the solar irradiance and the width of
each pulse in the control signal. There is a maximum
production of energy from 11:00 to 14:00, at the same time the
external temperature is around 35 Ԩ, so the air conditioning
unit must be on almost all the time to maintain the internal
temperature, close to the desired temperature, and to maximize
the load energy consumption of the solar panels.
The moments that the air conditioning unit must be on, are
according to the value of ߜ determined by the control
algorithm. Those moments, the HEMS must use more energy
generated by the PV panels instead of the grid. But this
condition cannot happen all the time due the variability of the
solar irradiance during the day.
Fig. 10. Behavior of the internal temperature with a set point of 25 Ԩ
Fig.11 Control of the air conditioning and power output from the PV panel in
contrast with the irradiance (25 Ԩሻ
6
B. Comparison with a normal air conditioning controlled by
thermostat
The conditions to test the system by thermostat are the same
detailed in Table.1 with a temperature of 22 Ԩ, similar to the
first study case. The model studied is from Matlab, which with
some modification permits to work with an air conditioning
unit with a thermostat to control the internal temperature of
the house with an error of ±0.5 Ԩ (Fig. 12).
In this case, the control is on almost all the time in order to
accomplish the requirements of the user. Also the temperature
behavior has many oscillations in difference with the control
proposed on this document. However, the time that the air
conditioning unit stays on during noon is less than the
illustrated in Fig. 9.
However, the comparison of the both systems is difficult to do
it. In this work, the system is focused to approach the
maximum amount of energy from the PV system according to
the irradiation. Therefore, the air conditioning unit states on
for more time during hours with high irradiation to accomplish
the temperature behavior during the day. So, this system tries
to approach as maximum as possible the power developed by
the photovoltaic system. Meanwhile, the air conditioning unit
controlled by a thermostat only turns on when it is necessary,
and it does not care where the power comes.
Moreover, without the optimization and the use of the
different models, there is not possibility to predict the
behavior of the load during the day, and thus HEMS reduces
the variability of the demand into the grid. This cannot be
performed by a simple thermostat.
After presenting the results and the corresponding discussion
some conclusions are argued in the following section together
with the future work.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
This work has described a microgrid in which a HEMS has
been designed to manage an air conditioning unit. The
proposed architecture includes an air conditioning unit as a
load, a power system generated by the grid and PV panels,
meteorological data and the Graphic user’s interface. The
control algorithm is based on the development of models
regarding the thermodynamic behavior of the internal
temperature of the house and the power generated by the
photovoltaic panels.
Fig. 12 Air conditioning controlled by a thermostat.( ૛૛Ԩ.)

The control algorithm maximizes the load consumption of
energy from PV panels to have an internal temperature of the
house closed to the desired temperature set by the user with a
margin of േͲǤͷԨ between 9:00 to 18:00. The air conditioning
unit maintains its state of on, for a longer time between the
hours of 11:00 to 14:00, when there is higher values of solar
irradiation. This control does not behave as a thermostat
because it estimates the time that the air conditioning unit is
on during the day according the power generated by a PV
system and the thermal model of the house, in order to reduce
the variability of the load during the day with the main
objective to use the power from the PV system as much as
possible but maintaining the internal temperature closed to the
desired one.
Besides, the HEMS developed is suitable for any number of
PV panels and the main characteristics can be set by the user.
The HEMS also considers that the air conditioning unit can
have other characteristics which also can be set by the user.
Thus, the HEMS is friendly and it can be adapted to any real
installation.
Even though the HEMS, proposed in this paper, has a good
performance, more research is necessary. First, the
thermodynamic model needs to be improved considering the
houses characteristics of Saudi Arabia. The model can be
tested by the use of intelligent sensors of temperature installed
in the house. Second, the model of the PV panels should also
be improved considering inclination, and shadow. Third, the
control algorithm can be enhanced by the consideration of
other variables as the CO2 emissions and the cost of
electricity.
Finally, the HEMS needs to be tested in a real time simulation
with hardware in the loop considering the power converters,
and the control for the power flow, synchronization and other
electrical constraints together with the load control. Then, a
real analysis of the cost and revenue can be done.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was developed at the University of Southampton
and supported by the National department of Higher
Education, Science, Technology and Innovation of Ecuador
(SENESCYT).
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