Reason -is the faculty or process of drawing logical  Impartiality is the idea that the same ethical

references(Philosophical Aspects.) standards are applied to everyone.

-is the human intelligence exercised upon
 Self-interest needs to be balanced with needs of
religious truth whether by way of discovery or by
others.
way of explanation. (Theological Aspects)
”Reason is the reason why we have will”  Do not value one person or group more than

Will -central to the field of ethics because of role in any other.

enabling deliberate action. (Philosophical  Each person is an individual and should receive
Importance) equal respect and consideration.
-Faculty in mind which selects, at the moment
 Organizations and institutions consider how the
of decisions a desire from among the various
people associated with these are affected.
desires present.
- does not refer to any particular desire, it refers Feelings - mental association and reactions to
to the mechanism for choosing from among ones emotions.
desires.
- originate in the neocortical regions of the
“ UNDERSTANDING + REASON > WILL” brain.
Reason (2) - suitable way of knowing for ethical
- subject to influenced by personal experience
decisions when one does not wish to question their
beliefs and memories.
perception of an issue.
- happens next after having an emotion.
- lacks the attachment that emotion carries.
-involves cognitive input, usually subconscious
- has ability to remain detached from situation
and cannot be measured precisely.
- based on logic
Emotions vs. Feelings
Moral Judgement - must be backed by good
 Feelings are sparked by emotions and colored
reasons.
by personal experiences, beliefs, memories, and
“do not” - “feelings can overwhelm reason, assess thoughts linked to that particular emotion.
arguments, consider facts and principles, avoid
 Feelings are product of brain perceiving an
prejudices.
emotion and assigning certain feeling.
-recognize that arguments can go wrong in to
 Emotions are physical and instinctive, complex
many ways.
and involve a variety of physical and cognitive
Reason (3) - useful as moral indicator because it responses.
should always stay the same and be the most
 Emotions general purpose is to produce a
unbiased way of knowing, which allows ethical
specific response to a stimulus; can be
principles to be justified objectively.
powerful experiences but do not last long,
Example of Impartial Decisions
makes us do thing we later regret.
 Emotions makes us irrational.
Ethical requirements or ethical standard - set of
principles established to communicate its
underlying moral values.
-provides framework useful as reference in
decision making process.
- important part of organizations culture.
Establish the parameters of behavior.
- serve as guidelines for decision making
process
- moral compass crucial to maintain down
unethical behaviour mostly in managerial positions.
Moral Standard - norms individual have about
kind of actions believed to be morally right or
wrong/ values we believed to be morally good or
bad.
- normally promote the good.
- norms plus values equals moral standards.
Culture - characteristics and knowledge of a
particular group of people, encompassing language,
religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.
- plays a vital role in shaping the society and
the country.
- describes a collective way of life, or way of
doing things
- reflects the moral and ethical beliefs and
standards that speak to how people should behave
and interact with others.
Cultural Relativism - refers to the idea that the
values, knowledge, and behavior of people must be
understood within their own cultural context.
- the view that moral or ethical systems, which
vary from culture to culture, are all equally valid
and no one system is really “better” than any other.
Moral Dilemma - dilemmas that involves human
actions which have moral implications.
A dilemma is a situation where a person is
forced to choose between two or more conflicting
options, neither of which is acceptable
Free will - a rational causality that is effective
without being determined by an alien cause,
including the desires and inclination of a person .
(Immanuel Kant)
-must be entirely self - determining. Yet
because it is a causality, it must act on some law or
other.
Freedom - power of will
- power or right to speak, act or think without
hindrances or restraints.
Types of moral dilemmas:
1. Epistemic moral dilemmas - epistemics
means to do with the knwoledge of something.
- -more information and knowledge are needed
before making an informed decision.
2. Ontological moral dilemmas- involve
situations wherein two or more moral
requirements conflict with each other, yet
neither of these conflicting moral requirements
overrides each other.
3. Self-imposed moral dilemma is caused by
the moral agent’s wrongdoings.
4. World-imposed moral dilemma - means that
certain events in the world place the agent in a
situation of moral conflict.
5. Obligation dilemmas - situations in which
more than one feasible action is obligatory,
6. Prohibition dilemmas -involve cases in
which all feasible actions are forbidden.
7. Single agent dilemma - the moral agent is
compelled to act on two or more equally the
same moral options but she cannot choose both.
8. Multi-person dilemma - occurs in situations
that involve several persons like a family, an
organization, or a community who is expected to
come up with consensual decision on a moral
issue at hand.
Levels of Moral Dilemma
Level 1: Pre-conventional Level- rules imposed
by authority figures are conformed to in order to
avoid punishment or receive rewards.
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation
- Behaviour is determined by consequences. The
individual will obey in order to
punishment.
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation
- Behaviour is determined again
consequences. The individual focuses
receiving rewards or satisfying personal needs.
Level 2: Conventional level- conformity to
social rules remains important to the individual.
However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest
to relationships with other people and social
systems.
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation
- Behaviour is determined by social approval.
The individual wants to maintain or win the
affection and approval of others by being a “good
person.”
Stage 4: Law and order orientation
- Social rules and laws determine behaviour.
The individual now takes into consideration a
larger perspective, that of societal laws.
Level 3: Post-conventional or principled level-
the individual moves beyond the perspective of
his or her own society.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
- Individual rights determine behaviour.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle
orientation
According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of
functioning.
Characterisitics of Moral Standards
1. Deal with matters that we think can seriously
injured or benefit humans, animals, and the
environment.
2. Not established or changed by the decisions of
avoid authoritative or bodies;
3. Overriding, that is, they take precedence over
other standards and considerations, especially of
by self-interest;
on
4. Based on impartial consideration;
5.Associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
Kinds of Norms
 Folkways - traditional behaviour or way of life
of a particular community or group of people.
 Mores - norms of morality
 Taboos- culture absolutely forbid like incest
Example of Moral Standards
 10 commandments
 Proper waste disposal
 Do not harm innocent people
 don’t steal

 Gratitude

Example Non-moral Standards

 excuse yourself if you burp or sneeze

 Improper waste disposal

 don’t talk while your mouth is full

 Standard of aesthetic

Moral Objects - moral value of human acts

(whether they are good or evil) dependes above all
on the conformity of object or act that is willed with
the good of the person according to right reason.

The morality of human acts depends on:

 the object chosen;

 the end sought or the intention;

 the circumstances of the action.

Circumstances - are secondary elements of a moral

act; Contribute to increasing or diminishing the
moral goodness or evil of human acts (for example,
the amount of a theft).

Responsibility - exercise of freedom always brings

with it responsibility before God: in every free act
we either accept or reject God's will.

Intention - is not limited to directing individual

actions, but can guide several actions toward one
and the same purpose; it can orient one's whole life
toward its ultimate end . One and the same action
can also be inspired by several intentions.

Moral act - any act done in accordance with mostly

accepted and deemed good values in any society
where that act is being performed.