TECHNOLOGICAL UNVIERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

AYALA BLVD, ERMITA, MANILA, 1000 METRO MANILA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING:
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ENGINEERING SHOPWORK 1
ASSIGNMENT NO. 2

WOODS

SUBMITTED BY: DE JOSE, JHON OLIVER A.

12 STEM 1
SUBMITTED TO: ENGR. ARNOLFO G. ARCIBAL
 TIMBER

WHAT IS IT?
Timber is a wood that is still erect and coupled to the ground. It is the “raw”
form of lumber, or they say, “unprocessed lumber”. Timber is used commonly for
building structures, such as houses.

TYPES OF TIMBER:

BAMBOO:
Bamboo is a natural organic material that is
one of the unique plants in Earth. Bamboo Timbers
are being produced mostly in South Africa. Its
color ranges from pale yellow to almost gold. It is
considered as the most promising building
material. Because of the increase of the use of
bamboo timber instead of tradition hardwoods,
deforestation has been decreasing.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.) Bamboos are fast growing and high yielding. 1.) Bamboo timber is a polluting material.
2.) They are easily renewable. 2.) Bamboo timber requires special care.
3.) Bamboos quickly reach full maturity after only one 3.) It is susceptible to insect attack.
or two years. 4.) Bamboo fibers tend to split and pull out when being
4.) Bamboo timber has a unique earthy odor while cross-cut.
being worked. 5.) Bamboo timber has been reported to cause skin
5.) Bamboo timber is energy extensive, processed and irritation.
glued up imported products. 6.) Decay fungi are present in bamboo timber.
6.) 7Strong bamboo fibers have tensile strength. 7.) The price of this timber is much higher which
7.) It is highly resistant to warping and cupping in exceeds the cost of domestic hardwoods sometimes.
ambient humidity. 8.) It is inconsistent.
8.) Bamboo timber requires little fertilizer.
9.) Grows initially at full width.
10.) Bamboo timbers are used in-veneer, paper, flute,
window blinds, fishing rods, ladders, scaffolding,
carving etc.
BIRCH:
Birch Wood is fine-grained and pale in
colour, which makes it suitable for high-quality
furniture. However, because it also features a
satin-like sheen, it is a very popular choice for
veneer and furniture making.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.) Birch is perishable, readily rot and decay.
1.) Birch is economical in most cases. 2.) Birch is susceptible to insect attack.
2.) Inner birch is aromatic. 3.) Birch can cause tear-outs during machine
3.) Birch is long-lasting. operations.
4.) It is usually heavy, hard and strong. 4.) Birch is reported as “sensitizer” which includes
5.) It is always easy to work with a birch and glues and respiratory irritation.
it finishes well. 5.) Birch is slow-growing.
6.) Birch gives widely ranging appearances. 6.) Birch is harder than other hardwoods.
7.) Birch is suitable for high-quality furniture. Birch has
great durability.
8.) Birch is used for creating strong plywood.
9.) Birch is waterproof.
10.) Birch can easily support a large structure.
11.) It is used in- boxes, crates, skateboards, furniture,
and other wood items.
12.) Birch gives wavy fine texture.

CEDAR:
Cedar is a type of coniferous wood,
meaning that it is classified as a softwood and
its cones/needles remain all year round. Cedar
trees fall under the Cedrus genus and the
Pinaceae family, which is the family of trees
that is coniferous. Only a couple of species of
Cedrus exist in the world, but they exhibit
certain traits that make them very popular.
Cedar wood and cedar oil are natural moth repellents, which is why cedar
is commonly used for creating modern-day hope chests and closets that contain
woollen clothes.
Some type of Cedar located in North America are lightweight but also
durable and highly stable. Because of this, it is used as wood shingles, which are
tapered pieces of wood that clad roofs and walls to protect them from harsh
weather.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.) It is weather resistant. 1.) Cedar dust may be irritant.
2.) Cedar gives a natural wood look. 2.) Cedar has low strength.
3.) Cedar is light in weight. 3.) Cedar can cause splintering during some
4.) It works easily. operations.
5.) It is dimensionally stable.
6.) Cedar has long-time durability.
7.) Cedar has exceptional resistance to insects and
decay.
8.) It is smooth to the touch.
9.) It has a high quality of consistency.
10.) It exhibits fairly prominent growth.
11.) Cedar shows high resistance to warping and
twisting.
12.) Cedar helps to reduce noise in specific areas.
13.) It is sustainable.
14.) It is used in-cladding, decking, roofing, fencing.

CHERRY:
Cherry timber is grown as a tree plantation
timber. Among different types of cherry timbers,
black cherry timber is the largest of the native
cherries and the only of commercial value. It is
found throughout the Eastern United Nations. In
cherry timber, the grain is generally straight. It is
a hardwood. It has medium density and
moderately durable. And used for small pieces
of furnitures-veneers, handles, cabinets,
scientific instruments etc.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.) Cherry timber is firm and strong. 1.) It is highly prized.
2.) It has a fine and uniform texture. 2.) Cherry timber is sensitive to UV.
3.) It works well and finishes smoothly. 3.) It can tear on cross-grain.
4.) Cherry timber can contain pith flecks and gum 4.) Cherry timber doesn’t have a grand dimension.
pockets. If stained, it gives blotchy results.
5.) It has a good workability. 5.) The sawdust of cherry timber has been associated
6.) Cherry timber is easy to machine, nail, and glue. with respiratory effects such as wheezing.
7.) It is an excellent timber for turning and carving.
8.) It has good bending properties.
9.) It has low stiffness.
10.) Cherry timber is shock resistance.
11.) The best feature is it is used for high-end
applications like furniture, cabinet making. Boat
making and musical instruments.
 MAHOGANY:
Mahogany is widely used in the furniture
and cabinet building industry. It is made into
plywood and all kinds of trim. Mahogany timber
is grown and farmed in almost every continent,
making it one of the most prolific of all the wood
species. It has subtle differences depending on
where it grows. Woodworkers consider it one of
the softer of all the hardwoods commonly in
use, and prize it for its tool-friendliness, it cuts
and machines easily. It has a slightly flexible quality that makes it bend without
splintering or shattering like other hardwoods that are more brittle than
mahogany.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.) Mahogany timber is very stable. 1.) Mahogany timber is vulnerable to insects.
2.) It is resistant to termites. 2.) It can tear out or chip during machining.
3.) It is very easy to work with tools in mahogany 3.) It is reported as “sensitizer”.
timber. 4.) When mahogany timber gets in touch with water,
4.) It cuts and machines easily. a strong mahogany color comes up.
5.) Mahogany timber sandy very easily. 5.) Slight dulling of cutters can occur in this timber.
6.) It turns glues, stains, and finishes well. 6.) Mahogany timber includes respiratory irritation in
7.) It can bend without splintering or shattering. eye, skin which includes boil, nausea, dizziness,
8.) It possesses a slightly flexible quality. asthma type symptoms etc.
9.) Mahogany timber can resist warping and twist for It is vulnerable.
many years.
10.) It is long lasting, strong and beautiful.
11. It contains high density.
12.) Each piece of timber is long.
13.) Mahogany timber is used for-veneers, musicals
instruments, carving etc.

OAK:
In timber form Oak is of course a hardwood.
It is known for it’s golden yellowy brown colouring
but this has variations depending on origin and
grade. The sap and heartwood are contrasting
colours. The sap’s easy to see but is also a nice
creamy colour and can be incorporated into
projects if appropriate. The annual growth is
strongly marked and the quarter sawn boards
show a glistening flame pattern through the grain
called Medullary Ray. Oak grain actually has an
enormous range although technically documented as medium coarse. It is
possible to find tight, narrow, straight, fairly smooth grain but also broad coarse
and wild grain. Origin, age, soil properties, weather conditions… all these things
contribute to the visual and mechanical properties of Oak.
 ADVANTAGES
1.) Oak timber is exceedingly strong.
2.) It is durable.
3.)It has a long living nature.
4.) Oak timber is used for cladding.
5.) Oak timber is resistant to fungal attack.
6.) It takes glues, nails, and screws well.
7.) It is lighter in weight.
8.)Oak timber is resistant to decay.
9.) Oak timber is extremely resistant to preservative
treatment.
10.) It is workable with machine or hand tools.
DISADVANTAGES
1.) Oak timber is heavy.
2.) It is hard.
3.) It has low-moisture content.
4.) Oak timber is unsuitable for external use.
5.) It is difficult for oak timber to treat acid content.
6.) Oak timber reacts with iron, galvanized or copper
nails.

WALLNUT:
Timber of either tree works well with
machine or hand tools but of course the grain
pattern is going to play a part. That wild
swirlyness needs more attention as the grain will
be going in all directions. It’s hard and strong (if
it were bigger and less swirly we’d all be using it
for structural work!) and good for turning and
carving. It is difficult to treat (acid content &
density) being fairly dense and also moderately
durable timber. It has medium moisture
movement (beware trapped moisture in dense uneven grained timbers). The
right glues and polishes work successfully.

ADVANTAGES
1.) Walnut gives vivid highlight to the grain.
2.) It works well with machine and hand tools.
3.) Walnut timber is good for turning and carving.
4.) The right glues and polishes can be successfully
done in walnut timber.
5.) It stains and finishes well.
6.) Walnut timber responds well to steam bending.
7.) It has a good dimensional stability.
8.) It is shocking resistant.
9.) It has a fine texture.
10.) Overall walnut has a good strength.
11.) It has low stiffness.
DISADVANTAGES
1.) Walnut is hard.
2.) It has been reported as a “sensitizer”.
3.) It includes eye and skin irritation.
4.) Walnut timber is high in the prices for a domestic
species.
5.) It is susceptible to insect attack. Planer tear out can
sometimes be a problem in walnut timber.
6.) It has a faint, mild odor while being worked.
7.) It has a medium maintenance movement.
8.) Walnut timber has difficulty to treat acid contents.
9.) Walnut timber finds the problem with density.
10.) It is not termite resistant.
11.) It is hard.
 FIR:

Fir is one of the world’s best-known timber species. It is a

premier building product for a wide range of applications. It is
a softwood species. Fir has a very straight grain. Fir has become
the standard woods of choice for timber framing. Fir timber is
used tin-housing, framing, flooring, lining fascias, bargeboards,
and pergolas.

DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
1.) Fir timber ranges in color. 1.) Fir timber lacks tensile strength.
2.) Fir machines and turns well. 2.) It is extremely difficult to treat.
3.) Fir is moderately durable. 3.) Fir timber is very stiff.
4.) It is permeable.
5.) It Is moderately resistant to decay.
6.) Fir timber has a low shock resistance.
7.) It has a good strength.
8.) Fir can be satisfactorily bonded using the
standard procedure.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER:
Defects in Timber due to Natural Forces
Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During the growth
of a tree, branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those branches remain
in the tree as the trees grow. These bases may create imperfection known as knots.

Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.

Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying out

they become loose and fall out.

Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great of a
defect.

Live knots are usually not a problem as they remain firmly attached to the timber. But in dead
knots, they are loosely attached and reduce strength. Knots decrease the strength of the
wood and thus lower its value for structural uses. Knots cause serious defects when the load is
perpendicular to the grains.
Twist: Twist in timber rotates the ends of the timber in opposite
directions. The main reason behind this defect is twisting of the
trees by the strong wind.

Shakes: Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or growth ring of a
timber. In other words, cracks or splits in the woods are called shakes.

It may or may not be a structural problem depending upon depth and use. The main problem
is aesthetic. Where the appearance is important, shakes are undesirable.

Types of shakes: Shakes can be classified into three main categories:-

Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards the sapwood and
sometimes even towards the heartwood along the lines of medullary rays. Cracks are wider
on the outer edge or bark and narrower on the inside (usually sapwood, sometimes
heartwood). The main reasons behind star shakes are extreme heat or frosting during the
growth of the trees and rapid or uneven seasoning after cutting off the timber. Extreme heat
or frost causes temperature difference, which causes shrinkage leading to the crack.

Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is capable to separate
the growth ring partially or completely. When the crack separates the annual ring completely,
it is called ring shakes. So, all ring shakes are cup shakes, but all cup shakes are not a ring
shape. Excessive frost action is the main reason for this type of crack.

Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes starts propagating from the pith to the sapwood
along the lines of medullary rays. Shrinkage of the interior part of the timber causes this crack.

Rind Galls: THe meaning of rind is bark and gall is abnormal

growth. So abnormal growth of the bark of the trees is called
rind galls. Improper cutting of branches causes this abnormal
growth. Wood from this portion of the timber lacks strength and
desirable in structure.
Upsets: Upsets in various wood indicate that the tree was
subjected to crushing or compression. Improper felling of
trees, heavy wind blowing during the young age of the tree
these are the main reasons behind this type of defect.

Defects of Timber due to Attack by Insects

Insects like beetles, termites or marine boars eat wood, make holes and weaken the strength
of the wood.

Beetles are small insects that make holes in almost all the sapwoods. The larvae make tunnels
through the sapwood in all directions and turn wood into powder.

Termites live in a colony. They are very fast in eating woods and making tunnels through it.
Only a few good kinds of wood can withstand the action of termites.

Marine boars are found in salt water. Usually, they make tunnels in wood to take refuge or
shelter. All kinds of wood or timber are vulnerable to this kind of insect.

Defects in Timber due to Attack by Fungi

Stain: When fungi feed only on sapwood, where the food

materials are stored, it causes a stain. Heartwood doesn’t
contain these kinds of food materials and is not affected by it.
Stain action causes color but does not affect the strength of the
wood.

Decay: wood eating or wood destroying fungus is responsible

for this type of defect in wood. This type of fungi breaks down
the cell structure. Both sapwood and heartwood are affected
by them. Considerable strength reduction occurs.
Defect in Timber due to Defective Seasoning

Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods. During seasoning of timber,
exterior or surface layer of the timber dries before the interior surface. So, stress is developed
due to the difference in shrinkage. In a perfect seasoning process, stress is kept minimum by
controlling the shrinkage. Some of the defects resulting from defective seasoning are as
follows:-

Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.

Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.

Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend one
end to another.

Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.

Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying

process or seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of
honeycomb texture.

Defects of Timber due to Defective Conversion

Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is sawn in a way that
the pith or the center heart falls entirely within the surface throughout its
length.

Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this defect.

Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this defect.

Miscut: erroneous cutting or sawing of wood causes this defect. Lack of

experience in sawing and carelessness is the main reason for erroneous
cutting.

Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.

PARTS OF TREE TRUNK:

Cross section of a Log

BARK: the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees,
woody vines, and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside the vascular cambium and is a
nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark.

LATE WOOD: wood that is formed late in a tree's growing season and which forms the darker
part of the annual ring of growth
CAMBIUM: a layer of actively dividing cells between xylem (wood) and phloem (bast) tissues
that is responsible for the secondary growth of stems and roots (secondary growth occurs after
the first season and results in increase in thickness).

PITH: a tissue in the stems of vascular plants. Pith is composed of soft, spongy parenchyma
cells, which store and transport nutrients throughout the plant. In eudicotyledons, pith is
located in the center of the stem. In monocotyledons, it extends also into flowering stems and
roots. The pith is encircled by a ring of xylem; the xylem, in turn, is encircled by a ring of phloem.

HEARTWOOD: Heartwood, also called duramen, dead, central wood of trees. Its cells usually
contain tannins or other substances that make it dark in colour and sometimes aromatic.
Heartwood is mechanically strong, resistant to decay, and less easily penetrated by wood-
preservative chemicals than other types of wood. One or more layers of living and functional
sapwood cells are periodically converted to heartwood.

EARLY WOOD: Wood in a growth ring of a tree that is produces early in the growing season
and is softer and more porous than latewood.

ANNUAL RING: Each year, the tree forms new cells, arranged in concentric circles called
annual rings or annual growth rings. These annual rings show the amount of wood produced
during one growing season.

SAPWOOD: The active xylem cells, which are peripheral to the dead, woody centre of the
trunks of trees. This part of the xylem is distinguished easily from the central heartwood by its
colour. sapwood The active xylem cells, which are peripheral to the dead, woody centre of
the trunks of trees.
PHPILIPPINES WOOD:

MOLAVE

CHARACTERISTICS
Molave is a medium to large tree attaining a
diameter of 100 to 150 centimeters and a
height of 25 to 30 meters. In exceptional
cases, it reaches a height of 35 meters or
more and a diameter of 200 centimeters with
a bole from 16 to 20 meters.
It is a tree that grows irregularly, short,
crooked, and has a fluted bole with thick,
low, medium, to moderately large buttresses.
It is intolerant to shade and a light-loving
species with a spreading crown. It partially or
entirely sheds its leaves during the latter part
of the dry season.
USES
Molave, being one of the hardest woods, is
used in railroad ties, ship-building, wagon-
making, bridges, cabinet, carabao yokes,
cog-wheels, inserted cogs, saltwater piles,
plane stocks, sugar mills, sculpture, and
carving wooden tools, tool handles,
novelties, agricultural implements, and high-
grade construction where strength and
durability are required.
Leaves are used as fodder. It is resistant to
fungal, termite, and lyctus beetle attack, but
not to marine borers.
The wood often takes on a yellowish-green or
greenish-brown tint when boiled in water. A
yellow resin exudes when the wood is treated
with lime. When shavings are soaked in
water, a yellow extract is obtained.
Molave has been suggested for shelterbelts
and already planted in reforestation projects
in the Philippines.

TANGUILE

CHARACTERISTICS USES
Tanguile wood comes from 50 meters high According to Philippine Bureau of Forestry,
tree and attain over a 4 feet diameter trunk. Tanguile is already popular during World War
It is often located at low altitudes. It has 1, it is use as an airplane propellers.
various names such as “dark red Philippine boat building, boxes, canoes and cabinets
mahogany”, “tangile” and “shorea
polysperma”.

Unlike the true mahogany that does have a

straight grain and usually free of voids or
flaws and pockets. Tanguile and Philippine
mahogany have wavy grain and coarse
texture. The true mahogany has the original
reddish brown color and display a beautiful
reddish sheen when polish. Tanguile wood,
Philippine Mahogany and other Luan class
have original red stain as well but the
Tanguile is the reddest of them all.
When it comes to natural durability and
treatability, Tangile is fungi and termite
resistance and also depends on the end-
user. However the more mature the wood is,
the more it is durable. Luan woods cannot be
place into wet environment because it tends
to lessen the mortality of its life.
NARRA

CHARACTERISTICS USES
Pale yellow to dark red; moderately heavy; Floors; windows; doors; sheathing and
moderately hard; easy to ceiling; tool handles; carriage panels;
work; durability IT. carving; cabinetwork..Supply: Very widely
distributed, but nowhere abundant.

KAMAGONG

CHARACTERISTICS USES
Kamagong, also known as mabolo, is a tree The dark wood is suitable for carvings. The
that reaches a height of about 25 to 32 wood of the kamagong is used for making
meters and a diameter of 60 to 80 furniture, cabinets, laying canes, tool
centimeters. handles, finger boards and violins, drawing
instruments, and shuttle and bobbins. The
The bole is irregular, oftentimes bending tree is often planted for its rather sweet but
shortly above the ground. dry edible fruits, and also as a roadside tree.

The bark is about three to five millimeters

thick, brown, rarely black, and the inner
pinkish.

YAKAL

CHARACTERISTICS USES
Yellow, turning to brown; very heavy; very Poles; ties; paving blocks; bridges and wharfs;
hard; tough; durability I. posts; beams, joists,
rafters; window sills; windows; siding; keels; ax
handles; spokes;
felloes; wagon poles; single trees; axles;
cabinetwork.
LUMBER:

WHAT IS IT?

Wood that is to be used for building, construction, paper, or other similar purposes.
Lumber can refer to the wood at any point of the manufacturing process, including before it
is processed, and after it has been formed into logs or boards.

MEASURING:
When you are measuring lumber, thickness is the dimension between the two face
surfaces, Width is the dimension between the two edges that are parallel to the wood grain.
Length is the dimension between two ends and is parallel to the wood grain regardless of the
width dimension.

It is common practice to state the thickness dimension in inches first; the width in inches
second; and the length in feet last. For example, if you were told to get a 2 by 4 by 6, you
would know to get a board 2 inches thick by 4 inches wide by 6 feet long.

A board standard measure for lumber is a board foot. This is abbreviated as bf or bd ft.
The foot is simply one-twelfth of a cubic foot. A board measuring 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide,
and 12 inches long contains 1 bd ft.

You may use several formulas to determine bd ft. The one most commonly used is the
inches, inches, feet method. To use it, multiply the thickness (T) in inches by the width (W) in
inches by the length (L) in feet. Next, divide the product by 12. Write the formula as follows:

bd ft = T(in.) × W(in.) × L(ft.)

12