UDC 539.376 :620.192 :624.
012
Creep and shrinkage of
concrete and their influence
on structural behaviour-
a review of methods of
J. M. lllston BSc(€ng) PhD C€ngMICE, Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering, King's College, London
and
L. England BSc(€ng) PhD CEng M C € , Lecturer in Civi/ Engineering, King's College, London.
Synopsis
The paper reviewssimplemethods of analysingthe
effects of the creep and shrinkageof concrete in structural
members. The cases considered include prestressed and
reinforced concrete,cracked and uncracked, under moment
and direct load.
It is shown that the use of an effective modulus gives
acceptable results for the time-dependent changes of stress
and deformation so long as the applied loads do not vary
very greatly. The rateof creep methodis of widerapplicability
butits
use necessitates additionalcomputation.The
proportionandposition of thereinforcement,andthe
initial distribution of stress in the concrete are shown to
have an important influence on the long-term deformations.
The effects of shrinkage can be of the same order of mag-
nitude as those of the applied loads.
The long-term behaviour under a non-uniform state of
temperature is also discussed. The results of the enhanced
creep due to elevated temperature include larger deforma-
tions,changesinexternalredundantforcesandmajor
stresschanges. If the loads andtemperatures are long
sustained a long-term stationary state of stress is reached
which may be calculated directly anddoes not depend upon
the knowledge of creep data.
In composite structures of concrete and steel the creep
andshrinkage of
the
concretecause considerable
changesintheinternalstressdistributions.These
changes, coupled with the time-dependent strains, can
result in large displacements and may render a structure
unserviceable. In statically
indeterminate structures
external forces may also be affected and thus give rise to
departures from the design conditions.
The importance of these time-dependent effects has
been accentuatedinrecent yearsby thecontinuing
trend towards the use of lower load factors in design
andbytheuseofconcreteinconditionsofraised
temperature (e.g. innuclearreactorpressurevessels,
under-floor heating, etc.).
Nevertheless, in most fields of design the methods of
treating the time-dependent movementsare still far from
exact. Attempts totake into account the time-dependent
THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER 0 JULY 1970 C] No 7 VOLUMEI48
behaviour of concretehave led to an approach where the
time-dependentdeflectionofastructureisspecified
merely as a multiple of the initial instantaneous elastic
deflection. To improve this situation simple methods of
evaluating the time-dependent changes (of deflections,
stresses,etc.)arerequired,whichtake intoaccount
such variables as temperature and percentage of steel.
A number of methods are reported in the literature but
it is not clear tothedesignerwhichmethod may be
best suited to his particular needs.
This review identifies methods of analysis which are
suitable for use in the design office. The methods are
introduced and compared with the results of tests and
examples are given to illustrate the effects of the more
important variables.
DEFINITIONS OF CREEP AND SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage
Although creep and shrinkage
are
interdependent
phenomena it is convenient and reasonable to separate
themforuseinpractice.Shrinkageisthevolumetric
deformationthattheconcreteundergoeswhennot
subjectedtoload or restraint. It isprimarilydueto
the loss ofwater fromtheconcreteandisnormally
found by measuring linear strains on a control specimen,
which must be stored in the same environment as the
structural member under examination. Since the meas-
ured shrinkage decreases as the size of the specimen
increases, due allowance must be made anyfor
difference
in size when applying the values from the control speci-
men to the structural member.
The further assumption is usually made that all points
on a given cross section of a member suffer the same
shrinkage. This is a useful simplification, but in fact the
outsideofthememberloseswaterfirstandshrinks
undertherestraintoftheinside,settinguptensile
stressesontheoutsideandbalancingcompressive
stressesontheinside.Thisdifferentialshrinkageis
unlikelyto have undesirablepracticalconsequences
whentheimposedstresses are compressivebut may
wellaffecttheoveralltensilestrengthofthemember
and its susceptibility to cracking.
283
Creep ence toFig 1. Afterunloadingattime f2 theactual
Creep is the difference between the long-term deforma- strain follows the delayed recovery curve. This is pre-
tionundersustainedstressandtheshrinkageofa dicted by neithermethod. Rateofcreep predicts an
control specimen (as discussed above). If the specimen elasticrecoveryonly,whileeffectivemoduluspredicts
or member is sealed so as to prevent loss orgain of complete recovery of all previous strain. More accurate
moisture,thecreep is unaffected by the size of the methods*J exist that will successfully predict delayed
member. Where there is moisture movement however, recovery, but they require more data and lack the essen-
the same sort of differential effects and dependence on tial simplicity of the two methods already introduced.
size occur as for shrinkage.
A typical curve for the strain due to stress, ct, compris- c!mvc R creep
stran
ing both creep and elastic strains, is given in Fig 1. The
concrete is loaded at time f 1 andunloadedattime f2
and at any time between f l and t2.
Et = EC + Ee . . . (1)
where the creep, cc, increases with time and the elastic
strain, &e, usually decreases slightly with time due to the
increasing modulus. After unloading there is an immedi-
ate (elastic) recovery followed by a delayed recovery. In
most cases the delayed recovery is a small proportion
of thetotal creep. The creepat any time(andfora f- -
givenageofloading)isproportionaltotheapplied elastic E
stress for stresses up to about 50 per cent of ultimate. strain '?
A t higher levels the creep rate accelerates due to the
proliferation of microcracking as failure is approached. 1,
uge of cwcretc
Since the working range of concrete stress lies within t
the linear stress-creeprange, the proportionality between
Fig 1. Typical curve of elastic strain and creep in concrete.
creep and stress can be used to advantage by adopting
theconceptofspecificcreep,thatis,creepperunit
stress, c. It is reasonable to assume that the rates of
Theobjectiveinseekingtosolvetheproblemsof
creep under compressive and tensile stresses (of the
creep and shrinkage in structural members must be to
same magnitude) are the same.
findamethodthatprovidessolutionsofadequate
In the analytical methods now to be presented, it is
accuracy,that is ofgeneralapplicationandthat is
assumed that
appropriatevalues of
shrinkage and
basically simple. The rate-of-creep method best satisfies
specific creep are known. There is no doubt, however, these requirements andit forms the basis of the analyses
that one of the most potent (if not the most potent) described here. The use of an effective modulus may well
sources of error in the analyses lies in the allocation of
bemoreapplicablein many situationsand it toois
these values. Mention is made of this in relation to an
included in the discussion. The more accurate methods
example later.
mentioned above are needed in special circumstances
but they are inappropriate to this review.
METHODS OF CALCULATING CREEP
UNDER VARYING STRESS ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR CREEP A N D
Creep data are assembled from tests in which concrete SHRINKAGE
specimens are subjected to constant sustained stress. The relativesuitabilityoftheanalysesbyeffective
I n practice, the stress on the concrete varies with time, modulusandrate ofcreepdependson thetypeof
and the creep data has to be manipulated accordingly. structural situation.
Most analyses have used one of two long-established To bring out the qualities of the two methods,the
concepts. Thus: discussion is presented under the following heads, the
effectsofshrinkagebeingtakenalongsidethose of
Rate of creep creep:
The final creep strain is found
by integrating the product (a) thesymmetrically
reinforcedmember under
of the imposed stress, 0,and the rate of specific creep axial load ;
over the period of imposition of the stress. That is ( b ) thesinglyreinforceduncrackedmemberunder
bending moment and direct load;
. . . (2) (c) the doubly reinforced member;
( d ) the cracked reinforced member in bending;
where f l is the age of loading and f2-fl is the time under
(e) the effects of elevated temperatures.
load.
The symmetrically reinforced member under
Effective modulus axial load
Theeffectivemodulus Ec' isdefined as theratioof
stress, 0,to the total strain (elastic-;--creep) when the Constant load
stress 0 is sustained. Thus: In this situation the shrinkage and creep of the concrete
t
J 0 E, are restrained by the reinforcing steel; due to its sym-
Ec' = _ _ _ - - -
--
cc. -1- Ec (T
- +
0 - c
l +
cE, . . . (3) metricalarrangement
straininthe
the
resulting
time-dependent
member is purely axial, therebeingno
E, induced curvature. The force induced in the concrete
If the imposed stress does notvary, the same answer is must, under constant applied load, be exactly balanced
givenbybothmethods.Thus,referring t o Fig 1, both by the concomitant force in the steel. Hence, following
willpredictthesame(correct)totalstrainjustbefore Glanville's original formulations, in a short time, (St, the
unloading at timef2. The performance of the two methods appropriate equilibrium equation i s :
under conditionsof varying stress has been discussed by (SO,. A, !- 60,s A s = 0 . . . (4)
Rossl; the general trend can be simply shown by refer- where A is the area of section and the suffices c and S
refer to the concrete and steel respectively.
Further,assumingnobondslipthestrainsinsteel
and concrete must be compatible, so that, during the
interval 6t

whereand 6c are theincrements of shrinkage and

BUC 60s
specific
creep,
andand - are the
elastic
strains swclfr creepof plain
Es El-
due to the stress changes in the two materials during 6t.
Ross3 made the
additional
assumptionthat
the
developmentsofcreepandshrinkagewithtime were
geometricallysimilar (an assumptionfurtherjustified
by the adoptionof the same curve for the two movements
in the CEB recommendations)4.
Thus:
6 ~= s K ~ c . . (6) .
where K is a constant.
The solution in terms of the concrete stress is:
ac= aco e-C/Av- K(l-e-C/M) . . . (7)
where ocois the initial stress in the concrete under the currretc stress In
co!urnn
axial load and 900 r Ibflm'
l
(
-I- - - I+mp ) Es p = -
A! C

-
M = - -Ec mpwith m = --
Ac Ec
The corresponding solution bymeansoftheeffective
modulus is

wit hm' = Es/Ec'.

. . . (8)
1-
1-
-----------
.--
---;c- ---

This is a particular case of the more general solution

developed in the next section.
The equilibrium equation can be used to deduce the
stress in the steel and division by E, gives the strain (at 100 200 300 350
the appropriate time t ) . It can be seen from the form of
tlme under L o a d ( 1 4 days
the expressions in equations 7 and 8 that the effects of
shrinkageandappliedload are quite separate. Some Fig 2. Development of concrete stresses in a column subject
typical calculated values aregiven in Table 1 to show to shrinkage and axial load. Reference 6.
the effects of applied stress and the percentage of steel.
Boththerate of creepand the
effective
modulus
methods are demonstrated.

L
c
60
TABLE 1
THE EFFECT OF CREEP AND SHRINKAGE ON THE STRESSES
IN THE STEEL AND CONCRETE OF A SYMMETRICALLY
REINFORCED MEMBER
l
(a) unloaded; (6) with an imposed initial concretestressof
l000 lbflin2
Change in concrete stress
Steel Initial with time (Ibf/inZ) Change in
Per concrete steel stress
mnaete stmss
cent stress rate of effective with time ~ncdumn
P (Ibf/in2) creep modulus using r.0.c.
equation (14) equation (15)
- 82 - 78
-
data (Ibf/inz)
mo r 'bf'in'
t
1 0 8200
1 lWO - 164 - 160 16400
6 0 - 330 - 284 5500
6 1000 - 660 - 568 O
lI Oo
I effectiw
l modlhs

c s = 300 x 70-6, c = 0-3 x 70-6/1bf/in2

Es = 30 x 706 lbflin2,Ec = 5 x 106 lbfIin2 I

Early experiments5 showed that the predictions of the 2mL1+--=j

changeofsteelstress by therate of creepmethod
agreed well with the measured values. The results of a 0
m0, 3x1 350
muchlatertestsonalightweightaggregateconcrete
!Ime under rad ( t - 7 )days
column are reproduced in Fig2. Here data on creep and
shrinkage were available and predictions of stress have Fig 3. Calculated effect on the column of Fig 2 if fhe load
been made by both methods. The creep and shrinkage increases as a step function instead of remaining constant.
curves are by no means geometrically similar and the The effect of shrinkage is neglected.

THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER 0 JULY 1970 No 7 0 VOLUME 48 285

prediction by rate of creep was made using five incre-
ments of time. It is interesting to note that if a single
increment only is adopted the final predicted stress is
2290 instead of 1970 kN/m2 (332 instead of 315 Ibf/in*), a
very small difference for this sort of prediction.
The stresses deduced from the experimental observa-
tions do not plot between the linesof the two predictions
(as would have been expected). This may be because of
experimentalerror or analyticalassumptionbut it is
much more likely to be due to the difficulty mentioned
earlier-that of establishing the correct creep and shrink-
age data for substitution in the prediction formulae. In
this case the control specimens and the column were not
of the same size and the measured creep and shrinkage
had to be factored for use in the predictions.
Varying load
Iftheeffectofshrinkageisneglected,theconcrete
stress in the lightweight concrete column due to the
constantloadaspredictedbythetwomethodsisas
shown in Fig 2. The predictions are greatly altered if the
loadcomesontothecolumngradually(thenormal
situationinpractice).Thiscasecanbeinvestigated
usingtheformulae alreadyintroducediftheloading
system is treated as a step function as shown 3. The
in Fig
final result at the end of a year is that concrete stress
predicted by the effective molulus method is exactly the
sameas thatpredictedforconstantload,whilethat
predicted by the rate of creep method is only slightly
lower than the value given by the purely elastic solution.
There is no doubt that the creep under the gradually
increasing load will be much less than under the constantbeam consisting of a prestressed rib and in situ top-
load, and the effect on stress is correctly mirrored by the
rate of creep predictions. It is clear also that here the
effectivemodulusmethodisconceptuallyinadequate
andcannotthereforeberegarded as asatisfactory
general method.
termmodulusandtheuse ofthelong-termmodular
ratio (€,/Ec' = m') for m in calculating the section proper-
ties, Ae' and /e'. Then the stress aty from the centroid in
the concrete is given by
u p = PIA: + M'yllq' .
. . (9)
where P is the axial force and M' the moment and the
change of curvature 0 under the sustained load is
B = M'/EC'/c' ."/EJc . . . (10)
Note thatM changes toM' due to thechange in position
of the centroid of the equivalent section.
The effect of shrinkage: the most compelling statement
of the effect of shrinkage is through the concept of a
fictitious force. The process is in two stages:
1. Whiletheshrinkageisoccurringthefictitious
force, F , is applied to the concrete to prevent any
deformation. If, as usual, the shrinkage is taken as
constant over the section, F acts at the centroid of
the concrete area.
2. Whentheshrinkageiscomplete,thefictitious
force is removed by applying an equal and opposite
force to the composite section. The second stage
stressesaregiven by equation 9 aboveandthe
curvature by equation 10 (with M = O ) . Thefinal
concretestresscomesfromtheaddition of the
distributions of the two stages, and the final steel
stress from the second stage only.
This method has been suggested for calculating the
warpingofsinglyreinforced beams7 but it is seen to
greateradvantagewhere thewarpingismorepro-
nounced-an obvious example being that of a composite
pinggp9.
The method can also be applied in reverse; that is,
the fictitious force can be imposed on the steel instead of
the concretelo, causing a strain of magnitude equal to
the free shrinkage of the adjacent concrete.

The singly-reinforced
uncracked
member The rate of creep method
under bending moment and direct load The method to be described is essentially that developed
A number of different structural arrangements can be by Leonhardtll. The curvature is expressed in terms of
includedunder this
heading,
ranging
fromnormal the strains at two chosen points on the section rather
reinforced concrete beams subject to shrinkage warping, thanbythefamiliar M/€/. Thenifthestrainsatthe
through columns (under combining bending and axial two points A and B are E A andthedistancebetween
load) to prestressed concrete beams. A special case is them is d , the curvature
the column loaded to producean initially uniform stress 0 = !-
EA-
- &B)
. . . (11)
distributionintheconcrete,butdevelopingastrain d
gradient because of an unsymmetrical arrangement of Assuming as beforethattheappliedforcesremain
reinforcement. Reinforced concrete members subjected constant, the effect of creep and shrinkage is to modify
to bending alone are unlikely to come into this category the stresses in the steel and concrete without affecting
since they will usually be cracked. the overall equilibrium. Hence the changes in the forces
Interest is normally focussed on deflections but the on the section must be self-equilibriating: or the change
more basic quantity is curvature. If curvatures are known,in the force in the concrete can be related to the change
standardintegrationprocedures(suchasthe area- in force in the steel. With this in mind the two points can
momenttheorems)canbeemployedtocalculate de- be chosen. Thus:
flections. The arguments here will be framed in terms A is the pointat which there is no change in concrete
of curvature, the extension to deflection beingtaken for stress when the steel stress changes. itIfis Y A above the
granted. centroidal axis then the change of concrete stress at A
due to a changeof steel force of P is
The effective modulus method PIA, - P e s y A / l c = 0 . . * (12)
It wasshownearlierthattheeffectsonlong-term hence
and Y A = /c/esAc ..
. (13)
stresses of shrinkage and applied load are independent; where ICis the second moment of area of the concrete
in this case it is convenient to treat them separately: section and es is the eccentricity of thesteel.
Ifthestressonloadingat A is O A ~ ,thechangeof
The effect of appliedforce (momentand axial load): strainduringatimeinwhichshrinkageandspecific
in the short-term elastic analysis, the steel area is trans- creepvaluesareand c is
formed using the modular ratio m, and the equivalent &A = O A o ' c f &S . . . (14)
area and second moment of area, A, and le, are found. Point B is taken at the level of the steel and the time-
The curvature isgiven by M/€,./,, where M is the applied dependent change of strain can be foundby considering
moment. equilibriumandcompatibilityconditionsinasimilar
Inthelong-term,theprocessisidentical,withthe manner to that demonstrated previously (see equations
substitutionoftheeffectivemodulusfortheshort 7 and 8).

286 THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER U JULY 1970 0 No 7 U VOLUME 48

 Hence
oB= [oBoe-CIH - K (I-- e - c l H ) . . . (15)
where olj0 is the initial concrete stress atB and
The change in strain at B follows from the change in
steel stress. Thus
... (16)
knowing the time-dependent strains E A and EB at A and
B, the time-dependent curvaturefollowsfrom equation
Themethodsdescribed are comparedinFig 4, the
time-dependent curvatures are calculated for a particular
concretesection,reinforcedwithupto3percentof
steel. Firstly, in Fig 4 (a) the curvatures due to shrinkage
are shown. They increase with the percentage of steel
andareofthesameorderastheelasticcurvature
(10 x 10-6) under the
applied
stress
distributions
assumed in Fig 4 (b) and ( c ) . These curves are plotted
intermsoftheratiooftime-dependenttoelastic
curvature. The initial compressive stress distribution is
taken as triangular with:
in Fig 4 (b) themaximumstressatthetopofthe
section ; and
in Fig 4 ( c ) the maximum stress at the bottom of the
section.
The influence of the percentage of steel is to slightly
increase the time-dependent curvature in Fig 4 (b) and
to greatly decrease it in Fig 4 ( c ) .
This
latteris
thenormal trend (as in cracked
beams)l2*13.
The predictions of the two methods of analysis do not
differverygreatly; this is to be expected since the applied
stress distribution does not vary with time.
The doubly reinforced member: The effect of adding a
second row of steel is to provide restraint in the part of
the section where there was previously none. The result
isthatthetime-dependentdeformationispartially
prevented in that part of the section, and, in most cases,
thetime-dependentcurvatureislessthanwhenthe
same section is singly reinforced. This is examined in
Fig 4, the area of steel added being half of that in the
singlyreinforcedsection. InFig 4 (a) and (b) the
curvature is reduced substantially when the section is
doublyreinforced.Thisisalsotheresultfoundfrom
tests on cracked beamsl4. Again there is an exception,
thetime-dependentcurvatureisslightlyincreasedin
the doubly reinforced section under the loading shown
in Fig 4 (c).
In therate-of-creep method the position of the change
offorceinthesteelmustbeknown.Thiscannotbe
found directly when the steel i s at more than one level
andasimpleiterativeproceduremustberesortedto,
withacorrespondingincreaseinthelabourofcal-
culation in this case.
The cracked reinforced member in bending
Thebasicapproachtolong-termdeflectionsisnot
changed by the presence of cracking. If the state of the
cracked part of the beam was t o be properly considered
the analysis would have to include allowance for:
(a) the variation in the degree of cracking along the
beam;
(b) thedistributionandmagnitude of thetensile
stresses between cracks;
(c) the mechanics of shrinkage in the crackedzone.
The difficulties become great and it is fortunate that the
normalassumptionforreinforcedconcreteofafully
cracked section will often yield acceptable answers. The
THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER 0 JULY 1970 0 No 7 0 VOLUME 48
beam thus is considered in two parts-the lower part
purely elastic (the steel), and the upper part subject to
both elastic and time-dependent strain (the concrete).
Under these conditions the neutral axis must drop as
the concrete creeps.
The effective modulus method
Theuseofthismethodisparticularlysimpleifthe
assumptionoffullcrackingis made. Underconstant
moment,thetime-dependentcurvatureismerelythe
difference between the ‘effective’ curvature M’/Ec’le‘ and
the elastic curvature, M/€,/,.
11.
The rate of creep method
This method requires much more calculation; it is as
before more convincing and more general than effective
modulus and may be essential, for example, if there is a
bigvariation inappliedloading,orifatemperature
gradiant exists.
The rate-of-creep method is appliedas an incremental
procedure.lsvl6 Notonly are successive increments of
time used but the section of the beam is also divided
into a number of horizontal strips. The full procedure is
described in the next section.
I n view of the uncertainties it is not surprising that the
practicalapproachtotheproblem ofdeflectionsof
cracked beams has been empirical. Thus the Report of
theACI Committee17 on‘DeflectionsofReinforced
ConcreteFlexuralMembers’reliesontheworkofYu
and Winter18 who analysed a large number of tests and
suggested deflectionfactors
basedon an
effective
modulus,whichincludedtheeffectofshrinkage. A
similar technique was used by Hajnal-Konyil9. Tests are
seldomreportedinwhichfulldetailsofcreepand
shrinkageoftheconcretearegiven.Oneexception
is the paperbyCorleyand SoZen20 andtheirresults
have been checked by both the effective modulus and
the rate of creep methods. The results are given in Fig 5
and show both the long-term deflection and the drop
of the neutral axis. The loading on the beam was kept
constant and as can be seen, reasonable answers are
provided by both methods.
The effect of elevated temperature
Experimental evidence has shown that the rates of both
creepandshrinkage are increased byan increasein
temperature.Theseincreasedratesresultingreater
deflections and
displacements in
structureswhere
movements are not restrained and to changes of internal
stress when strain changes are prevented. Temperature
is thusan influential parameter which must be taken into
accountintheanalysisoftime-dependenteffectsin
concrete structures. Some experiments21 carried out at
King’sCollegeLondon,onsimplecontinuouspre-
stressed concretebeams subjected to
mechanical
loading and temperature crossfalls have demonstrated
thesignificantinfluencethatcreephasunderthese
conditions. Fig 6 shows that the mid-span deflections
due tocreep were increasedby approximately a factor of
nine when a temperature crossfall of 32°C was imposed.
It is also significant that the reactions become time-
varying quantities under these conditions. This results
from the differential rates of creep caused by the non-
uniform state of temperature.
The behaviour of structures subjected to non-uniform
temperatures has been studied by employing numerical
step-by-step methods of analysis21~22~23,and
using
basic creep and shrinkage data, obtained from experi-
ments. Inordertodescribetheanalysis,whichhas
been mentioned also in the previous section, it is con-
venient firstly to comment on the nature of creep data, as
they are influenced by temperature, in more detail.
287
 shrinkage curvatwe sagging
15 r X10'6
4
-- - rateof creep
10
- - - - effective modulus
reinforced
5

0
1 2
steel percentage r

creep curvature
elastic curmture
-
singly reinforced

v 1000 I bf/i n2

initial stress

tensile stee\ percentage r

2
Asc='zAst rl
' lcr '

Ast
20

creep curvature
elastic curvature
1.5 c

-
1,doublyreinforced

singly reinforced
I I I
O I

1 2 346
tensi!e steel p r c e n t q e r
(C 1

Fig 4. Calculatedcurvaturesdue to shrinkageand twodifferentinitialstressdistributionsin an uncrackedmember.

Assumedvalues: cy = 300 x 10-6, c = 0.3 x 10-6/Ibflin2, Es = 30 x 106 lbfj'in2, E, = 5 X 106 lbflin2.

288 THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER 0 JULY 1970 0 No 7 0 VOLUME 48

 centlnl deflection

Fig 5. Long-termdeflec-
tionanddropindepth
of theneutral axis for
a cracked reinforced con-
cretebeam.Theeffects
of shrinkagededucted.
Values from tests: Es =
30 x 106 lbflin29 E, = 2.76
x 106 lbflin2,c at700
days = l x lOs--6llbflin2.
(Reference 20)

2 3

Fig 6.The effect of a

I temperature~crossfal/ on
I the
deflections
aof
I
prestressedcontinuous
~i beam.

Because creepcurves
corresponding to
different Thefactorwhichdistinguishes this
equation from
temperaturesapproximatetogeometricsimilaritiesof equation 3 is that Ec’ here is a variable in time and space
each other it is possible to condense a family of creep because T , andhence 0 ( T ) , generallyvaryover the
curves into a single curve by the selection of a suitable structure.Thesolutiontothermalcreepproblemsin
function of temperature, 0 ( T ) . Then with the knowledge concrete by the effective modulus method is thus equiva-
that creep is proportional to applied stress, within the lent to the solution of problems in non-homogeneous
working range, the following relationship is defined. elasticity. This method is capable of taking into account
de, - dc’
the redistribution of stress which characterises thermal
- 00(T)--- -
dt
. . (17) creep problems and leads to the same long-term solu-
dt
tion as the rate of creep analysis when loads and tem-
inwhich 0 istheappliedstressand c’ is definedas peratures are sustained. It will not be discussed further
specific
thermal creep. Experimental evidence24925 in this section.
suggeststhatthetemperaturefunction may beex-
pressed as apolynomialin T andthataquadratic Step-by-step analysis
function, 0 ( T ) = a,, - 1 - alT f a2T2 will form an adequate The analysis is carried out in a series of steps in time,
representationfortemperaturesintherange 20°C to during eachof which it isassumedthatthestateof
100°C. stress in any element of the structure remains constant.
Equation 17 represents the rate-of-creep formulation Then under the action of these stresses and in accord-
when temperature is included as a separate parameter. ance with the temperature of each element the structure
It has been used to predict strain from stress1 and stress is allowed todeform, in a non-compatible manner, due to
from strain2 under varying stress and uniform temper- creep and shrinkage during the interval. At the end of the
atureconditions,forwhichcasestheproduct intervalcompatibilityisrestored by aninstantaneous
0(T) is equivalent to the single quantity -,dc
dt
viz., the
adjustment to the strains and with consequent modifica-
tion to the stresses, as based on an elastic calculation.
Because the stresses at the start and endof the interval
specific creep rate (c.f. equation 2). Further use of this
are inequilibriumwiththeappliedloads it follows
equationundervaryingstressconditionshasdemon-
that any alterations to the stresses must conform to a
strated itssuitabilityforproblemsofsustainednon-
self-equilibrating
systemin
statically
a determinate
uniform temperature distributions also. When reinforce-
structure.Thecomputedstressesattheendofone
menthasbeenconsideredandcrackinghastaken
interval form the starting values for the next interval.
place, the use of equation17 again produced acceptable
The detailed calculation procedure, based on the Rate
results in heated beamsls.
of Creep analysis, is now described. It is assumed that
The temperature variation of creep may also be taken
creep and shrinkage data are available for the period of
into account by the effective modulus approach. When
thecalculationandthetemperaturesinvolved.The
this is done the effective modulus of equation 3 becomes
L
analysisreferstoasmallshortlengthofthebeam
betweentransversesectionswhich issubjectedto
uniform moment and axial force, during a general time

THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER 0 JULY 1970 0 No 7 0 VOLUME 48 289

 interval tn to tn + 1. For simplicity it is assumed that the onlycausestherestrainingmomentstochangein
section is unreinforced and does not crack. magnitudewithtime,butgivesrisetoareversal of
At the startof the interval t n t o t , i . I the values of moment in the long-term. On cooling, this moment is
cumulative creepstrain,total
shrinkage and further increased in magnitude.
present stress, are known. These are, respectively, In cases where load and temperature conditions are
cc, cs and a for each element. sustained for long periods, it may be sufficient to know
Calculate the increments of creep and shrinkage only the initial and long-term values of stresses for the
strains for the interval, they are, Acc = aO(T)Acf purposes of design. Although the initial elastic solution
and Acs, where A d and Acs are the increments of doesnotusuallypresentmuchdifficulty,inorderto
specific thermal creep and shrinkage respectively, obtainthelong-termsolution it may benecessaryto
which correspond to the temperature T . follow a historical calculation throughout the transient
Compute total unrestrained strains. These com- creepphaseoftheproblem.Suchacalculation may
prise,thermalexpansion,creepandshrinkage not be difficult but it will be either time consuming or
strains and at the end of the interval are given by expensive in computational time. In problems associated
cf = tu + . I A E ~- ) ( c s i -A E ~ for
) , eachelement with prestressed concrete and where bonded reinforce-
of the cross-section. ment is a small percentage of the total cross-section,
I n generalthese‘free’strains q , violatestrain it is possible to avoid the transient creep phase of the
compatibility. The actual strains, for plane sections problem completely and to calculate directly the long-
to remain plane, are represented by term stresses. These stresses which are termed ‘steady-
~ = a + b x .
* . (19) statestresses’arecalculatedinasimilar way tothe
where a and b are respectively the axial strain and initial
elastic stresses because the
steady-state
curvature over the longitudinal element, and the theory28 is analogous to elastic theory in which Young’s
originofthe x co-ordinateistakenasthecold modulus is a space variable throughout the structure.
face of the beam. Thepseudoelasticmoduluswhichisusedinthe
The difference between the strains in (3) and (4) calculation is found to be the reciprocal of the tempera-
above refer
to
the
elastic strains which are turefunction 0 ( T ) , whichrelatesthefamilyofcreep
associated with stress. Thus, curves,obtainedfromexperiments at constantstress
&a = &-&f (20) andundervariousconstanttemperatures,onewith
The parameters a and b are derived from the two another. The distribution of the pseudo elastic modulus
equilibrium conditions, is thus high where the temperature is low, and low in
Pd
b’AxLEcca = P and b’AxZxEcm = M -+ 2
regions of high temperature. Fig 7 and 8 show how the
initial state and the steady-state are markedly different
where M and P arethebendingmomentand from each other, for the simple example of a flexurally
axialcompressiveforcerespectivelyactingon restrained beam andthecase of aloadedtwo-span
the cross-section. Ec is the elastic modulus. continuous beam. In the latter case an experimental plot
The stresses at the end of the time interval are of the transient creep behaviour is also shown.
now calculated as
of = Ecca . . . (21)
These stresses,coupled with
the
cumulative SIRESSFS

values of creep and shrinkage, clc = cr. -f- Acc and \\\U L
. -. . .. ...-
-..

= cs .-rAcs permit the calculation to proceed

I/ I\
&ls
q ;
to the next time interval.
With theaxial strain and curvature parameters a and 6 , Y?::,. h \ Y \ ‘ 3 -L

known, it is possibletousenumerical integration rrrnprralurr oslrrbulron

‘NITIAL STEADY-STAIE

techniquestocomputedisplacements.This
carried out at each step of the analysis and the time-
dependentvariationofthedisplacementsthusdeter-
mined.
Thiscalculationprocedure,whichisideallysuited
to machine computation, has been used with success
in predicting the behaviour of prestressed and reinforced CONCLUSIONS
concrete beams. It is recognised that this method under- Simple methods are available that enable the designer
estimates the difficulty associated with the calculation
ofstresses inthevicinityofcracks,butresults
indicated that the method is of value when the response
of a structure as a whole is being investigated.
Inmassivesections at uniformtemperature,where
shrinkage may be ignored and cracking does not occur,
more direct methods of
calculation for
the
time-
dependent stressesand
strains are
When temperature is a space variable, however, direct
methods of solution are rare. One method, based on a
variational principle27 and which uses the rate-of-creep
strain laws, has been shown to be useful in evaluating
time-dependent stresses for
problems which
calculable elastic solutions.
A distinguishing feature between creep problems at
uniformtemperatureandthermalcreepproblemsis
that those of the latter type are characterised
scalechangesintheinternalstresses.Inthesimple
example of a prestressed beam subjected to a sustained
temperaturecrossfallandflexuralrestraint,creepnot
may be
Fig 7. Comparisonbetweentheinitialandsteady-state
stress distributions in a flexurally restrained beam.
to make an adequate analysis of the effects of creep and
have shrinkage of the concrete in prestressed or reinforced
concrete structures.
So long astheloadingonthestructureremains
constantandtemperatures are uniformthereisno
cause to abandon Glanville’s early conclusion13 (made
withreferencetothelongtermdeflectionofcracked
available39 26. reinforced concrete beams) that ‘for practical purposes,
theuseofaneffectivemoduluswillcertainlygivean
approximate idea of the change of stress and deforma-
tion’.Underthesecircumstancesthealternativerate
of creep method is likely to give somewhat better results
have but only at the expense of a greater arithmetical burden.
It is, however, the more general method and can be
successfully employed when the conditions given above
arenolongersatisfied.Thecalculationsrequiredto
by large dealwithvaryingload or temperaturegradientoften
involveincrementalprocesses:these are particularly
well suited to computer processing and the programmes
are both simple to write and economical to use.

290 THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER 0 JULY 1970 C-1 No 7 [LJ VOLUME 48

 I 1 I 1

steady‘state
solution I
-

d )*

experimental values

s t i o n temperature

reduced reaction prestressing force, F=40,000 lb

due to temperature Young’s modulus, E = 6.0.106[b/in2
I crossfall
‘I coefficient of thermal expansion, o( = 13-0.10‘6/oc
\
’ \
..dead load reaction
conventional elastic solution

A
1

20 40 60 80 120100 140 160 180 200 220 2Ul 260 280

M Y S AFTER HEATING
Fig 8. Comparison between the initial end steady-state solutions for the reaction of a two-span continuous beam, showing
the transient behaviour between the two solutions.

The percentage of steel in a composite section has a 6. Holm, T. A. and Pistrang, J., ‘Time-dependent load transfer
majorinfluenceontheeffectofthetime-dependent
strains. Whether they will increase or decrease depends 7.
both on the applied loading and on whether there is
more than one layer of steel. The effects of shrinkage
can be of the same order as those of applied load. 8.
When a structure is subjected to a non-uniform state 9.
of temperature, major stress changes occur because of
the influence of temperature on the creep of concrete.
If loadsandtemperaturesarelongsustainedstress 10.
redistributioncontinuesuntilalong-termstationary
state of stress is reached. These steady-state stresses 11.
may be calculated directly and without reference to the
transientcreepphaseandformabasisfromwhich 12.
coolingstresses may becalculated.
Experiments have indicated that concrete has a creep 13.
capacity which is sufficiently great for the steady-state
condition to be approached closely in reality.
1939.
14. Washa,G.W.andFluck,P.G.,‘Effectofcompressive
References
1. Ross, A. D., ‘Creepofconcreteundervariablestress’, 15.
PrOC. ACI. Vol. 54, 1957-58, pp. 739-758.
2. England,G. L. and Illston, J.M,,‘Methodsofcomputing
stress in concrete from ahistoryofmeasuredstrain, 16.
Civ Eng and Public Works Review, Vol. 60, 1965.
3. Ross, A. D., ‘Creep and shrinkage in plain, reinforced and
pre-stressedconcrete:ageneralmethodofcalculation’, 17.
Proc. ICE, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1943, pp. 38-57.
4. RecommendationsforanInternationalCodeofPracticefor
ReinforcedConcrete. Published jointly by AmericanCon- 18.
crete Institute and Cement and Concrete Association.
5. Glanville, W. H., ‘The creep or flow of concrete under load.
Studies in reinforced concrete, Building Research Technical 19.
Paper, No. 12, HMSO, London, 1930.
in reinforced lightweight concretecolumns’, Proc. ACI.
Vol. 63, November 1966, pp. 1231-1245.
Ferguson,P.M., Discussionofa paperby A. L. Miller,
‘Warpingofreinforcedconcretedue to shrinkage’, Proc.
ACI, Vol. 54, December 1958, pp. 1393-1398.
Birkeland, H. W.,‘Differential shrinkagein composite beams’,
Proc. ACI, Vol. 56, 1960, pp. 1123-1136.
Evans,R.H. and Chung, H. W., ‘Shrinkage and deflection
composite
of prestressed
concretebeams, Concrete,
Vol. 1, May 1967, pp. 157-166.
Pauw, A. and Meyers, B. L., ‘Effect of creep and shrinkage
on the behaviourofreinforcedconcretemembers,A.C.I.,
Publication SP-9, Paper No. 6, 1964, pp. 129-156.
Leonhardt, F., Prestressed concrete design and construction,
Wilhelm Ernst, Berlin, 1964.
Corley, W. G.,Sozen,M. A. andSiess,C. P., ‘Time-
dependentdeflectionsofprestressedconcretebeams’,
Highway Research Board Bulletin, No. 307, 1961, pp. 1-25.
Glanville,W. H., Furtherinvestigationsonthecreepor
flow of concrete under load’. Studiesin reinforced concrete,
Building Research Technical Paper, No. 21, HMSO, London,
reinforcement on the plasticflowofreinforcedconcrete
beams’, Proc. ACI, Vol. 49, October 1952, pp. 89-103.
England, G. L. and Ross, A. D., ‘Reinforced concrete under
thermal gradients’, Mag. of Conc. Research, Vol. 14, No. 40,
March 1962, pp. 5-12.
Bresler, B. andSelna, N., ‘Analysis oftime-dependent
behaviour of reinforced concrete structures,’ ACI, Publica-
tion SP-9, Paper No. 5,1964, pp. 115-128.
Committee 435 of the American Concrete Institute Report
on ‘Deflectionsofreinforcedconcreteflexuralmembers’.
Proc. ACI, Vol. 63, June 1966, pp. 637-674.
Yu, Wei-Wen and Winter, G., ‘Instantaneous and long-time
deflectionsofreinforcedconcretebeamsunderworking
loads’, Proc. ACI, Vol. 57, July 1960, pp. 29-50.
Hajnal-Konyi, K., ‘Tests on beams with sustained loading’,
Mag. Conc. Research, Vol. 15, No. 43, March 1963, pp. 3-14.

THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER 0 JULY 1970 0 No 7 0 VOLUME 48 291

20. Corley, W. G. and Sozen, M. A., ‘Time-dependent deflec- 25. Hannant, D. J. ‘Strain behaviourofconcrete upto 95°C
tions ofreinforcedconcretebeams’, Proc. ACI, Vol. 63, under compressive stresses’, Paper No. 17, Conference on
March 1966, pp. 373-386. PrestressedConcretePressureVessels,London,March
21. Ross, A. D.,England, G. L. and Suan, R. H., ‘Prestressed, 1967.
concretebeamsunderasustainedtemperaturecrossfall, 26.Elias,E,, ‘BerechnungderWirkungendesKriechens mit
M a g . Conc. Research, Vol. 17, September 1965, pp. 117-126. Hilfe der Laplaceschen Transformation, Acta Technica,
22.England, G. L.,‘Numericalcreepanalysesapplied to con- Vol. 41,1962, pp.305-334.
crete structures,’ Proc. ACI, Vol. 64, June 1967, pp. 301-311. 27. England,G.L.,‘Time-dependentstresses in creep-elastic
23. Arthanari, S . and Yu, C. W., ‘An analysis of the creep and materials: a general method of calculation’, Conference on
shrinkage effects
uponprestressed
concrete members RecentAdvances in Stress Analysis heldattheRoyal
under temperature gradient
and its application’. M a g . Aeronautical Society, London,March
1968.
Session2,
Conc. Research, Vol. 19, No. 60, pp. 157-164, Sept. 1967. paper No. 1.
24. Browne, R. D.,‘Properties of concrete in reactor vessels’, 28. England, G. L., ‘Steady-state stresses in concrete structures
Paper No. 13, Conference on Prestressed Concrete Pressure subjected to sustained loads
and
temperatures,Pt. I,
Vessels, London, March 1967. Uniaxialstress, NuclearEngineeringandDesign, Vol. 3,
January 1966, pp. 54-65.

Members are reminded of the services of the Institution’s Library, which holds
some 1ooo volumes on structural engineering practice, also some rare books,
large numbers of pamphlets, papers and issues of approximately 0 l0 journals.
Bibliographies are available from which reading selections may be made either
by personal cat1 or by post. Assistancecan also be given in technical enquiries.

Application des Ordinateurs au Calcul Press,1969.)197 x 135mm(7$ x 5a in)

Ii I
’

+
library ,
des
Structures (Application of
Com-
puters to theAnalysisofStructures),by
A. Cornelis and others. (Paris: Eynolles,
1968.)237 X 160mm(94 x 6%in), 327 pp.
318 xiv pp.,
1 (flexi-cover).
This book has
50s.
been written
(hard
with
cover),
35s.

intention of providing students of engin-

the

book reviews
Plastizitatstheorie und lhre Anwen-
dung auf Festigkeitsprobleme, by
K.-A. Reckling. (Berlin: Springer-Verlag,
1967.) in X 64 in, 361 X xi pp., DM 69.
This is amoderntextbook on structural
theory, particularly appliedto frameworks.
’ The title does not reflect trulythe contents eering with the important and useful ideas
of this book.Basically, it is concerned of the theory of plasticity.
’ with the applicationofmatrixmethods to 1 Many textbooks on this subject have, of
’ analysisofstructures.Suchinformation ! necessity, to belargelymathematical in
on computers,codingandprogramming contentand this detersmanystudents
I as there is would be of little interest to a , fromreadingthem. In the reviewer’s
!
I
British reader, except perhaps a beginner
in the subject. With this work the authors
havesucceeded in makingaworthwhile
opinion theauthor,
mathematical aspects
simple
as as
in this book,has
succeeded in his attempt to keepthe

It contains an introductory chapter on the ! contribution, in the market fairly saturated possible ‘so as not to discourage those
basic characteristics of materials, in- : withbooks
on this topic. They have whoareunsophisticatedmathematically
cluding references to fracture mechanics, 1 managed, in averycompactvolume, to but who mayhaveconsiderable intel-
so that the behaviour of elements under i cover the field in aclear, succinct and lectual
imaginativepowers and
later
test is better understood. The principles comprehensivemanner from elementary become excellent engineers’.
theoryandapplications to finite element After very
asoundand
readable
of elasto-plasticmaterials
and
their
influence on the behaviour of frameworks
’
~

1
analysis,
although-naturally-the
is not treated in greatdetail.Thebook
latter , introduction to the fundamentals
plasticity the author leads on in the same
of
and their individual members,andthe I

cross-sections of members is explained. deals with elastic supports andfounda- ~ lucid way to apply this theory to such
The solution of frameworks is obtained j tions,
analysis in theplastic
region, topics as rotating discs, torsion, indenta-
throughthe useofsimultaneousequa- illustrates applications with many well I tion, slip line fields, circular plates under
it is i transverse
~

chosen examples anddiagrams, loadingand metal forming

tions set out in conventional matrix nota-
tion. ’ readableandwellpresented.
be on parwiththebestworkson
It seems to
the ,
processes.
Ausefulcollectionofproblems for
The subject of torsion is fully discussed
as it applies to typical structural members. subject available in Englishand with a solution is includedattheendofeach
A section is included on buckling. I somewhat different
approach to the chapter.
Thereare 84 referencesgivenanda i matterand its wide scope, it should This book will, 1 am sure,form a valuable
good index is included. ’ proveparticularly helpful to thoseinter- addition to other publishedtextbooks
Thebookcan
be
recommended to ested in modern structural analysis. on
plasticity and is one which every
students
of applied mechanics and L. SLOWIKOWSKI ,i mechanical engineeringstudent will
general structural theory. It is, of course, I
I
benefit from reading.
written in German. I Engineering Plasticity, byC.R.Calla- ’ J. BONSALL
A. L. L. BAKER i dine.(Oxford
andLondon: Pergamon ! continued on page 293

292 THE STRUCTURAL E N G l N E f R 0 JULY 1970 0 No 7 U VOLUME 48