SYMBOLIC LOGIC

Symbolic logic is the method of representing logical expressions through the use of
symbols and variables, rather than in ordinary language. This has the benefit of
removing the ambiguity that normally accompanies ordinary languages, such as
English, and allows easier operation.

There are many systems of symbolic logic, such as classical propositional logic, first-
order logic and modal logic. Each may have seperate symbols, or exclude the use of
certain symbols.

Logical Symbols

The following table presents several logical symbols, their name and meaning, and any
relevant notes. The name of the symbol (under “meaning” links to a page explaining
the symbol or term and its use). Note that different symbols have been used by
different logicians and systems of logic. For the sake of clarity, this site consistently
uses the symbols in the left column, while the “Notes” column may indicate other
commonly-used symbols.

Symbol Meaning Notes

Operators (Connectives)

¬ negation (NOT) The tilde ( ˜ ) is also often used.

∧ conjunction (AND) The ampersand ( & ) or dot ( · ) are also often used.

∨ disjunction (OR) This is the inclusive disjunction, equivalent to and/or in Eng

exclusive ⊕ means that only one of the connected propositions is true

⊕ disjunction (XOR) either…or. Sometimes ⊻ is used.

alternative
| denial (NAND)
Means “not both”. Sometimes written as ↑
 ↓ joint denial (NOR) Means “neither/nor”.

Many logicians use the symbol ⊃ instead. This is also know

→ conditional (if/then)
implication.

Means “if and only if” ≡ is sometimes used, but this site rese
↔ biconditional (iff)
symbol for equivalence.

Quantifiers

∀ universal quantifier Means “for all”, so ∀xPx means that Px is true for every x.

∃ existential quantifier Means “there exists”, so ∃xPx means that Px is true for at l

Relations

⊨ implication α ⊨ β means that β follows from α

Also ⇔. Equivalence is two-way implication, so α ≡

≡ equivalence
β means α β and β α.

⊢ provability
Shows provable inference. α β means that from α we c

Used to signify the conclusion of an argument. Usually take

∴ therefore implication, but often used to present arguments in which th
not deductively imply the conclusion.

⊩ forces A relationship between possible worlds and sentences in m

Truth-Values

⊤ tautology May be used to replace any tautologous (always true) form

May be used to replace any contradictory (always false) for

⊥ contradiction
Sometimes “F” is used.

Parentheses

Used to group expressions to show precedence of operatio

() parentheses
brackets [ ] are sometimes used to clarify groupings.

Set Theory

Denotes membership in a set. If a ∈ Γ, then a is a member

∈ membership
of set Γ.

Used to join sets. If S and T are sets of formula, S ∪ T is a

∪ union
all members of both.

The overlap between sets. If S and T are sets of formula, S

∩ intersection
containing those elemenets that are members of both.

⊆ subset A subset is a set containing some or all elements of anothe

⊂ proper subset A proper subset contains some, but not all, elements of ano

= set equality Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elemen

∁(S) is the set of all things that are not in the set S. Sometim
∁ absolute complement
C(S), S or SC.
 T - S is the set of all elements in T that are not also in S. So
- relative complement
as T \ S.

∅ empty set The set containing no elements.

Modalities

Used only in modal logic systems. Sometimes expressed a

□ necessarily
symbol is unavailable.

Used only in modal logic systems. Sometimes expressed a

◊ possibly
symbol is unavailable.

Propositions, Variables and Non-Logical Symbols

The use of variables in logic varies depending on the system and the author of the logic being
presented. However, some common uses have emerged. For the sake of clarity, this site will use the
system defined below.

Symbol Meaning Notes

A, B, C Uppercase Roman letters signify individual propositions. For example, P may symb
propositions
…Z “Pat is ridiculous”. P and Q are traditionally used in most examples.

α, β, γ … Lowercase Greek letters signify formulae, which may be themselves a proposition

formulae
ω Q) or several connected formulae (φ ∧ ρ).

Lowercase Roman letters towards the end of the alphabet are used to signify varia
systems, these are usually coupled with a quantifier, ∀ or ∃, in order to signify som
x, y, z variables
unspecified subject or object. By convention, these begin with x, but any other lette
needed, so long as they are defined as a variable by a quantifier.

a, b, c, Lowercase Roman letters, when not assigned by a quantifier, signifiy a constant, u

constants noun. For instance, the letter “j” may be used to signify “Jerry”. Constants are given
…z they are used in logical expressions.
 Uppercase Roman letters appear again to indicate predicate relationships between
constants, coupled with one or more variable places which may be filled by variabl
Ax, Bx instance, we may definite the relation “x is green” as Gx, and “x likes y” as Lxy. To
predicate symbols
… Zx from propositions, they are often presented in italics, so while P may be a propositi
relation for x. Predicate symbols are non-logical — they describe relations but have
function nor truth value in themselves.

Γ, Δ, … Uppercase Greek letters are used, by convention, to refer to sets of formulae. Γ is

sets of formulae represent the first site, since it is the first that does not look like Roman letters. (Fo
Ω uppercase Alpha (Α) looks identical to the Roman letter “A”)

Γ, Δ, … In modal logic, uppercase greek letters are also used to represent possible worlds.
possible worlds
Ω uppercase W with a subscript numeral is sometimes used, representing worlds as

Curly brackets are generally used when detailing the contents of a set, such as a s
{} sets
set of possible worlds in modal logic. For instance, Γ = { α, β, γ, δ }