This section is designed primarily to help students master the study skills vital

in their preparation for the Malaysian University English Test (MUET),

a compulsory university entrance English test, administered by the Malaysian
Examination Council.
The study skills presented in the book are also useful for students preparing for
academic courses in English in institutions of higher learning.
Study Skills for the Malaysian University English Test (MUET)
contains four sections: (1) Listening Skills which prepares students to listen
intensively and critically, (2) Speaking Skills which prepares students to speak
logically on a given topic, (3) Reading Comprehension Skills which
prepares students to read academic prose intensively and
analytically and (4) Writing Skills which prepares students to write academic
assignments.
The units in this section cover the skills required by the MUET syllabus.
In this section (Speaking), students are given a detailed description of the
techniques required in learning the target skill. This is amply illustrated with
examples, followed by application exercises for students to practise their newly
learnt skill.

Contents
Reading Comprehension
Unit 1: Skimming and Scanning
Unit 2: Vocabulary in Context
Unit 3: Understanding Sense Relationships
Unit 4: Distinguishing Main Ideas from Supporting Details
Unit 5: Information Transfer
Unit 6: Distinguishing the Relevant from the Irrelevant
Unit 7: Distinguishing Fact from Opinion
Unit 8: Predicting Outcomes
Unit 9: Making Inferences
Unit 10: Drawing Conclusions
Unit 11: Analysing and Evaluating
Unit 12: Paraphrasing
Unit 13: Cloze Procedure

Unit 1
Skimming and Scanning
PART I: SKIMMING
This passage contains some parts written in bold. Read only the parts in
bold.
Survival Course for Airmen
Air Force pilots must sometimes make crash landings in areas
where there are no towns for miles. Because of this, the Air Force
has a school which teaches airmen how to survive.
Survival courses for airmen are given at a school in California. Air
Force pilots who have had experience in surviving in different parts of the
world show the airmen what they have to do to survive. Then the airmen go
on field trips, where they try to practise what they have learnt.
The airmen take some supplies with them on the field trip. They take
a little food, like ten grammes of special breakfast cereals, six lumps of sugar,
onion powder, salt and pepper, packages of tea and coffee, and fruitcake. They

1
also take knives, sleeping bags, parachutes, compasses, and needles
and thread. All these things will be in the plane they will fly.
The airmen are taken in a truck to a wild area in the mountains
that has only rough paths. It may be one or two hundred miles from a
town or farm. Then the truck leaves and the airmen must live for several
days on just the food they have and whatever they can find.
The first thing the men usually do on the field trip is to build a
shelter. They can make a tent out of a parachute. To make one of these tents,
the men first cut long, thick branches from trees. Then they trim the tips of the
branches so that they can be pushed into the ground. The branches are
arranged in a circle with all the top ends meeting. The airmen drape the
parachute around the frame of branches and tie it at the top. The bottom of the
parachute is fastened to small pieces of wood that have been pushed into the
ground. A second parachute is placed around the bottom of the tent to keep out
the cold winds.
The airmen also learn to make ‘sunglasses’ from willow bark to
protect their eyes from the wind, sun, sand and dust storms, and
snow glare. They use willow bark because this kind of bark is softer than
other kinds of bark. They cut it so that it fits across the eyes. Then they cut
narrow slits that are large enough to see through but small enough to keep out
most of the light.
Another thing the airmen must learn is how to find water when
there is no stream or lake nearby. While people can live without food for
several weeks, they can live without water only for a few days. The airmen
learn how to melt snow, to get water out of certain plants by squeezing them
between rocks, and to find water by digging in a dry river bed.
If they are near a stream or lake, the airmen must be able to fish
without ordinary fishing poles. They learn to make poles from branches,
hooks from old pieces of metal, and lines from parachute cords. They also
learn how to catch fish with their hands.
To catch animals, the airmen learn how to make traps. One kind of
trap they make is for large animals like deer. Logs are tied so that they hang
over an animal trail. When an animal trips over a cord attached to the hanging
logs, the logs fall on top of the animal and kill it.
The airmen must also know how to signal for help. In order to send
smoke signals, they learn to start a fire without matches, to start a fire in the
snow, and to start a fire with damp logs.
The lessons that these Air Force pilots learn can keep them alive
for more than a month, whether they have to bail out in the jungle
or in the mountains.

Were you able to get a quick idea of some of the central thoughts or main
points covered in the passage by just reading the bold sections?
The reading technique you used in this exercise is called skimming.
Skimming helps you to do the following:
-get a quick general overview of the topic, main idea, theme, or subject of the
passage
-identify the writer’s purpose
-shorten your reading time

How do you skim?

2
To skim a passage effectively, you must:
-look for the main ideas and ignore all supporting details. Main ideas are
usually expressed in topic sentences, which often occur at the beginning or,
less often, at the end of a paragraph.
-read the title
-read the introduction
-read the first sentence of every paragraph
-read the last sentence of each paragraph
-read any heading and subheadings
-study any pictures, graphs, tables, charts, etc
-glance at the entire passage and pay special attention to any italicized,
boldface words or phrases. These are usually key words or terms used in the
passage.
-read the last paragraph
-look out for definitions
-locate transition signals (e.g. firstly, secondly, finally, one major cause,
another cause, etc)
-look for unusual or striking features of the passage. You may notice a series of
dates, capitalized words, or numbers.

EXAMPLE SHOWING HOW TO SKIM

Study the passage again and notice that the sentences and words in bold
give yon the general idea or the central thought of the passage. Pay attention
to the comments in the right column.

Air Force pilots must sometimes make crash landings in areas

where there are no towns for miles. Because of this, the Air Force
has a school which teaches airmen how to survive. (Introductory
paragraph usually contains the central thought of the passage)
Survival courses for airmen are given at a school in California. Air
Force pilots who have had experience in surviving in different parts of the
world show the airmen what they have to do to survive. Then the airmen go
on field trips, where they try to practise what they have learnt. (First
sentence - topic sentence or the one sentence from the paragraph which
explains what the paragraph is about)
The airmen take some supplies with them on the field trip.
They take a little food, like ten grammes of special breakfast cereals, six lumps
of sugar, onion powder, salt and pepper, packages of tea and coffee, and
fruitcake. They also take knives, sleeping bags, parachutes, compasses,
and needles and thread. All these things will be in the plane they will fly.
(First sentence - topic sentence of the paragraph Note the key words and
phrases)
The airman are taken in a truck to a wild area in the mountains
that has only rough paths. It may be one or two hundred miles from a
town or farm. Then the truck leaves and the airmen must live for several
days on just the food they have and whatever they can find. (First
sentence - topic sentence of the paragraph Last sentence sometimes
contains important information)
The first thing the men usually do on the field trip is to build a
shelter. They can make a tent out of a parachute. To make one of these tents,
the men first cut long, thick branches from trees. Then they trim the tips of the

3
branches so that they can be pushed into the ground. The branches are
arranged in a circle with all the top ends meeting. The airmen drape the
parachute around the frame of branches and tie it at the top. The bottom of the
parachute is fastened to small pieces of wood that have been pushed into the
ground. A second parachute is placed around the bottom of the tent to keep out
the cold winds. (First sentence - topic sentence of the paragraph
Use of the word “first” indicates that other steps will follow)
The airmen also learn to make ‘sunglasses’ from willow bark to
protect their eyes from the wind, sun, sand and dust storms, and
snow glare. They use willow bark because this kind of bark is softer than
other kinds of bark. They cut it so that it fits across the eyes. Then they cut
narrow slits that are large enough to see through but small enough to keep
out most of the light. (First sentence - topic sentence of the paragraph. Use
of the word “also” shows the second step)
Another thing the airmen must learn is how to find water when
there is no stream or lake nearby. While people can live without food for
several weeks, they can live without water only for a few days. The airmen
learn how to melt snow, to get water out of certain plants by squeezing them
between rocks, and to find water by digging in a dry river bed. (First
sentence - topic sentence of the paragraph Use of the words “Another
thing” shows one other step)
If they are near a stream or lake, the airmen must be able to fish
without ordinary fishing poles. They learn to make poles from branches,
hooks from old pieces of metal, and lines from parachute cords. They also
learn how to catch fish with their hands. (First sentence - topic sentence of
the paragraph)
To catch animals, the airmen learn how to make traps. One
kind of trap they make is for large animals like deer. Logs are tied so that they
hang over an animal trail. When an animal trips over a cord attached to the
hanging logs, the logs fall on top of the animal and kill it. (First sentence -
topic sentence of the paragraph)
The airmen must also know how to signal for help. In order to send
smoke signals, they learn to start a fire without matches, to start a fire in the
snow, and to start a fire with damp logs. (First sentence -topic sentence of
the paragraph. Use of “also” shows one more step)
The lessons that these Air Force pilots learn can keep them alive
for more than a month, whether they have to bail out in the jungle
or in the mountains. (Last paragraph gives a summary of the entire
passage)

Exercise A
Skim through the passages below and answer the questions that
follow.
The body of an adult butterfly is divided into three regions - head, thorax and
abdomen. The most prominent features of the head are the large, almost
hemispherical compound eyes, and a pair of long, jointed antennae or ‘feelers’,
which project from the forehead between the eyes. On the underside of the
head, is the coiled proboscis, an extensible tube formed by the grooving
together of paired concave organs through which the insect draws nectar by

4
means of a bellow-like sucking pump. On either side of the proboscis is a
three-segmented, heavily- scaled sensory organ, the labial palp.
The thorax consists of three segments - the pro-thorax, meso-thorax and
meta-thorax. Each bears one pair of legs, and each of the last two thoracic
segments bears a pair of wings. As in other insects, the wings of butterflies are
supported by a system of tubular struts called veins.
The abdomen is a roughly tubular structure made up of ten segments, the last
two or three of which are modified into secondary reproductive organs — the
external genitalia. These organs vary greatly between species and have been
used extensively in the classification of butterflies, especially in differentiating
between species.
The entire adult butterfly, with the usual exception of the compound eyes, is
covered with hairs. Some of these hairs are flattened and are called scales. On
the wings, these scales are arranged very much like shingles on a roof, and the
exposed surface of each has minute, longitudinal ridges. They are easily
detached, and therefore the specimens must be handled with care in order to
avoid giving them a worn appearance.

Which of the following best states the theme of the passage?

A An Adult Butterfly
B The Structure of a Butterfly
C The Pigmentation of a Butterfly
D The Life History of a Butterfly

Exercise B
The mind is a valuable and important faculty and, like our body, is developed
by effort. This is the principal use of hard work in studies. Unless we train our
body, we cannot be an athlete. Likewise, unless we train our mind, we cannot
be much of a scholar. For instance, the distance covered by a boatman does not
really matter but what matters is the effort he puts in, the experience he gains
and his physical capacity to cope with the challenging conditions. In the same
way, a large part of what you have learned by studying hard may not be
retained permanently and may not even be of much value over time. However,
what is worthwhile is the fact that your mind has become better and more
powerful because you have trained your mind to get and use knowledge. This
comes from training. Therefore, it is not the knowledge that one gets from
college but it is the training of the mind that is valuable.
Knowledge is power but still more powerful is the faculty of acquiring and
using knowledge. If we have a trained and powerful mind, we are bound to
have stored what we have learned. But what is even more valuable is not what
knowledge the mind can store, but what the mind is able to do; what it can
grasp and use.
If we were to come out of college with a trained and disciplined mind but which
contains little useful knowledge, we would still, in a way, be regarded as an
educated person and be able to get ahead in life.

The title that best expresses the overall ideas of this passage is
A Knowledge is Power
B How to Retain and Use Facts
C Why Acquire Knowledge
D The Trained Mind

5
Exercise C
The spoken word is probably the most common form of communication in
industry. There are several instances where oral rather than written
communication is used. This is because the advantages of speed and the
opportunity to clarify meaning which the spoken word offers, often outweigh
those of committing instructions, comments and ideas to paper.
Effective personal relations are better maintained by speaking to a person
rather than by writing to him. Similarly, a conversation often does more good
than a letter or a memo because it necessitates the presence of a person,
whether physical or on-line and is, therefore, more effective. For instance, a
manager receives far more cooperation by speaking to his subordinates
because this is more direct and personal than a written memo.
However, spoken communication can fail completely unless careful thought is
given before it is expressed. Those of us who speak without thinking are likely
to have to explain further - "but I did not mean that” or “you misunderstood
me”. Language is inadequate for transforming all sensations into words, but
the precise, logical thinker can achieve a level of articulation which allows for
successful communication.
Apart from what is said, how it is said is also of great importance. Whatever the
pitch of a person’s voice or however accented his pronunciation is, there is no
reason for being misunderstood if the golden rule is adhered to: SPEAK
CLEARLY, SLOWLY, and DELIBERATELY. The speaker can, therefore, avoid
a whole chain of misunderstandings.

The author’s main purpose in writing this passage is to inform

readers that
A spoken communication in industry is important and requires careful
preparation
B speaking clearly, slowly and deliberately prevents misunderstanding
C effective personal relations are better maintained by oral communication
D oral communication rather than written communication is used in industry

PART II: SCANNING

Below is a list of words and their meanings.
Can you find the meaning of catty and cauldron?
catsup is a thick cold sauce, usually made from tomatoes.
cattle are cows and bulls that are kept for farming or for carrying loads.
cattle-grid is a grid of metal bars, which is set into the surface of a road so
that cattle
and sheep cannot cross but people and vehicles can.
catty is someone who is unpleasant and spiteful.
catwalk is a narrow bridge high in the air between two parts of a tall building,
caucus is a small group of people within a political party or organization who
meet to discuss important matters.
caught is the past tense and past participle of ‘catch’.
cauldron is a large metal pot which is used for boiling liquids or cooking food
over a fire, cauliflower is a vegetable with green leaves around a large, white
ball of flower buds.

Were you able to find the words and their meanings easily?

6
You did not need to read all the words and their meanings to find the meanings
of catty and cauldron.

Glance quickly at the television guide to answer the following questions.

Where can I watch 1999 Formula One World Championship?
When can I watch Golden Hour - File of Justice?
What is showing on TV 8 at midnight?
What is on at 7.30 p.m. on TV 5?
TV 4 TV 5 TV 8

9:30 Golden Hour - File of 7.30 Little Cartoon Festival - The 12.00 Midnight Movie - A House
Justice Train Mouse 8.00 1999 Formula to Die For
10:30 Suddenly Susan 8:00 One World Championship 13.30 World News

The reading technique you have used is scanning.

Scanning is a method of selective reading that is useful when you are searching
for a particular fact or a specific detail to answer a question.
Scanning is looking for and not reading. As you look for the information you
need, you 'nore everything else.
When you have finished scanning a page, the only thing you should know is
whether it contains the information you are looking for. You may not be able to
recall topics, main ideas :r details presented on the page that are not relevant
to the information you want.

How do you scan?

To scan effectively, follow the steps below:
-Keep in mind the specific information or the answer to the question you are
looking for. Retain in your mind also the choices given in the multiple-choice
questions.
-Try to anticipate what the information will look like in print; how the answer
might appear in the text and what clues you might expect to help you locate the
information. For example, if you are scanning for the year of World War II,
look for numbers.
-Use headings and any other aids that will help you identify which sections
might contain the information you are looking for.
-Selectively look and skip through sections of the passage, keeping in mind the
specific information you are looking for. To do this, move your eyes in a zigzag
manner down the page in a systematic way.
-When you have reached the part of the text which contains the information
you are looking for, you will find that the word or phrase will stand out, and
you will notice it immediately.
-When you have found the part of the text which contains the required
information, read it carefully to be sure it answers the question asked or that it
is the precise information you are seeking.

Questions testing your ability to understand and to find specific details

explicitly stated in the text may be worded in the following forms in the MUET:
The author states all of the following except ...
Which of the following statements is correct/true?

7
Which of the following statements is best supported by the passage?
Which of the following is not stated in the passage?
Which of the following is not cited in the passage as evidence of...?
Note: Some of these question stems may also be used to test other reading
skills.

EXAMPLE SHOWING HOW TO SCAN

In September 1797, three hunters captured a boy of about twelve years of age
in the Caune Woods in France. The people of Paris were greatly interested in
this boy who had lived most of his life without human companionship. As it
turned out, the boy was a dirty ‘creature’ who scratched and bit, jumped about,
made animal-like noises and spoke no human language. Doctors who
specialized in treating mental disorders examined the boy and came to the
conclusion that the boy was an idiot and was not likely to be helped through
any kind of training.
A young doctor, Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, heard about the boy and he was
convinced that the boy could be taught. He attributed the boy’s low intelligence
to his solitary life in the woods and his ignorance of language. Dr. Itard worked
with the boy for five years. He taught him French and many other life skills.
At the end of five years, Dr. Itard concluded that the boy had been helped by
education but because his intelligence was subnormal, he could not progress
much. He did not succeed in learning French, but he was able to understand a
large number of written words and phrases. He could obey simple written
commands and could use word cards to communicate. In addition, he acquired
the manners and appearance of a civilized young man.
Scan each paragraph to locate the answers to the following questions.
The author states that the boy was captured in
A 1979 in Paris
B 1779 in Caune, France
C 1797 in the woods
D 1797 in the Caune Woods, France
Keep in mind that you have to find the date and place for your
answer. Scan for the date and place which are found in the first
sentence. (Paragraph one)

Which of the following is correct? The boy was examined by

A the hunters who captured the boy
B many doctors who specialized in mental disorders
C a doctor who specialized in mental disorders
D Dr. Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, an intern
Scan for the word ‘examined’ and look for information about who
examined the boy. (Paragraph one)

According to Dr. Itard, what was the cause of the boy’s low
intelligence?
A The boy had never had any contact with human beings.
B The boy had never had the benefit of education.
C The boy was ignorant.
D The boy was subnormal and could not learn language.
Scan for the name “Dr. Itard” and his statement which explains the
cause of the boy’s “low intelligence”. (Paragraph two)

8
Which of the following conclusions about the boy’s training is best supported
by the passage?
A The boy’s intelligence was low and he could not learn.
B Education had helped the boy.
C Life in the woods impeded the progress of the boy.
D The boy had great potential to learn.
Scan for the information in the concluding paragraph about the
effects of education. (Paragraph three)

Exercise D
Read the passage and scan for the information required in the
questions.
Reading comprehension is the process of drawing, sorting, evaluating, and
putting to practical use information gained from reading. It includes the full
understanding of anything from simple, single sentences to a complete book.
Reading comprehension questions are asked to measure a reader’s ability to
draw and successfully use information from a passage. The passage may be
made up of one or more paragraphs.
Your reading skill is indicative of how rapidly you read and how much you
retain of what you have read. This skill is acquired through reading experience
and training, or a combination of both. However, if your reading experience is
limited, you can still train yourself to read more effectively. This can be done
by a careful intensive study of the exercises in any good reading
comprehension book. You must be willing to expend a lot of time and to have
practice and faith in yourself.
Vocabulary skills are an asset to, but not a substitute for, reading skill. If your
particular interest has confined your reading to a specific subject area, such as
one period of history, a natural science, or one type of literature, you will find
that your vocabulary would have become specialized. Although it will be
relatively easy for you to comprehend passages whose main idea or topic
comes within your specialty, you will be at a loss when the topic of the passage
falls outside your particular field. However, if you have a broad vocabulary,
you may be able to handle a variety of passages without running into trouble.

The author explains the following in the passage except

A how to improve your specialized vocabulary
B the definition of reading comprehension
C what reading comprehension questions test
D how reading skills can be acquired

Which one of the following questions does the passage provide an answer to?
A How do you improve your vocabulary?
B How do you improve your reading?
C How do you answer reading comprehension questions?
D How do you draw and use information from reading?

According to the passage, which of the following is true about

vocabulary?
A It is not necessary to have a specialized vocabulary to aid reading.
B To acquire vocabulary skills is more useful than to acquire reading skills.

9
C It is better to have a broad vocabulary than a specialized one.
D A specialized vocabulary may help you figure out terms in a variety of
passages.

Exercise E
Read the passage and scan for the information required in the
questions.
The Chinese first discovered the ancient process of printing on paper long ago,
but they did not develop the invention for various reasons. Written Chinese
has too many characters, and also China did not have ink suitable for moveable
type printing.
It was not until the fourteenth century that the Dutch improved the printing
process by using ink and moveable metal types. With this improvement,
Johannes Gutenberg and his associates, Jehann Fust and Peter Schoffer,
printed the first Bible in Germany.
The invention of printing using moveable metal types had a far-reaching
influence on all living languages in Europe. William Caxton, who had learned
the art of printing in the continent, introduced the technique of printing to
England in 1476. From then on, printing made such rapid progress that a mere
century later, handwritten books could hardly be seen anymore. Printing of
books became so popular that the number of books printed before 1500
reached a tremendously high figure never before envisaged. The effect of the
development in printing was mainly seen in the printing of English books in
the seventeenth century when large volumes of books and pamphlets appeared.
The result of printing made books, which had previously been a luxury
accessible only to the rich, available to all.

The author states all of the following except

A China first developed printing
B Holland made moveable metal types for printing
C The first Bible was printed in Germany
D William Caxton introduced printing to England
Which of the following statements is not stated in the passage?
A China did not have the appropriate type of ink for printing.
B Jehann Fust and Peter Schoffer learned the art of printing in Germany.
C The invention of printing had a great impact on languages in Europe.
D Handwritten books were scarce during the 16th century.
Which of the following is not cited in the passage as evidence of the
effect of the development in printing?

A The Dutch school of printing was started.

B Handwritten books became a rarity.
C Large quantities of books and pamphlets were published.
D Books became accessible to all.

Exercise F
Read the passage and scan for the information required in the
questions.

10
Thinking is one of the most remarkable human achievements. In most
countries, the creative thinker, whether scientist or poet, is highly acclaimed
and respected. What is it that human beings do when they engage in creative
thinking? How is it that some people can produce novels, plays, musical
compositions, or paintings? How do certain scientists create striking and
fruitful hypotheses and then devise the most ingenious experimental methods
to test the truth of these? What is it that makes for mathematical genius or
philosophical acumen? How do they manage it while the rest of us muddle
along in our confused and pedestrian fashion?
Creative thinking results in products, for example, poems, pictures and
experiments, the quality of which makes us describe them as ‘original’,’
creative’, or ‘imaginative’. The layman is apt to believe that the thought
processes and activities of a creative person, which result in the creation of
admirable products, must be quite exceptional. But is this really the case? Is
the creative thinker a special kind of person or only a person whose special
training, skill, and the acquisition of a personal style have made him somewhat
more competent than others? Most of us can write, after a fashion; the poet
laureate surpasses the ordinary writer when it comes to creative works - but
then how much of his creativity is due to instruction, training, practice, and
special incentives? Perhaps a few of us, if given the chance, could match a
really good writer. Indeed, the ordinary man might produce creatively if he
were given favourable condition under which to develop his hidden powers
and talents.

Which of the following is not stated in the passage?

A Thinking is one of the most remarkable human achievements.
B A person is considered creative because of his works.
C The works of a creative person are original and imaginative.
D The ordinary man will become creative under favourable conditions.

Which of the following statements is true of a creative person?

A A creative person is often a scientist or a poet.
B A creative person is a person who is highly trained.
C A creative person is one who muddles along in a confused way.
D A creative person is one who can produce plays, novels, musical
compositions, etc.

The author asks the following questions on aspects of creativity

except
A what is it that makes for mathematical genius or philosophical acumen?
B how does a creative person avoid getting muddled and confused?
C is the creative thinker a special kind of man?
D how much of the creative person’s performance is due to instruction,
training exercise, or special incentives?

Unit 2
Vocabulary in Context
Read the following paragraph and figure out the meanings of the
words in italics.
The East Japan Railway Company has banned the use of cellular phones on its
commuter kropfs. Passengers have gregged about cellular phone users

11
shouting loudly into their noifs, making the train rides noisy and unpleasant.
The use of cellular phones has caused many other problems. For example, in
the first six months of the year, there were 1,140 popps due to drivers using
cellular phones. As a result of these, 9 people died and 1,627 were injured.

(a) kropfs _______________

(b) gregged ______________
(c) noifs ________________
(d
)
[Answers: (a) trains (b) complained (c) phones (d) accidents]
po
Did
pp you get the answers correct? How did you arrive at the meanings of the
nonsensical
s words? You did so by using contextual clues.
Contextual
__ clues are surrounding words, phrases, sentences, ideas and events
that
__ help you arrive at the meanings of unfamiliar words. It is sometimes
possible to work out the meanings of unfamiliar words by analysing the
__
context in which they occur.
__
You must be aware, however, that there are limitations to the use of contextual
__
clues to deduce meaning. Firstly, it is not always possible to work out the exact
__
meaning of a word from context; and secondly, the text may not contain
__
sufficient clues for you to get the meaning of a word.
_
TYPES OF CONTEXTUAL CLUES
There are several types of contextual clues to help you arrive at the meaning of
unfamiliar words.
Definitions as Contextual Clues
Difficult words are sometimes defined for the reader within punctuation marks
like dashes, commas and brackets. Words like or, refers to, is called and
meaning are followed by the definition of the difficult words mentioned.

Example 1
The heteralocha acutirostris - a green and black bird native to New
Zealand - is believed to be extinct.

COMMENT
We know from this that the “heteralocha acutirostris” is “a green and black
bird native to New Zealand”.

Exercise A
Underline the contextual clues in each of the following sentences.
Give the meanings of the words in bold print
Flavanoids, substances found in colourful fruit and vegetables, are an
important element in good nutrition.
Meaning:_____________________
A spreadsheet refers to a computer application which is developed for
mathematical and financial calculations.
Meaning:______________________
Afrocentricity, or the study of African cultures, helps social scientists to
better understand human behaviour.
Meaning: ______________________

12
Early Japanese immigrants to the United States were called the Issei.
Meaning:
He referred to his aunt as a mercenary, meaning that she was only interested
in getting money, no matter what.
Meaning:_______________________

Examples as Contextual Clues

Contextual clues sometimes come in the form of examples given to illustrate
what an unfamiliar word stands for. Such examples are often introduced
bywords lik e for example, for instance, such as, to illustrate, including, and
occasionally by punctuation marks like dashes.

Example 2
I think that grandma should stop wearing gaudy clothes; for example, that
electric blue blouse, that flaming orange skirt, that dazzling yellow pair of
pants and that shocking pink dress.

COMMENT
From the examples given, we can deduce that “gaudy” means “bright and
colourful”.

Exercise B
Underline the contextual clues in each of the following sentences.
Give the meanings of the words in bold print.

Exercise 2
In a society which favours youth and virility, ageism is prevalent. For instance,
people tend to look askance at old people as being weak, senile, uninteresting,
sickly and fussy.
Meaning:_____________________
Cultural assimilation of immigrants in the United States has been rapid. To
illustrate, newcomers very quickly adopt the habits of the locals in the way they
dress, the food they eat, and the way they behave.
Meaning:_____________________
The witness gave the police a blow-by-blow account of the incident - at what
time it happened, the sequence of events, the number of people involved, what
they did and what they looked like.
Meaning:_____________________
A person suffering from schizophrenia often has hallucinations including
hearing o seeing things which are actually not there, smelling strange odours
and tasting poison; in food.
Meaning:______________________
Gender roles are now becoming more androgynous. For example, it is now
perfectl acceptable for women to play football, work as a bus driver or study to
be an engineei as it is for men to mop the floor, work as a nurse or look after
the children.
Meaning:_______________________

Contrast as Contextual Clues

It is sometimes possible to arrive at the meaning of an unfamiliar word by
looking at other parts of the text which have an opposite meaning. Look out for

13
words which indicate contrast, such as but, however, yet, nevertheless, while,
rather than, although, whereas, and despite.

Example 3
Babies are more susceptible to food allergies because their immunity
systems and digestive tracts are immature; but older children are less likely to
suffer from these allergies as their body systems are better developed.

COMMENT
We can deduce that if older children are less likely to suffer from food allergies,
then babies must be more likely to do so. Thus, “susceptible” means “likely to
suffer from”.

Exercise C
Underline the contextual clues in each of the following sentences.
Give the meanings of the words in bold print.
Sales and marketing managers who inspire their staff encourage them to
achieve peak performance, whereas those who do not motivate their staff often
get lacklustre results.
Meaning: _______________
To master the Japanese language rapidly while in Japan, live the Japanese
lifestyle by associating with non-English speaking Japanese rather than by
socializing with non- Japanese speaking foreigners all the time.
Meaning:________________
Exercise increases the amount of oxygen that invigorates the body, while a
lack of exercise makes the body feel sluggish and tired.
Meaning:________________
Although the death-defying sport of BASE jumping (BASE is the acronym
for buildings, antennae, spans and earth) is banned in the United States, there
are many enthusiastic participants who will not settle for anything less
thrilling and dangerous.
Meaning:________________
It was once thought that the incidence of domestic violence was higher among
the poor; however, we now know that this social problem is also common
among the affluent.
Meaning:________________

Experience or Logical Reasoning as Contextual Clues

The meanings of unfamiliar words can also be worked out sometimes by your
own experience or by logical reasoning.

Example 4
The use of air-conditioning alleviates the discomfort felt on a stifling, hot
day.

COMMENT
Your own experience tells you that you feel more comfortable in an
air-conditioned room or a hot day. Therefore, “alleviates” must mean
“lessens”.

Exercise D

14
Give the meanings of the following words in bold print.
A crying and fretful baby can usually be pacified by giving him a bottle of milk.
Meaning:
Adult learners in their 30s and 40s are increasingly taking university courses
online through distance learning programmes as this accommodates their
need for flexible learning timetables.
Meaning:
The tourists were so put off by the garbage and the stench at Pulau Keris, a
popular holiday resort, that they refused to eat there.
Meaning:
The first man on the moon, Neil Armstrong, was nervous when he made a
speech afl receiving the Langley Medal for aviation as he was unaccustomed
to public speaking

An inventory of wildlife population using high-tech satellite equipment

shows that the population of tigers increased from 1,000 in the 70s to 1,500 in
1999, and the elephant population from 400 to 600 in the same period.
Meaning:
Restatements as Contextual Clues
The meaning of an unfamiliar word can sometimes be explained by the next
part of the sentence, or another sentence which restates the information.
Restatements are sometimes indicated by words like that is, in other words, or
this means that

Example 5
Many composer-pianists like Franz Lizst, embellished their music as they
played: that is, they added notes and ornaments as they played along.
COMMENT
The words, that is, tell us that the second part of the sentence is a restatement
of the first part. This paraphrase tells that that composer-pianists added notes
to the music that they played. Therefore, “embellished” means “added notes
and ornaments”.

Exercise E
Give the meanings of the following words in bold print.
Altruism shows the positive side of human nature. There are many cases of
people who act charitably without any thought of personal gain or reward.
Meaning: __________
In art, we find a bulwark against an inevitable fact of life - death; that is to say,
art, being permanent and enduring, is our defence against something which is
as unpleasant or frightening as death.
Meaning: _________
Lorenzo de’ Medici was the archetypal “Renaissance Man”. In his
encouragement and patronage of the arts, he was the perfect example of
someone who was deeply involved in the revival of interest in art, music,
literature and learning during the Renaissance period.
To play organizational politics right, make sure that you form alliances with
people who are on their way up the corporate ladder. By this association, you
can ensure that you are supported by those who will eventually sit in high
positions.
Meaning:________

15
The levirate is practised in some African societies. Under this custom, when a
woman’s husband dies, she is permitted to many his brother.
Meaning:________

Exercise F
Read, the following paragraph and fill in the table.
Elvis Presley died in 1977 but remains the true King of Pop to his fans. This was
the man who perpetuated the rock and roll, without whom this form of
music could have altogether disappeared. Although untrained, Presley had a
naturally talented voice which ranged from baritone to a deep bass - a gift
which he instinctively used to great emotional effect. The judicious use of
vibrato - a trembling effect created by vibrating the throat - heightened that
emotional range. He also used the glottal stop technique to accentuate or
bring out certain emotions such as in Love Me Tender. These techniques,
coupled with his interesting body movements, made him a captivating
performer who delighted audiences everywhere.

Word Clue Meaning

(a) perpetuated
(b) vibrato
(c) accentuate
(d) captivating

Exercise G
Read the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow by
circling the correct answer.
The information technology (IT) explosion has led to virtual learning in
many university classrooms in the United States. For example, there is an
increased use of e-mail and the Internet as a result of the application of IT
tools. Lecturers explain assignments to students via the Internet, a time-saving
alternative as lecturers can reply to all students in one message. Electronic
bulletin boards have become places where students may be able to find sample
examination questions. Prospective students can find out about courses
they have a particular interest in, the course requirements, and so on before
they sign up. One side- cffect of IT, however, is the necessity of charging a
technology fee which some students, for Trhom books still remain
indispensable, have complained about. There is also the problem of ± r ratio
of students per computer - the number of students to every available computer.
Not crery student owns a personal computer.
"Explosion” means
A the widespread effects of IT
B the widespread coverage of IT
C the widespread learning of IT
D the widespread knowledge of IT
“Prospective students” are those
A who are sure to enrol
B who have already enrolled
C who are thinking of enrolling
D who are qualified to enrol
If the “ratio” of students per computer is high, it means that

16
A there are many students to one computer
B there are few students to one computer
C there are many computers available
D there are a few computers available

Exercise H
Read the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow by
circling the right answer.
Like many things, manufactured products have a certain lifespan. Some
products, like Colgate, seem to have been around forever. However, there are
others which hit the market like a flash in the pan - here today, gone
tomorrow. Manufacturers would, of course, like a Colgate kind of continuity,
but that is not always possible. What can they do then to keep in existence?
One way is to develop new products. Many manufacturers have established
Research and Development departments whose sole reason for existence is to
design, create or improve on existing products. That is their main function.
Those employed in the R & D department spend their whole working day
tinkering with products, making adjustments and alterations. Ideas for new
products are usually born here, although at times other employees may come
up with a bright idea which literally sweeps the market, for example the
Tamagotchi or cyberpet was the invention of an employee of a Japanese
toy-maker.
The expression “a flash in the pan” refers to a product which is
A used in the kitchen
B short-lived
C dazzling
D fast working
The word “sole” means
A only
B important
C major
D primary
If the R and D employees are “tinkering” the whole day, we expect to see them
A using new products
B packing new products
C altering products
D inventing products
A product which "sweeps the market”
A is a useful tool
B keeps the market clean
C is overwhelmingly popular
D is considered of great value

UNIT 3
Understanding Sense Relationships
PART I: TRANSITION SIGNALS
Read, this short paragraph about Mohan.
Mohan became a successful businessman because of several reasons. He
learned at an early age, the importance of saving money and investing it wisely.
When he was ten years old, and had earned enough money for a new bicycle,
he purchased a used one instead and saved the difference. He was always

17
honest in all his business transactions. He would never have any hidden
charges in his contracts. He learned the importance of treating his customers
as equals. He would always talk to them at their level of understanding and
never talked down to them or over their heads. He learned that providing a
good dependable service at a fair price would help him to keep his customers
and to have them recommend him to others.

Now, read the paragraph below.

Pay attention to the way the paragraph is now written. Note the use of the
transition signals which are in bold.

PARAGRAPH COMMENT
Mohan became a successful The first sentence is the idea the
businessman because of several writer wishes to develop - the
reasons. To begin with, he learned Topic Sentence To begin with
at an early age the importance of signals that the writer is giving the
saving money and investing it first supporting detail.
wisely. For instance, when he was For instance signals a pause by the
ten years old, and had earned writer to give an illustration before
enough money for a new bicycle, he giving more supporting details.
purchased a used one instead and Furthermore builds on the ideas
saved the difference. Furthermore, put forward earlier about Mohan
he was always honest in all his being a good businessman.
business transactions. For For example signals another pause
example, he would never have any by the writer to give an example to
hidden charges in his contracts. He clarify an earlier statement.
also learned the importance of ...also... shows that the writer is
treating his customers as equals. In giving another detail about Mohan,
other words, he would always talk the good businessman.
to them at their level of In other words is a method the writer
understanding and never talked uses to clarify a statement he has just
down to them or over their heads. made before moving on.
He learned too, that providing a good ...too... is a signal to show that the
dependable service at a fair price would writer is stating yet another thing
help
In thehim to keep
second his customers
paragraph, to Mohan
and signals
transition
learned.
are used. Transition signals help to
haveideas
link themwithin
recommend him to
a sentence, others sentences, within a paragraph, and
between
between paragraphs. They make your paragraph better connected or coherent.

To read efficiently, it is necessary for you to learn the transition signals that
writers use to:
-introduce reasons, causes, consequences, rules, and principles
-add new details to the earlier information
-stop or pause in order to give an illustration, an example, an analogy, or some
other clarifying statement before moving on
-change the direction of thinking
-indicate the end of the development of an idea

From these you can perceive relationships. In other words, learning transition
signals helps you to understand how writers link ideas in sentences, in
paragraphs, and between main idea and supporting details.

18
There are five classes of transition signals and each has a different function. It
is important to know the function of each and how it is used to link ideas in
paragraphs.

Transition signals to introduce reasons, to show causes,

consequences, rules, and principles
These transition signals indicate that the writer is about to introduce the
reasons, causes, consequences, rules, and principles to support the main idea.
When a writer writes a paragraph, he begins by first expressing the main idea
he wishes to develop. The idea is often presented in such broad terms as
reasons, causes, consequences, rules, and principles. The following table gives
a list of such signals.

Table 1
First- To begin with - One of the causes/rules

Transition signals to add new details or information to the reasons,

causes, rules, and principles
These transition signals indicate that the writer is giving another or a series of
reasons, causes, consequences, rules and principles to support the main idea.
After a writer has presented his main idea, he adds more information to the
main statement he has made. He uses many transition signals to link the ideas.
The following table gives a list of such signals.

Table 2
Second
Third
Also
And
More
Even more
Moreover
More than that
Besides
Furthermore
Finally
Likewise
Next
Then
As well as
In addition
Lastly
Some
Others
Still others
Above all
Another
equally important
equally necessary

Exercise A

19
Read the passage and do the following:
-Identify the topic sentence of the passage.
-Pick out transition signals in the passage that are found in Tables 1 and 2.

Foreign students pursue their tertiary education in Malaysia for many reasons.
To begin with, many of them come to the private universities in Malaysia to
study English so that they can be admitted into degree courses. Next, are the
students who come here from countries that do not have universities offering
internationally recognized degree courses. Third, are the students who wish to
enter foreign universities overseas but are unable to do so for various reasons.
They therefore join the twinning programmes available in the private
universities in Malaysia. Finally, there are a few students who attend
universities in Malaysia for other reasons. For example, the university fees and
cost of living are reasonable and affordable. Individual goals for these students
may differ but the ultimate aim is the same - they want to study in the
universities in Malaysia.

Transition signals to stop or pause in order to give an illustration,

an example, an analogy, or some other clarifying statements before
moving on
A careful writer will not move too rapidly when presenting ideas in a
paragraph. He will make frequent stops to give an illustration, an example, an
analogy, or some other clarifying statements before moving on to another idea.
Because this is such a necessary and common practice, there are a number of
transition signals which do this. The following table contains examples of such
transition signals.

Table 3
that is to say
namely
as
just as
specifically
to be sure
in such cases
in fact
this can be clarified…
for example
like
in the same manner
to be specific
for instance
such as
in other words
This can be explained…
This can be made clearer…

Exercise B
Read, the passage and do the following:
-Identify the topic sentence of the passage.
-Pick, out transition signals in the passage that are found in Table 3.

20
Here are three important findings from studies done on note-taking. One of
the findings is that note-taking does not interfere with listening and
comprehension. In fact, it helps students to listen well. In other words, when
students take notes during a lecture, they tend to pay more attention, and thus,
comprehend better. Moreover, these students who study their notes for an
examination tend to retain one and a half times more than students who do not
take notes. Recitation and reproduction of the lecture notes help students to
recall better for examinations. Findings from the studies done confirm
specifically that students who take no notes, or do not study their notes, forget
approximately 80 percent of the lecture by the end of two weeks. We can
conclude from these findings that students who take copious notes and then
study them, both immediately after the lecture and several times before the
examination, stand a good chance of remembering between 90 and 100
percent of the material. In other words, if they don’t take notes seriously, then
they put themselves at a disadvantage.
Transition signals to indicate a change in the direction of thinking.
In explaining an idea, sometimes the writer makes abrupt turns and detours in
his thinking. Thus, to make sure he does not confuse his reader, he uses
transition signals to indicate direct contrast to a previous statement. The
following table provides a list of transition signals to show a change of
direction in thinking.

Table 4
although
even if
otherwise
instead of
on the other hand
yet
but
nevertheless
in spite of
still (meaning yet)
on the contrary
whereas
despite
even though
regardless
however
rather (meaning on the contrary)

Exercise C
Read the passage and do the following:
-Identify the topic sentence of the passage.
-Pick out transition signals in the passage that are found in Table 4.

A formal letter is different from an informal letter in many ways. To begin with,
a formal letter is written for official purposes to government departments and
private organizations whereas, an informal letter is written to keep in contact
with friends and relatives. One may write an informal letter by hand but one

21
should type a formal letter. Furthermore, the length of an informal letter can
be as long as one wishes. However, a formal letter should be short and precise.
The language used for an informal letter to a friend can be colloquial and the
use of slang words is acceptable. On the other hand, in formal letters, formal
and businesslike language should be used. For example, in a formal letter, one
would write, “I would appreciate your sending me the document which I have
requested as soon as possible.” In an informal letter, the message may be
written, “Please send me the document I asked for quickly.” In addition, the
way one begins and ends an informal letter and a formal letter is different. The
opening and closing of an informal letter can be, “Dearest Mary” and “With
love” or simply, “Love”. On the other hand, in the case of a formal letter, there
are certain fixed expressions for the opening and closing like “Dear Mr.
Johnson” and "Yours sincerely”. These are some of the features that clearly
distinguish a formal letter from an informal one.

Transition signals to indicate the end of the development of an idea

When a writer reaches the end of the development of an idea, he has to
conclude. He often uses transition signals to do this. The transition signals that
he uses indicate that the point he wishes to emphasize will be the last and the
most important one. This is why the transition signals for a conclusion are
important. A list of transition signals to mark the end of the development of an
idea can be found in the table below.

Table 5
In conclusion
To conclude
thus
as a result
it can be concluded that
it is obvious that
so
implies that
I conclude that
To sum up
For these reasons
hence
proves that
as one can see
leads one to believe that
consequently
in short
suggests that
To summarize
therefore
it can be deduced
you can see that
accordingly
and so
allows us to infer
it follows that
it indicates that

22
Exercise D
Read the passage and do the following:
-Identify the topic sentence of the passage.
-Pick out transition signals in the passage that are found in Table 5.

Teachers can encourage creativity and divergent thinking in a number of ways.

First, and rerhaps most obviously, they can reward and reinforce original ideas
whenever they occur. As i result of this approach, learners will show signs of
creativity.
Another way to encourage creativity is brainstorming. Brainstorming consists
of listing and naming all the ideas or solutions to a topic or problem without
evaluating them. This method implies that there should not be any debate on
the value of the idea as comments tend to discourage the generation of ideas.
Consequently, the production of ideas will become more easy and this fluency
leads to the creation of original ideas. Moreover, it results in an individual
becoming more confident about producing ideas.
Instructors who provide ample opportunities for learners to explore ideas also
allow them to feel that they are free to try out divergent and original thinking
as they participate in activities.
To summarize, teachers can succeed in encouraging the creativity that exists in
every person, not just in a few individuals with potential.

Exercise E
Read the passage below and then do the following:
-Identify the topic sentence of the passage and then pick out all the transition
signals used in the passage.
-Answer the question that follows.

Children are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition in the first five years of life
for a variety of reasons. One of the reasons is that they are not yet able to feed
themselves, and they can digest only small quantities of food at one time.
Moreover, there are insufficient foods available in a form suitable for young
stomachs. In addition, the finger food usually given to young children is
especially high in carbohydrates and low in many required nutrients. For
example, diy cereals, cookies, crackers, and potato chips belong to this
category of high-carbohydrate snack food that is often given to children
instead of more nutritious food. As a result, many of these children have some
degree of protein deficiency.

The writer uses transition signals to introduce several reasons why young
children are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition.
Which one of the following transition signals does not perform this function?
A One of the reasons
B Moreover
C In addition
D For example

PART II: REFERENCES

Read these two sentences.

23
International trade is no longer the domain of large multinational groups.
International trade is now open to small and medium-size businesses because
of globalization of trade and advances in trading media like the Internet.

Read the second version of the two sentences.

International trade is no longer the domain of large multinational groups. It is
now open to small and medium-size businesses because of globalization of
trade and advances in trading media like the Internet

Did you notice that the second version is less boring and clumsy because there
is no unnecessary repetition of the same word or phrase?
Instead of using the same words or phrases several times, writers use reference
words to replace them.

Recognizing reference words can help you to:

-understand a reading passage better
-comprehend how the parts of a sentence or a paragraph hold together
-connect the ideas in a paragraph

Reference words are used to replace nouns and noun phrases.

Reference words are often but not always pronouns. They may refer to a single
noun or to a noun phrase made up of several words.

Example
Until 1992, Jamil, then 30, and his wife Aishah, 28, lived a rather ordinary
country life in Muar, Johor. There, he worked for his father in a successful
textile machinery plant, and she “id part-time work in a chilli sauce factoiy
where she helped in the marketing of the product. Together, they raised
two children, Johan and Maimun.

Answer these simple questions.

What does ‘then’ refer to? 1992
What does ‘his’ refer to? Jamil’s
What does There’ refer to? Muar, Johor
What does ‘he’ refer to? Jamil
What does ‘his’ refer to? Jamil’s
What does ‘she’ refer to? Aishah
What does ‘where’ refer to? chilli sauce factory
What does ‘the product’ refer to? chilli sauce
What does ‘they’ refer to? Jamil and Aishah
What does ‘two children’ refer to? Johan and Maimun

Exercise F
Read the paragraph and then answer the questions that follow.
Many overweight people tend to find it particularly difficult to resist certain
foods, such as chocolates, candies, or peanuts. Not only do they find it hard to
resist the temptation to take one small portion, but also once they have had
the first bite, they seem to find it impossible to stop. Such foods, of course,
are typically high in caloric content and because of this, therefore, are likely to
contribute to weight gain. Certain 5 foods are to the obese as alcohol is to the
alcoholic. For this reason, it has been recommended that the intake of such
foods be restricted. Some dieticians recommend that they be totally eliminated.
However, all diets require some variety. Therefore, it may be better to make

24
these foods a part of one’s daily meals. By doing so, the person will be eating
them when it is easier to control the quantity taken. 10
What does certain foods (line 1) refer to?______
What does temptation (line 3) refer to?_______
What does they (line 3) refer to?_______
What does Such foods (line 4) refer to?_______
What does this (line 5) refer to?______
What does For this reason (line 6) refer to?______
What does By doing so (line 9) refer to?________

Read the paragraph and then answer the questions that follow.
One advantage of a partnership as a form of business organization is the
ease with
which it may be begun. All that is required is that two or more legally
competentpeople agree to be partners. Their agreement becomes a contract.
It should be in writing, with all anticipated points of future disagreement
covered. However, the contract is also binding even if it is only orally
expressed.

What does One advantage (line 1) refer to?______

What does it (line 2) refer to?______
What does All that is required (line 2) refer to?_______
What does Their (line 3) refer to?______

UNIT 4
Distinguishing Main Ideas from Supporting Details
Read the paragraph and study the questions and answers given.
A sudden increase in robberies has hit Petaling Jaya. The robbers who are
mostly drug addicts, steal anything that can be quickly converted into cash.
Housing estates are their biggest targets. Residents in Petaling Jaya are aware
of this problem and are searching for new methods of protection.

What is the paragraph about?

It is about robberies.
Which sentence best expresses the main idea of the paragraph?
A sudden increase in robberies has hit Petaling Jaya.
Why is it called the main idea?
It is broad enough to summarize all the essential points of the paragraph and
specific enough to exclude detailed information.
Where is the main idea found?
It is found in the first sentence of the paragraph.
What is the function of the other sentences?
They clarify the main idea. Although the main idea is expressed in the first
sentence, it is not always clearly understood in itself and so the other
sentences of the paragraph are used to develop and make clear its meaning.
These sentences are supporting details.

A good paragraph is generally made up of sentences that develop a single

thought. That bought, called the main idea, may be expressed in one or more
sentences

25
The main idea is the summary of essential points of the paragraph, and it
excludes detailed information.
The topic sentence is the one sentence from the paragraph which explains
what the graph is about. Sometimes however, the topic sentence may be the
main idea of the paragraph.
The other sentences that come after the topic sentence contain reasons or
details, examples, facts and ideas that prove, explain, support, or give
examples that develop the topic sentence. These sentences are called
supporting details.

Finding the main idea and supporting details is helpful to you in many ways:
-It is the key to understanding a paragraph or a passage.
-It helps you identify the general point the author is making.
-It helps you to perceive the relationship between the main idea and what is
said about the idea.

Example
Read this paragraph and study the questions and answers.
Generally, people who are overweight are people who tend to overeat. A large
portion of what they overeat comes from snacks. Snacks are unnecessary since
regular meals can or should provide the necessary metabolic fuel. Snack intake
is difficult to monitor especially when people are snacking while being involved
in activities. These activities divert their attention to the extent that they do not
monitor their snack intake. Typically, obese people underestimate their food
intake and, as a result, will overeat snacks. They will tend to snack
continuously especially if they do not eat meals at regular times. Eating regular
meals ought to help the overweight person stay away from snacking because
then he will not feel as hungry.

How to find the topic, topic sentence, supporting details and main
idea of the paragraph
1. Decide what the topic of the paragraph is.
The topic of the paragraph can be a person, place, or thing. It can be something
abstract, such as an idea. It can even be a process.
The topic of the above paragraph is - Overweight people.
2. Find the topic sentence in the paragraph. A topic sentence can be found in
different positions.

Paragraph Position of topic sentence

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx The topic sentence is the first sentence in the paragraph. The
writer states the central idea and then elaborates on it.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx The topic sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. The
writer gives the examples, facts or ideas that lead up to the
central idea and then states it at the end.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx The topic sentence is in the middle of the paragraph. The
writer presents points, which lead up to the central idea in the
middle of the paragraph, and then elaborates on the idea in the
rest of the paragraph.
The topic sentence is not stated in the paragraph. The central
idea is implied rather than stated directly.

26
The topic sentence for the paragraph in the example is the first sentence.
Generally, people who are overweight are people who tend to overeat.

After locating the topic sentence, turn the statement into a general
question. This will help you focus on the supporting details of the
topic sentence.
You can turn the topic sentence into a question by using one or some of the
following questions words:
Who When How What Where Why
Study these examples.
What + do people who are overweight tend to overeat?
Overweight people tend to overeat snacks.
When + do people who are overweight tend to overeat?
Overweight people tend to snack while being involved in activities.
How + do people who are overweight tend to overeat?
Overweight people tend to snack continuously especially if they do not eat
meals at regular times.

These questions help you:

-determine the specific information or supporting details you need to gather
from the paragraph.
-focus on the needed information and keeps you from getting confused by
unimportant details.
-organize the information in the paragraph.

Once you have identified the topic sentence and the supporting
details, you will be able to write out the main idea of the paragraph.
The main idea is a summary of the essential points of the paragraph.
People who are overweight tend to overeat snacks while being involved in
activities and they tend to snack continuously especially if they do not eat
meals at regular times.

Exercise A
Read the passages below and then answer the questions that
follow.
There are many similarities and differences between crickets and grasshoppers.
Crickets and grasshoppers belong to the same family of insects and are similar
in many ways. Both of them look alike in that they have two pairs of wings and
three pairs of legs. Similarly, both have feelers on their heads and ‘ears’ on
their legs. Another trait shared by both is that they make noises.
However, there are some differences between crickets and grasshoppers.
Crickets are smaller than grasshoppers. Grasshoppers are light green, the
colour of which makes them different from crickets which are dark brown.
Unlike grasshoppers which fly as far as ten times the length of their bodies,
crickets do not fly in the air, but run swiftly along the ground. Crickets live in
sheltered places during the day and look for food at night whereas
grasshoppers live in fields and eat during the day. Crickets make a chirping
sound by rubbing the underside of one wing against the top of another, while
grasshoppers make a clacking sound by rubbing their legs against their wings.

27
Crickets eat grain, wool, other insects, and sometimes the bindings of books
whilst grasshoppers usually eat leaves and crops.

Main Idea
What does the passage mainly discuss?
A Crickets and grasshoppers belong to the same family of insects.
B Crickets and grasshoppers have similarities and differences.
C Crickets and grasshoppers are alike physically but have different habits.
D Crickets and grasshoppers are different.

Supporting Details
Which of the following statements about crickets and grasshoppers are true?
I Both belong to the same family of insects, look alike and make noises.
II Both are different in terms of size, colour, movement and shelter.
III Both are alike in terms of size, colour, shelter and food they take.
IV Both are different because of their body shape, movement, shelter, and
sound.
A I and II
B II and III
C I and III
D III and IV

Exercise B
Hearing is strictly mechanical. We don’t have to learn to hear for we are
physically equipped to do so right from birth. In fact, studies have shown that
we hear even during our sleep. However, unless the sounds we hear are
unusually loud, most of us won’t remember what we hear during sleep.
Listening, on the other hand, is the interpretation of the meanings of words
and sentences by the brain. This, in turn, leads to the understanding of facts
and ideas. Listening necessitates attention to stick to the task at hand
especially in the midst of possible distractions. It also demands concentration,
which is the focus of our thoughts upon one problem. Concentration does not
mean thinking only one thought. Various ideas will flash through our mind,
and we can either discard or pursue them. Concentration means holding a
central issue or problem in mind and formulating ideas that are related to the
issue.
Listening to a lecture is an example of a situation where concentration is
required. A good way to begin concentrating is to anticipate the lecture. Look
over your notes from the last lecture, and then take two minutes to answer the
question, “What is she going to talk about today?” Or, if the lectures follow
your textbook, peek ahead to see what is coming next. Then, once the lecture
starts, let your mind dart ahead during pauses to anticipate what is coming
next. Your attention must focus on the data and ideas.
With this headstart on concentration, and with a desire to learn, you have
already begun the process of serious listening. Then, begin taking notes the
moment the speaker begins. To take intelligent notes, you will have to listen
attentively with concentration. And this will combat the boredom that leads to
sleepiness and daydreaming.

Which of the following best summarizes the author’s main point?

A Hearing is different from listening.

28
B Unlike hearing, listening requires attention and concentration.
C Concentration is to hold a central issue or problem in mind.
D Serious listening necessitates attention and concentration.
What is the main idea of paragraph three?
A It is important to listen well.
B When listening, focus your attention on the data and ideas.
C To concentrate, look at your lecture notes and peek into the chapter ahead. D
To concentrate well while listening, you must anticipate what is to come.
The following are ways to concentrate except
A focusing your thoughts on one problem, not one thought
B keeping in mind a central issue or problem and related ideas
C combating the boredom that leads to sleepiness and daydreaming
D anticipating what is coming next in a lecture

Exercise C
Recruiting suitable employees during periods of prosperity and full
employment is one of the major problems for small business owners. The small
enterprise is disadvantaged in that it cannot pay high wages characteristic of a
big business. Neither can it guarantee permanent employment as a big
corporation can.
Not only are labour requirements and costs relatively higher for the small
firms in an industry, but they are also higher for the types of business in which
small firms dominate, such as merchandising and the service trade. All these
are considerably more labour-intensive.
In addition, the smaller business finds it increasingly difficult to recruit
managerial employees. The expanding economy has created great competition
between large and small businesses for future executive personnel. A large firm
can give high starting salaries plus numerous fringe benefits, and executive
training programmes. The competition has seemingly teen too great for most
small employers to meet.
However, the shortage of managerial staff experienced by small enterprises
has been met successfully through creative means. They have been able to turn
the difficulties and disadvantage into an advantage. Many small businesses
offer profit sharing, a closer employer-employee relationship and even
partnership plans. A large number of job-hunters have responded because they
want their incomes to be in proportion to their contributions and ability and
they hope to become business owners themselves.
Small businesses can also acquire managerial employees by ‘selling’ the idea
that the experience gained in a small concern will improve their career
prospects. Experience in these small enterprises can serve as preparation for
entrepreneurship or for executive employment m a big business. The
employees in a small concern do not become submerged in the complex
specialized duties of a large concern. Thus, this provides an ideal opportunity
for the ambitious man or woman to learn all the functions of management and
to develop managerial ability more rapidly than can be done in a large
organization.

What is the main point the writer is trying to get across in this
passage?
A Small businesses have difficulty securing suitable employees at the
managerial level.

29
B Small businesses cannot overcome the difficulty of securing competent
employees.
C Small businesses face recruitment problems but have the means to overcome
them. D Small businesses cannot compete with the larger businesses for
competent employees.
Which one of these is not a reason why a small business finds it
hard to recruit employees?
A It cannot afford to pay high salaries.
B It cannot cope with its labour requirements and its higher costs.
C It cannot compete with the pay, benefits and training given by big firms.
D It cannot offer its staff long-term employment.
What is the main idea of paragraph four?
A Small enterprises have solved their problem of staff shortage by creative
means.
B Small enterprises have turned their advantage into a disadvantage.
C Small enterprises have attracted many employees who want their incomes to
reflect their contributions.
D Small enterprises offer attractive profit and partnership plans.
Which one of the following is not cited as a supporting detail for
the main idea in paragraph four?
A Offer of profit sharing, a closer employer-employee relationship and
partnership plans
B Opportunity to become submerged in complex specialized duties
C Opportunity to gain desirable experience
D Opportunity to learn all functions of management and develop managerial
ability

Exercise D
There was a time when bilingualism was regarded with awe and
half-incredulous curiosity. It was a condition that was thought to exist in those
relatively few cases where two languages were acquired at the same time in
early childhood. In such cases it was assumed that the person would be equally
competent in the two languages. He would be able to use either of them with
the same ease in any situation. A bilingual person, it was thought, was simply
one who had two mother-tongues.
The term ‘bilingualism’ means ‘the possession of two languages’. It does not
mean that a bilingual person must have ‘native-like control of two languages’.
In fact, the ability may vary from a smattering to literary mastery. However, in
defining bilingualism, most people would emphasize the habitual use of two
languages as a necessary condition.
In bilingual areas of the world, children may learn two or more languages from
an early age. This happens in certain parts of Wales, in the bilingual areas of
Alsace, France and Belgium, and in various parts of India and Africa, to
mention a few examples. The bilingual person learns to understand and
habitually speak two languages from infancy or childhood. Usually one
language is preferred to the other, or the speaker may command a much wider
range of vocabulary in one than the other. One language may be associated
with one particular environment such as the home, and the other language
may be reserved for a different situation, perhaps in school or at work. Some
children in Malaysia would speak English to their parents, and some other
vernacular, with almost equal ease, to their grandparents.

30
Bilingualism shows that, given the opportunity, young children have a
particular facility for learning more than one language, and for learning it
through speech. There is no evidence that bilingualism has any harmful effects
on the child’s educational or mental development. In fact, young children can,
in suitable circumstances, achieve fluent bilingualism with ease, and it seems
that this is not at the expense of any other achievements of the child.
Nowadays, bilingualism is far more widespread than many people imagine.
Moreover, in years to come, as a result of easier communication, closer
international contacts and perhaps, more efficient language teaching,
bilingualism is likely to increase by leaps and bounds.

What aspect of the topic is the writer talking about?

A Bilingualism - definition and development
B Bilingualism - definition, its use in different situations and effects
C Bilingualism - development, circumstances and effects
D Bilingualism - effects and its future
According to the author, bilingualism is
A the possession of two mother-tongues
B the possession and habitual use of two languages
C the native-like control of two languages
D the habitual use of two languages
Which statement about the bilingual person is not true?
A He learns two languages from childhood as two mother-tongues.
B He prefers one language to the other.
C He has a wider vocabulary in one language than in the other.
D He associates the use of one language with some circumstances and some
persons.
Which of the following is cited in the passage as an effect of
bilingualism?
A Bilingualism does not impede educational or mental development.
B Children have difficulty learning more than two languages.
C Bilingualism adversely affects other achievements of children.
D Bilingualism does not facilitate the learning of more than two languages.

Unit 5
Information Transfer

PART I: TRANSFERRING INFORMATION FROM LINEAR TO NON-

LINEAR TEXTS
Look at the paragraph below and study the questions and answers that
follow.
A recent study done on air quality shows that vehicles, which emit carbon
monoxide, suspended particulate matter and airborne particulate lead, are the
main cause of air pollution in Kuala Lumpur. Suspended particulate matter
can reach levels of over 200 ug per cubic metre. To counter this, an air
pollution control expert has suggested that people use diesel-fuelled vehicles
as petrol-driven vehicles emit more poisonous pollutants like carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon. Electric cars, which are totally pollutant-free,
could also be used for movement within the city. A more feasible and
long-term solution would be to relocate people outside Kuala Lumpur, thus

31
reducing the number of vehicles travelling into Kuala Lumpur, and the
resultant traffic congestion and pollution.

The topic of the paragraph is

A Air quality in Kuala Lumpur
B Combating air pollution in Kuala Lumpur
C Types of toxins in polluted air
D Traffic congestion in Kuala Lumpur
The three subtopics of the paragraph are:
A Diesel-fuelled vehicles
B Electrical cars
C Relocating people outside Kuala Lumpur

The above information can be organized in the following way.

Complete the chart.

Topic: Combating air pollution in Kuala Lumpur

Subtopic A: (Diesel-fuel vehicles) – Emit less poisonous pollutants
Subtopic B: (Electric car) – Pollutant free
Subtopic C: (Relocating people outside Kuala Lumpur) – Reduce
traffic congestion and pollutant

An exercise of this nature helps you to:

-understand how the text is organized
-see the relationship between parts of the text
-identify the main points of the text
-select relevant related details.

Information Organized According to Level of Generality

To understand the way a text is organized, consider the levels of
generality.
Look at the following paragraph and diagram.
Notice how the information is organized.

Example
Fundamentally, underlying the differences between males and females are two
biological factors. There is a group of genes in the body which controls
immunity. Because women have twice the number of these genes as men, they
are less prone to infections and diseases. In fact, at any given age, more men
than women die from sickness. Male hormones called androgens and female
hormones called estrogens contribute to the differences in physical and
behavioural characteristics between the two sexes. Men are generally taller and
better endowed with muscles. They are, therefore, heavier. They also I have
more body and facial hair. Androgens, furthermore, make men more
aggressive and active. However, these characteristics are often modified by
socio-cultural factors like diet and social conditioning.

Level 1: Factor Underlying Male-Female Differences

Level 2: Genes - Hormones
Level 3: Health – Physical Characteristics/Behaviour

32
Level 4: Women are less prone to infections and discusses – Men
are taller, more muscular and heavier. Men have more body and
facial hair/Men are more active and aggressive.

COMMENT
Level 1, which contains the topic, has the broadest information - two
biological factors which underlie male-female differences.
Level 2 contains the two specific factors underlying male-female differences -
a group of genes, male and female hormones.
Level 3 specifies the three areas of differences - health (a subheading you have
to provide yourself), physical and behavioural characteristics.
Level 4 is the most specific, listing out the particular details of these three
areas of differences. We can see, therefore, that the information is organized
from the most general to the most specific.

Exercise A
Read the paragraph below. Complete the chart by writing down the
details that correspond to the specified levels.
There is enough food in the world, including countries in the Third World.
Why then are millions of people in Third World countries afflicted by
malnutrition and starvation? The main reason is that of poverty, a state that
denies them the opportunity to buy the food that is in abundance. Secondly,
the low level of economic development means that they also do not have the
resources to grow their own food for lack of seeds, fertilizers and agricultural
implements like basic farm machinery. In addition, a chronic shortage of
facilities like irrigation systems and proper food storage means that the
frequent floods and droughts bring great suffering to the people.

Information Organized According to Sequence of Action

Some types of information in a text are organized in a sequential order, that is,
chronologically. Consider the following paragraph:

Example
Caffeine is a stimulant in coffee. Some coffee drinkers would rather do without
this naturally-occurring chemical stimulant. Caffeine can be removed from
coffee beans in a variety of ways. In one method, the coffee beans are first
steamed until they are soft. The steaming process also causes the caffeine to
rise to the surface of the beans. Then, for the next ten hours, the beans are
rinsed in methylene chloride which removes the caffeine. Finally, the beans
are washed and dried.

The information in this paragraph can be presented in a flow chart. Look at the
following diagram:

MAKING DECAFFEINATED COFFEE

COMMENT
In this type of text, you have to understand the sequence, or chronology in
which the events take place. In the example given above, words which indicate
sequence are first, Then and Finally.

33
Sometimes, the chronology can become less straightforward with the use of
sequence words like before, after, as soon as, etc. You will need to read the text
closely to check the order :n which events occur.

Exercise B
Complete the chart using information from the following passage.
Sergei Diaghilev will forever remain in the history of ballet as one of the most
controversial figures in the art form. Before he formed his own ballet company
in 1909, Diaghilev had assiduously introduced Russian art and music to the
Parisians, one such effort being presenting Boris Godunov, an opera by
Mussorgsky. With a troupe of dancers which included legendary dancers like
Anna Pavlova whose Dying Swan is talked about to this day, and the
flamboyant Nijinsky, the Ballets Russes de Serge de Diaghilev soon made an
impact on Parisian cultural life. The company’s production of Giselle, The
Firebird and the exotic Scheherazade in 1910 were rapturously received by the
Parisians. These successes, however, were not to last. In 1913, the company’s
performance of Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring had polite Parisian society
violently protesting against the new primitive and syncopated rhythms of the
music. A year prior to this, the company had shocked the audience with
Debussy’s Apres-midi d’un Faune, in which the dancers were scantily dressed.
Parade, for which Erik Satie composed music and Pablo Picasso designed sets,
was the next rabble rouser after The Rite of Spring. This time, the ballet
resulted in a riot. In 1925, the police had to be called in after chaos erupted
during a surrealistic performance of Romeo and Juliet. Diaghilev, however,
remained undaunted and took his company to England, Venice and Germany.
Diaghilev died in Venice in 1929, and lies buried on the island of San Michele.

PERFORMANCES BY THE BALLETS RUSSES DE SERGE DE

DIAGHILEV

Exercise C
Complete the diagram using information from the following
passage.
In a traditional family, the husband is the sole breadwinner while the wife
stays home to look after the children. Increasingly, however, both husband and
wife are in the workforce. There are three main reasons for the increasing
number of dual-career couples, as they are called by sociologists. The most
obvious reason is economic need, especially for childcare and education.
Secondly, the declining birth rate has meant that women are less burdened
with childbearing and rearing. Finally, the increase in the number of women
with higher education, and the awareness raised by the feminist movement
have brought about a change in the status of women.

REASONS FOR THE INCREASING NUMBER OF DUAL-CAREER

COUPLES

(1)
A Falling birth rate
B Wider-spaced children
C Increased mortality rate
D Declining mortality

34
(2)
A Childbearing
B Childbirth
C Childcare
D Childhood
(3)
A Higher status
B Greater awareness
C More women’s rights
D Feminism

Exercise D
Complete the diagram using information from the following
passage.
Like many other developing nations, Malaysia has to grapple with certain
problems in its educational system. Despite the fact that 20 percent of the
country’s budget is allocated to education, there is still the problem of an
unfavourable student-teacher ratio. Class numbers are huge - often forty or
more. It is, therefore, impossible to pay individual attention to each child in
the class. In addition, there is a lack of teachers in rural schools. A problem
with far- reaching effects is that of an over-emphasis on examinations. This
has led to the prevalence of rote learning with its resultant restriction on
thinking and creativity. Students rarely read beyond their prescribed textbooks,
partly because of excessive homework, and partly due to :he fact that they are
busy at tuition centres after school.

(1)
A Grappling with Educational Problems
B Educational Problems in Malaysia
C Educational Problems in Developing Countries
D Educational Allocation in Budget
(2)
A High student-teacher ratio
B Low student-teacher ratio
C Unfavourable ratio
D Unfavourable student ratio
(3)
A Tuition centres
B Tuition materials
C Tuition groups
D Tuition classes
(4)
A Class numbers of forty or more
B Lack of individual attention
C Impossibility of attention
D Short attention span
(5)
A Prescribed thinking and creativity
B Restrictive thinking and creativity
C Resultant thinking and creativity
D Lack of thinking and creativity

35
Exercise E
Complete the chart using information from the following passage.
Cleaning a meat processing area is an important daily task at meat factories
and outlets. Failure to adhere to sanitary standards leads to the risk of
microbiological infection. Microbial damage results in a shortened shelf life of
the meat products as the colour and flavour rapidly deteriorate. A more serious
threat is posed by pathogenic organisms that may cause outbreaks of food
poisoning.
Thorough cleaning of equipment and surfaces is, therefore, mandatory in meat
processing areas. All soiled equipment and surfaces are first rinsed with warm
water. Rinsing begins at the top of all equipment and surfaces, and all meat
residues must be washed away. An alkaline detergent is applied to the
equipment and the surfaces.
After a maximum of 25 minutes, the detergent is washed off using the same
sequence of rinsing from top to bottom. Each piece of equipment must be
carefully rinsed, one side at a time.
Then the equipment and surfaces are examined closely to make sure that they
are absolutely clean. When this inspection is completed, an organic compound
is applied to sanitize all the clean equipment. Finally, equipment and surfaces
which are prone to rust are coated with an edible oil.

(1)
A Rinse from top to bottom
B Wash clown meat residues
C Spray on alkaline detergent
D Leave detergent on for 15-20 minutes
(2)
A Leave detergent on for 25 minutes
B Apply an alkaline detergent
C Rinse off detergent
D Rinse in the same sequence
(3)
A Make sure everything is clean
B Use an organic compound
C Sanitize equipment and surfaces
DClean the equipment

PART II: GRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS

Read the paragraph below and study the questions and answers
that follow.

JUVENILE CRIMES REPORTED BY SEX: 1980-1990

According to the Police Department report, shoplifting by boys below 16
increased from 2,840 in 1980 to 3,115 in 1990. For the same period, shoplifting
by girls below 16 almost doubled from 800 to 1,562. The incidents of
vandalism committed by boys increased from 4,450 in 1980 to 5,035 in 1990;
while that committed by girls for the same period rose from 1,217 to 1,989. The
number of robberies committed by boys also increased. There were 998
reported cases in 1980 and 1,618 cases in 1990. Girls committed 200 robberies

36
in 1980 and 316 in 1990. The number of motor vehicle thefts also went up from
1980 to 1990. The statistics show that there were 1,819 thefts committed in
1980 by boys, increasing to 2,911 in 1990. Girls committed 189 motor thefts in
1980 and 372 in 1990.

How many types of crime are mentioned in the paragraph?

Four
How many shoplifting cases were reported altogether in 1990?
4,677
How many motor vehicle thefts were committed by boys below 16
in 1990?
2,911
How many robberies did girls commit in 1980?
200

Now, look at the table below and answer the questions.

JUVENILE CRIMES REPORTED BY SEX: 1980-1990

TYPE OF CRIME BOYS BELOW 16 GIRLS BELOW 16

1980 1990 1980 1990

Shoplifting 2,840 3,115 800 1,562

Vandalism 4,450 5,035 1,217 1,989

Robbery 998 1,618 200 316
Motor Vehicle Theft 1,819 2,911 189 372

How many shoplifting cases by girls were reported in 1990?

1,562
Of the crimes committed by boys in 1980, which had the greatest
number of cases?
Vandalism
Of the crimes committed by girls in 1990, which had the least
number of cases?
Robbery
Was there a decrease in the number of any of the crimes from 1980
to 1990?
No

From which of the two did you find it easier to get the information wanted?
Obviously the Table.

The table is one of several types of graphic representation. Graphics have the
important 'jnction of making written information more easily accessible and
understood, especially if Ck information is very detailed and repetitive.
Graphics show us obvious trends and also summarize for us at one glance,
relationships between variables.
Types of Graphs
Pie Charts/Pie Graphs/Circle Graphs

37
A pie chart is a circle which is segmented. The complete circle represents 100%
of a unit. Each segment or wedge, therefore, shows a percentage of that whole.

Exercise F
Study the following pie charts and answer the questions that
follow.
SHOULD DRUG ADDICTS BE IMPRISONED?

Look at the title. What are the pie charts about?

What do the charts compare?
Which is the largest group that thinks that drug addicts should be
imprisoned?
Which is the smallest group that thinks that drug addicts should
not be imprisoned?
Say whether the following statements are true, false, or not evident,
-Those 50 years and above show the greatest difference in opinion.
-The general population thinks that drug addicts should be imprisoned.
-Most people in the 18-29 age group have an opinion on the issue.
-People between 30 and 49 years are the most unsympathetic to drug addicts.
-People have strong opinions on drug addiction.

Bar Graphs/Bar Charts

A bar graph consists of horizontal or vertical bars, each representing a certain
quantity or amount. This graph is normally used to make comparisons
between these quantities or amounts.

Exercise G
Study the following bar graph and answer the questions that follow.
A Comparison of Hours Spent Weekly on Housework by Men and
Women

Look at the title. What is the purpose of the graph?

What do (a) the horizontal axis and (b) the vertical axis represent?
Which category of people spends the most hours on housework per
week?
Which category spends the least hours on housework per week?
Which categories of people spend about the same number of hours
on housework per
week?
Say whether the following statements are true, false or not evident.
-Unmarried women have more time for leisure.
-Men spend a rather consistent number of hours on housework per week
regardless of their marital status.
-Married women enjoy doing housework.
-The greatest difference in the number of hours spent on housework is found
between married and unmarried women.
-Women generally do more housework than men.

Linear Graphs/Line Graphs

A linear or line graph shows the relationship between the two variables shown
on the horizontal and vertical axes. (Variables are two sets of information

38
which may change in different situations.) If the variables both increase or
decrease at the same time, then there a positive relationship. If one variable
increases while the other decreases at the same time the relationship is inverse.
However, there need not always be a direct relationship between the two
variables.
A linear graph may consist of two or three lines. Each of these represents a
quality condition, or item, etc. It also shows you the trends of the variables.
This enables comparison to be made among them

Exercise H
Study the line graph below and answer the questions that follow.
SALES OF LOCAL AND IMPORTED CARS: 1980 - 1990 LEGEND

Look at the title. What does the graph compare?

In the legend, what do (a) the solid line and (b) the broken line represent?
Look at the horizontal axis. How many years are covered?
Look at the vertical axis. In what amounts are the units represented?
In what year was the most number of imported cars sold?
In what year was the least number of local cars sold?
Say whether the following statements are true, false or not evident.
-The sales of local cars were consistently higher than that of imported cars up
to 1984.
-People prefer imported cars to local cars.
-There were three periods when the sales of local and imported cars were
equal.
-Between 1985 and 1987, there was an inverse relationship between the sales
of local and imported cars.?
-The sales of imported cars fluctuated widely from 1980 to 1984.

Tables
A table contains columns of facts and/or statistics. These are classified for easy
reference, allowing comparisons to be made, and trends noted.

Exercise I
Study the table below and answer the questions that follow.
Iguanaland: Exports of Manufactured Goods: 1960-1990
Manufactured Goods 1960 ($m) 1970 ($m) 1980 ($m) 1990 ($m)

Food products and beverages 122 467 2651 2456

Textiles and footwear 43 800 1301 3211

Furniture and wood products 84 504 633 1754

Machinery 65 398 1022 2290

Petroleum products 3897 2389 1445 790

Iron and steel products 25 156 299 1643

Look at the title. What does the table show?

39
Which type of goods earned the most revenue in (a) 1960 and (b)
1990?
Which type of goods earned the least revenue in (a) 1960 and (b)
1990?
Over the 30-year period, which type of goods has earned the most
revenue?
Over the 30-year period, which type of goods has earned the least
revenue?
Say whether the following statements are true, false or not evident.
-Petroleum products are decreasing in importance as an export.
-Iron and steel products are the least important export items.
-Revenue from textiles and footwear increased the most in 30 years.
-Most people were employed in the textile and footwear industry in 1990.
-Labour is cheap in Iguanaland.

Reading Graphic Representations: A Summary

From the examples you have studied and the exercises you have done, we can
generalize that reading graphic representations usually involves the following
steps:
-Read the title which tells you what the graph is about.
-Read all the labels
-Look at the units of measurement
-Analyse the trends i.e. increase or decrease
-Analyse possible relationships
-Analyse the extremes i.e. highest and lowest
-0Draw conclusions

Exercise J
Study the following graphs and answer the questions.
COSMETIC SURGERY: A COMPARISON OF PROCEDURES
The most common surgeries for men are in the order of
A liposuction, face lift, eyelid surgery, nose reconstruction
B liposuction, eyelid surgery, nose reconstruction, scalp reduction
C liposuction, face lift, nose reconstruction, eyelid surgery
D liposuction, nose reconstruction, eyelid surgery, face lift
Which of the following is not true?
A Cosmetic surgery is becoming popular through the years.
B Fat deposits bother people more than wrinkles.
C The greatest increase in liposuction occurred between 1996 and 1997.
D Men are more concerned about hair loss than women.

Exercise K
Study the following graphs and answer the questions that follow.
EFFECTS OF WEIGHT-LOSS PROGRAMME EXPERIENCED BY
FOUR WOMEN

Who lost the most weight after six months?

A Fei Fei B Lina C Yusnita D Ranee
Who seemed to have been the least successful in losing weight
three months into programme?

40
A Fei Fei B Lina C Yusnita D Ranee
Whose weight loss was the most consistent?
A Fei Fei B Lina C Yusnita D Ranee

Exercise L
Study the following pie charts and answer the questions that
follow.
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL SALES OF CDS AND CASSETTE TAPES

Which type of music decreased most in popularity between 1985

and 1995?
A Light instrumental B Classical C Ethnic D Jazz
Which of the following statements is not true?
A Classical music has a small following.
B New Age music is a newcomer on the music scene.
C Jazz has been consistently popular.
D The audience for rock music has doubled.

Unit 6
Distinguishing the Relevant from the Irrelevant
Information is relevant or irrelevant depending on whether they fit the
author’s purpose in the argument.
Facts, reasons and premises are not in themselves relevant or irrelevant.
Rather, a premise, a reason and a fact can be relevant or irrelevant relative to
whether they serve the writer’s purpose in the argument.
Writers manipulate information to put forward arguments. If the information
supports the author’s purpose in the argument, then it is said to be relevant,
whether or not the information is true.
Conversely, if the information does not help the author’s purpose in the
argument, then it is said to be irrelevant.
Thus, before you can judge the relevance or irrelevance of facts, reasons, and
premises, you must be very sure of the aims of the author’s argument.

Example
In the following choices, which description is not relevant to the
purpose of the writer?
Marjorie is a fish lover.
A There are pictures of fish on the wall
B In the room you see two beautiful aquariums with lovely fish swimming in
them.
C Marjorie cooks fantastic fish and chips.
D On the bookshelf is a book, Fishes of the World.
COMMENT
C is not relevant because “Marjorie is a fish lover” means that she loves to rear
fish and not that she can cook fantastic fish and chips.

The patio is the most pleasant place outside my house to relax in.
A The sofa is wonderfully soft and comfortable.
B The tinted sunroof makes it beautiful and cool.
C The jasmine flowers from the garden give off a sweet scent.
D My neighbour often admires my patio.

41
COMMENT
D is not relevant because the information does not help to establish the
author’s aim of informing the reader that the patio is a pleasant place to relax
in. In fact, your neighbour’s admiration has nothing to do with the
pleasantness of the patio.

The AZ Restaurant serves the most unappetizing beef burger.

A Each burger costs only three ringgit.
B A lot of fat drips from the burger onto the plate.
C Some parts of the burger are uncooked and partially frozen.
D The burger is burnt around the edges.
COMMENT
A is the irrelevant statement as the information “Each burger costs only three
ringgit” does nothing to support the author’s argument.

Being able to distinguish relevant information from irrelevant information

helps you to:
-keep the writer’s purpose firmly in mind
-be wary of irrelevant sidetracks no matter how exciting and true or important
they may be in other contexts
-focus only on the information that is given in support of the author’s purpose

When you distinguish relevant information from irrelevant information, these

are the questions you should ask yourself:
What is the author’s purpose in presenting the argument?
What information is given in support of the author’s purpose?
Is the information given relevant to the author’s purpose?
In other words, does the information support the author’s purpose?
How do you determine whether a reason given is relevant?
Look out for the irrelevant reason fallacy.
An irrelevant reason fallacy is when the reasons given are not relevant in
support of the purpose of the argument. The reasons may be true, they may be
important in other contexts, they may even be worthy reasons, but if they have
no bearing on the issue in question, then including them in the argument only
confuses the issue. Sometimes the reasons may distract readers.
What are some of the ways to identify relevant reasoning?
A writer uses several techniques to ensure that reasoning is relevant.

• By logical evidence
Author’s purpose Logical evidence
Everyone noticed the Her hair was dyed purple and braided with pink
lady’s strange ribbons; her clothes were ill-fitting; her shoes had
appearance. huge red bows on them.
• By referring to facts/statistics
Author’s purpose Fact/Statistics

We can say that the new Out of a total of 10,000 customers who bought
XENO water purifier is in water purifiers at the exhibition, 8,000 have placed
great demand. orders to purchase the new XENO water purifier.
• By definition

42
Author’s purpose Definition
A computer is an A computer is an electric machine that helps people
extremely useful gather raw information. It also helps to sort data,
electronic gadget because and then to present the information.
it can do a lot of work.
• By comparison
Author’s purpose Comparison and Contrast
For repetitive types of A factory robot can do its job over and over again
jobs, a robot is much without getting bored or tired. It can work at a
better than a human constant speed and standard, while a person can
worker. get bored and get tired easily doing the same work.
Before long, the speed and standard of the person’s
work would deteriorate.
• By referring to authority
Author’s purpose Authority
South East Asia is set for A recent Economic Index (El) survey report by the
tremendous growth economist, Jon Hanlock shows that the exports of
compared to all other Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia are growing
developing nations in the more rapidly than those of other developing
near future. nations.
• By showing the cause
Author’s purpose Cause
Many exclusive shopping A large number of young and rich people often buy
complexes, which sell branded goods.
branded products, are
doing well.

Exercise A
For each of the following situations given below, four reasons are
given. Identify the reason which is relevant to the author’s
purpose.
If you want to convince someone to shop at a particular shopping
centre, you might say:
A The goods are competitive as they cost 5% lower than similar goods in other
shops.
B The workers are highly paid. Their salaries are is 5% above the normal rate in
the same industry.
C Twenty thousand people live near the shopping centre.
D There are a lot of parking bays available.
Advertisements on billboards along the highway distract drivers.
A Billboards are attractive means of advertising.
B Statistics show that there is an increased incidence of accidents around areas
where there are billboards.
C The bright lights, colours, and catchwords on billboards get drivers’
attention.
D Highways should have more billboards.

43
Computers make office work more efficient.
A The use of computers in offices gives the office an image of efficiency.
B Jobs in the office can be completed.
C Office workers are happier with the use of computers.
D There are fewer mistakes in the output of work and the presentation is more
effective.
The newspaper is a better medium of advertising than the
magazine.
A The newspaper is cheap and is produced daily while the magazine is
expensive and is produced only weekly or monthly.
B Certain magazines are not easily available in certain parts of the world.
C Newspapers are read by almost everyone.
D Advertisements in the newspapers usually appear in black and white while
those in the magazines come in multiple colours.
The digital GSM mobile phone will become the world’s most useful
mobile phone in the future.
A A report in the international magazine, The MobileNet confirmed that the
digital GSM mobile phone could be used in any part of the world.
B Most people buy the digital GSM mobile phone.
C The latest advertisement claims that the digital GSM mobile phone is easily
available.
D Our prime minister uses the digital GSM mobile phone.
More people have been buying electrical appliances recently.
A Electrical appliances are useful and practical.
B There has been a reduction in import tax and electrical appliances have
become affordable.
C There has been an increase in the popularity of electrical appliances.
D There has been a reduction in people’s purchasing power.

Exercise B
The following are statements taken from a debate on the topic, “Cigarette
Smoking can Cause Cancer”.
State whether the arguments are relevant (R) or irrelevant (I).
Remember, the question is whether the argument is relevant or irrelevant
and not whether it is true or untrue.
Encik Maniam smoked two packs of Benson and Hedges per day for 40 years.
When he died in an accident, doctors could not find any trace of cancer. (R/I)
Ah Hong never smoked a cigarette in his life, yet he died of lung
cancer. (R/I)
People who don’t smoke are less likely to develop cancer than those who smoke.
(R/I)
Everyone has the right to smoke and the government cannot impose a ban on
cigarette smoking. (R/I)
Cigarette smoking gives pleasure to people. (R/I)
Smoking causes seventy-two percent of deaths from cancer. (R/I)

Exercise C
The following are statements taken from a debate on the topic,
“Smoking should be Banned in Public Places”.
State whether the arguments are relevant (R) or irrelevant (I).

44
Remember, the question is whether the argument is relevant or irrelevant
and not whether it is true or untrue.
Smoking cigarettes increases the likelihood of heart attacks. (R/I)
Second-hand smoke - smoke breathed in by non-smokers from the cigarettes
of smokers - is hazardous to health. (R/I)
Smoke emitted by cigarettes pollutes the environment in places like airplanes,
theatres, stores and public buildings. (R/I)
Smoking is addictive. (R/I)

Unit 7
Distinguishing Pact from Opinion

In reading to distinguish fact from opinion, you should:

-read between the lines to determine what a writer is trying to put across.
-evaluate, judge and think deeply about the ideas and information in the
reading materials.

What is a fact?
-A fact is an event, a state or a relationship for which reliable evidence can be
found and which does not require deep interpretation.
-A factual statement can be proven correct or incorrect according to the
evidence in the passage.

What is an opinion?
An opinion is an interpretation of events which may be true or false, reliable or
unreliable.
An opinion statement is only a reasonable inference from factual evidence. As
such, each opinion represents one person’s interpretation of the facts.
Although the writer’s opinions may be correct, they nevertheless carry less
weight than ictual statements because opinions represent a personal
interpretation and bias which may not be supported by evidence.

Example
Which statements are facts (F) and which are opinions (O)?
Study the answers given.
Shamsiah does not speak to anyone (F)
My teacher, Mrs. Sivajothy, is kind (O)
Aeroflot offers the lowest fares to the United Kingdom (F)
Most restaurants like to employ male chefs (O)
Jonathan received the best student award this year (F)
Children should be seen and not heard (O)
COMMENT
Sentences 1, 3 and 5 are factual statements because reliable evidence can be
obtained if anyone wants to prove whether the statements are true or false.
Sentences 2, 4 and 6 are opinion statements because they represent a person’s
interpretation of the situation. Whether the statements are true or false,
reliable or unreliable cannot be established.

Exercise A
In this passage, write (F) for fact and (O) for opinion in the blank
space after each sentence.

45
It is quite senseless to allow seventeen-year-olds to have their own driving
licenses.
(1)_____Undoubtedly, some children are responsible and others are careful
but
most young people are still too immature and are not sensible. (2)_____From
the
Malaysian Insurance claims records, it has been shown that young people
between the ages of 17 and 18 are involved in more accidents compared to
those in the age group of 21 to 25.
(3)_____The police can give evidence that many serious accidents resulting in
death and loss of property involve people in this age group. (4)_____In the
light of
this evidence, the age for driving should be raised from 17 to 25. (5)_____

Exercise B
Below is a list of statements taken from an advertisement. If you think a
statement is a fact, write (F) next to the statement.
If you think the statement is an opinion, write (O) next to the statement.
Desk Set by Sheapher
Clients tend to judge you by the presents you give them.
Sheapher is the only manufacturer offering a desktop set complete
with a gift set.
Any client will be impressed with the striking new gift set, a Sheapher
exclusive.
The best substance for use as pen points is 14 K gold.
Sheapher pens operate on the principle of capillary action.
Sheapher is the most popular pen in Malaysia.
Sheapher Desk Sets are the choice of selective gift buyers.
A personalized nameplate is an appealing feature.
The tip of a fountain pen must be kept moist for the best writing effect.
The Sheapher pen is cheap.

Exercise C
Read the passage about crows.
In the space after each sentence, write (O) for opinions and (F) for facts.
Many species of crows are extinct today.(1)____There are, however, five
species
that can still be found in Malaysia. (2)____The most common crow is the
Corvus
Brachyrhy.(3)____It is absolutely black from its head, eyes, beak and wings,
down
to its feet. (4) It is perhaps its colour which gives people the impression
that it
is mean and vicious.(5)____
Crows are omnivorous, feeding chiefly on offal, grains, insects and even the
young of
other birds.(6)____According to a report made by the National University,
crows
cause great damage to vast agricultural areas every year, especially during the
harvesting season. (7)_____Crows are a nuisance.(8)_____

46
Farmers consider crows a pest and feel that they should be exterminated.
(9)____ They use scarecrows to frighten the crows away. (10)____However,
this method is not effective as the crows are not frightened by them.
(11)____
Crows are greatly misunderstood. (12)_____They are actually very intelligent
birds.(13)_____ They protect each other in many ways.(14)_____ For
example, they can make twelve different sounds which they use to signal each
other.(15)_____Before feasting on food that they find, they usually station
sentinels
at the top of trees to give warning signals when danger approaches.
(16)_____This
could be the reason why farmers find it very difficult to catch the
crows.(17)____

Unit 8
Predicting Outcomes
Look at the following headlines.
Study the answers given in the column on the right.
HEADLINE WHAT YOU EXPECT TO READ
ABOUT
SWIMMING AND YOU How swimming can benefit you
FAIR FOR BOOKWORMS Large variety of books Discounted prices

LOSE THAT FLAB — OR MONEY Guaranteed slimming programme, cost,

BACK!! duration
JUNGLE ORDEAL Where it occurred Frightening
FORTHREE experience How they were saved

What you have done is to predict, or foretell, the content of a text based on its
heading. Faced with headlines or headings, we very often form a hypothesis
about what we are going to read about.

Prediction, an important reading skill, helps you to understand the text better
by helping you to:
-anticipate how the writer’s ideas will develop
-anticipate conclusions

You can make predictions by:

-asking questions and predicting the answers to these questions
-relating your own background knowledge and experience to what you are
reading
-making logical connections from the information, facts and details in the text

Asking Questions and Anticipating the Answers to these Questions

in Order to Predict the Content of a Text Example

Example
Given the following headline, what questions can you ask which
will help you predict the content of the text?

47
HEADLINE Questions asked Predicted answers Predicted outcome (what
the text is about
THE MARRIAGE
THAT NEVER
WAS

Exercise B
Look at the following table of contents.
Award for Student _____8
Daphne Beats 200 Anglers _____12
Five-star Hotel All Set to Go_____14
The Secret World of the Starfish _____18
Office Politics _____22
The Winning Attitude _____26
Bringing up Baby _____29
Book Reviews _____32
On which page would you find the answers to the following
questions?
Question Page
Why was Robert not given a promotion?
How many distinctions did Subra get in the STPM examination?
What do we mean by "positive persistence”?
What was the length of the fish caught?
Is it worth buying?
When should egg be introduced to the diet?
What has temperature got to do with its survival?
How long will the special promotion last?

Using Our Own Background Knowledge and Experience to Predict

Outcome

Example
Can you predict the rest of the sentence by using your own experience and
knowledge?
If Jonathan continues to smoke, drink and live life in the fast lane.
__________

Based on our own experience and knowledge, we can predict that Jonathan’s
will suffer and he might even have a heart attack.

Exercise C
Predict the outcomes for the following sentences.
Saiful was well-groomed, confident and poised at the interview, whereas Izam
was untidy, jittery and fidgety. It came as no surprise that____
When Kevin came home at 3 a.m. without a good explanation, his father____
After the office staff attended an “Office Skills” seminar,_____
Before the government got rid of middlemen, farmers_____
In a wage dispute, management and trade unions usually_____

48
Using Information, Facts and Details in a Text to Predict Outcomes
Example
Read the following passage and answer the questions.
Room colour has a psychological impact, affecting our perception of a room. A
room painted in blue is seen as calm, comfortable and safe, while a red room
denotes excitement. A yellow room conjures up youthfulness and conviviality,
a purple one suggests depression whereas black, understandably gives the
impression of sadness, fear, anxiety and unhappiness.
Interestingly, researchers also found that rooms with immovable furniture like
beds and cupboards were regarded as unattractive. In a study of student
dormitories, it was found that those who could change the positions of their
furniture had more visitors, who also stayed longer.

Predict how a person would feel or do if he walked into

-a doctor’s office that is painted black
-a lecture hall that is painted red
COMMENT
Based on the details given in the passage, we can predict that a person who
walks into a doctor’s office which is painted black will be apprehensive and
might walk out again while a student who walks into a red lecture hall will find
difficulty in settling down for a class.

Circle the correct answer.

After finishing a meal at a fast food restaurant painted in bright primary
colours and furnished with immovable furniture, people would most probably
A order a cup of coffee and relax
B leave immediately
C sit and chat with their friends
D sit and enjoy the ambience
COMMENT
Bright, primaiy colours are not conducive to relaxation and conversation. In
addition, the furniture is immovable. Therefore, we can predict that people will
leave as soon as they finish their meal. The answer is B.

Exercise D
Read the following passage and answer the questions.
The Code of Practice on the Prevention and Eradication of Sexual Harassment
in the Workplace specifies the types of behaviour which constitute sexual
harassment. Harassment can be verbal, non-verbal, visual, psychological or
physical. Generally, sexual harassment can be divided into two categories: that
which affects the victim’s job, such as the threat of loss of employment or the
denial of a promotion, and the other which creates an unpleasant or
intimidating work environment for the victim through unwelcome attention or
unwanted physical contact.
A major stumbling block, however, is the fact that the Code has no legal
bearing. In other words, employers are not compelled or legally required to put
the Code into effect. At best, it only provides guidelines to employers as to the
definitions of sexual harassment. Questionable, too, is the effectiveness of the
Code in stopping offenders from sexually harassing their co-workers. Although
the Code is useful in clearly delineating the forms of behaviour that constitute

49
sexual harassment, victims need to be assured that their complaints are taken
seriously, and appropriate punishment justly meted out.

With the introduction of the Code, do you think that many victims
will lodge reports on their experiences? Why?
________________

Circle the correct answer.

With the introduction of the Code, concerned women’s groups
A will feel that they can now concentrate on other issues
B will leave the implementation to the Ministry of Human Resources
C will continue to fight to make the Code legally binding
D will ensure that all employers enforce the Code

Exercise E
Read the following short story and answer the questions.
CAN’T YOU READ MY MIND?
Pushing open the office door, she saw Kok Kiong’s head draw away abruptly
from Valerie’s. Both were momentarily taken aback.
“Morning, Judy. Just helping Kok Kiong with a problem,” Valerie recovered
sufficiently to say.
‘Thanks for your help, Val,” said Kok Kiong, embarrassed. Then to Judy he
stammered, “Lunch today? Usual?”
“I suppose,” replied Judy shortly. She switched her computer on. Kok Kiong
hesitate opened his mouth as if to speak, and then quietly left the room.
Judy’s mind was in a turmoil. She and Kok Kiong were the office “steady”. It
was not the most outwardly compatible of matches. Judy was
western-educated, forward in manner, and the “belle” of the office, so to speak.
Kok Kiong was the office square - diffident and bumbling in manner. “Square”
Judy used to unkindly refer to him when he first joined the staff. But she
gradually became the Lois Lane to the Clark Kent Kok Kiong. Behind the
insouciant facade was a quick mind of utmost intelligence. Buried under the
bumbling manner lay a quirky sense of humour. Soon they were the
department’s “Beauty and the Beast”, epithet they accepted in good grace.
Despite their increasing closeness, the issue of marriage had never been raised.
Judy was sure she would have to take the initiative as it was unlikely that Kok
Kiong would ever pop the question.
So what were Kok Kiong and Valerie doing in her office so early in the morning,
and why did they react so guiltily to her unannounced entrance? When she
posed these questions to Kok Kiong at lunch, he hedged around, mumbling
incoherently, much to her exasperation.
“Why?” Judy adamantly asked Elizabeth later at tea time. Elizabeth was the
Agony Aunt in the department. “You know, my auntie used to say that the
square type is the worst kind under all that goody-goody veneer.”
“People will generalize. But why jump to conclusions? The way I see it, I don’t
think there is anything between Valerie and Kok Kiong. I wouldn’t worry my
pretty head about it Elizabeth patted her hand and left.
But Judy was not convinced. Granted that Elizabeth had always been a good
judge of character, but what if her perspicacity had failed her just this once?
Judy stayed back as usual that evening to finish off some work. While her
fingers tapped on the key-board, her mind was filled with tumultuous

50
forebodings compounded by the fact that Kok Kiong did not come round to say
good-bye as was his wont. Impatiently, she brushed away the tears that blurred
the words on the monitor screen.
On the way home, Judy remembered that she had promised her mother to pick
up a prescription from the chemist. “And it will be just like her to get her
prescription from some out of the way place,” she grumbled as she parked the
car. Looking up, she saw in the jeweller’s, next to Pharmacare, Kok Kiong and
Valerie at the counter in animated conversation. Valerie was seated, one
shapely leg crossed over the other, while Kok Kiong was looking down at her,
his face unusually radiant.
Judy felt a sudden cold spreading through her body down to her legs. She
slumped over the steering wheel, hot tears streaming down her face. Gasping
for air, she slowly straightened up and drove home. She told her mother she
did not have time to go to the chemist.
Seated at her computer the next morning at work, it was all Judy could do to
pull herself together. She heard Kok Kiong’s familiar footsteps.
“Hi,” said Kok Kiong. Judy looked at him. He blushed. “Er...Valerie and
I...cr...we went shopping yesterday and...er... Valerie helped me...I got this for
you.” He handed her a small blue velvet box. Hands trembling, she opened it.
In it nestled a beautiful diamond solitaire. On the inside cover of the box was a
little piece of paper with Kok Kiong’s unmistakable scribble: “Marry me”.

After Kok Kiong had given her the ring, Judy probably felt
__________
How do you think Judy spent the night after seeing Kok Kiong and
Valerie at the jeweller’s?__________
Predict what Judy said to Valerie after Kok Kiong’s proposal of
marriage.__________
Predict what Judy said to Elizabeth after Kok Kiong’s proposal of
marriage. What do you think Elizabeth said in reply?_________

Exercise F
Read the following passage and answer the questions by circling
the correct answer.
Endrin, aldrin, dieldrin, toxaphane, chlordane, mirex, heptachlor, DDT - these
are persistent organic pollutants (POPS), banned pesticides whose effects are
as ominous as the sound of their names. Though banned, these pesticides
continue to be used by fruit and vegetable farmers as they are convenient and
cost-effective. POPS stay in the environment for many as they do not degrade
easily, destroying the environment’s biodiversity and threatening health. In
addition, POPS are contained in wind-borne particles that can travel over vast
areas, to settle in regions as far away as the North Pole.
The use of POPS in destroying the natural enemies of pests sometimes results
in epidemics of huge proportions, such as the Asian planthoppers’ blight in the
80s. More frightening is the fact that POPS are easily absorbed into animal fat
tissues, entering the food chain and creating great risks to human health.
Studies have found that POPS depress the immune system, exposing humans
to a wide range of diseases. Other studies have confirmed the presence of
abnormal hormones, resulting in deformities of body parts.
There are, fortunately, alternatives to pesticide use. In the integrated pest
management system, the natural enemies of pests can be used to keep the pest

51
population under control. For example, owls can be kept to prey on rats. Then,
of course, there is organic farming which dispenses with the use of pesticides
altogether. Unless something is done to encourage farmers to change their
farming practices, the sword of Damocles will continue to hang over
environmental safety and our health.

We can expect farmers to, for the time being,

A use smaller amounts of POPS
B continue using POPS
C stop using POPS
D try other methods of cultivation

If farmers stubbornly continue to use POPS, we can predict an

increase
A in the yield of crops
B in the farmers’ profits
C in the demand for POPS
D in the demand for health services

We can predict that the use of POPS will eventually be a

A global concern
B local concern
C national concern
D regional concern

If another paragraph were to be written, the writer would talk

about
A the use of POPS in global farming practices
B what is being done to limit the use of POPS
C POPS and environmental pollution
D the problems faced by farmers who use POPS

Unit 9
Making Inferences
jttfod the dialogue and answer the questions which follow.
Also write down the reasons for your answers.
Conversation between Mother and Edwin
Mother: What’s this in your school bag, Edwin?
Edwin: Er…what ..., Mum? Oh, that. That’s ...erm...erm...my report card.
Mother: Why didn’t you tell me that you’ve brought back your report card?
Edwin: I guess I forgot.
Mother: So, Edwin Tan Ming Howe, how did you do this time?
Edwin: Er…Mum, I’m hungry. Do you think you could make me some
pancakes, please?
Mother: Let’s have a look at this interesting document, first.
Edwin: Okay. I’ll just go and have a shower in the meantime. (Runs)

What were Edwin’s results like? _____

What kind of results did Edwin’s mother expect?_____
Was Edwin really hungry?_____
What kind of person do you think Edwin’s mother is?_____

52
None of your answers would be based on facts explicitly stated in the text. You
inferred the situation involving Edwin and his report card by:
-Using available evidence and facts
-Using your own experience and knowledge
-Making intelligent and informed deductions

Inferencing is a reading skill in which you read between the lines and use
your own knowledge and experience to come to an understanding of what is
hinted at or suggested in the text. In making inferences, you have to be careful
not to go beyond the information actually found in the text. However, although
inferences must be based on information tillable in the text, they themselves
are not facts.
To make an inference, ask specific questions about the general statement. This
may help you to clarify the key ideas and reflect on the words used in the key
ideas in order to come to an inference.

Example 1
Read the following sentence.
What kind of specific questions can you ask?
Although many women still work in traditional occupations, an increasing
number are in professional and corporate positions.

We can ask:
What kind of traditional occupations do women work in?
What kind of professional and corporate positions do women hold?
What percentage of women work in traditional occupations?
What percentage of women have professional and corporate positions?
Are there occupations which are traditionally male-dominated? What are
these?
What kind of professional and corporate positions do men hold?
Are professional and corporate positions generally a male domain?

Having thought about these questions, we can make the following inferences:
-Many women still work as nurses, secretaries, teachers and housekeepers.
-There are more men than women in professional and corporate positions.
-In future, there might be as many women as there are men in professional and
corporate positions.

Example 2
For each statement which follows the paragraph below, write “Yes”
if you can infer the information and “No” if the information cannot
be inferred. Give reasons for your answer.
Social psychologists have two theories to explain why people like or dislike
each other, a phenomenon known as interpersonal attraction. The reward
theory postulates that interpersonal attraction is dependent on the level of
rewards and positive feelings we associate with a person’s behaviour. Just as
we are conditioned to like a person whose behaviour arouses positive feelings
in us, so we dislike someone whose behaviour arouses negative feelings. The
equity theory suggests that interpersonal attraction has as its basis a balanced
relationship. Underlying the satisfaction a couple feels in their relationship is

53
the equal measure which each person gets and receives. Partners who feel that
they are receiving more feel less satisfied and less happy, and partners who feel
that they are giving more, feel even less satisfied and less happy.
Statement Whether Reason(s)
statement
can be
inferred
1. Attractive people are associated
with positive feelings.
2. Behaviour is more important
than looks in interpersonal
3. attraction.
You can be made to change your
mind about someone you
4. dislike.
A strong person must be
complemented by a weaker
person for a happy relationship.
5. Those who take more are
happier than those who give
more in a relationship.
We can infer:
Statement 2 — Reason: Behaviour is mentioned in the text but not physical
attractiveness.
Statement 3 — Reason: If we like or dislike a person based on associations with
positive or negative feelings, then it should be possible to change your opinion
if the feelings associated are changed.
Statement 5 — Reason: This is mentioned in the last sentence.

We cannot infer:
Statement 1 — Reason: No mention of the effect of physical attractiveness.
Statement 4 — Reason: Text mentions that a happy relationship must be
balanced.

Exercise A
For each of the following general statements, write specific
questions and come up with as many inferences as possible.
STATEMENT QUESTIONS INFERENCES

1. Many parents worry about the

ill-effects of the Internet on their
2. For
children.
any form of exercise to be
beneficial to the body, it must raise the
3. Physical
pulse rate.appearance affects how a
person is perceived.
4. Classical music has a calming effect on
surgeons performing an operation.
5. The shape and size of our body are
largely predetermined by our genes.

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Exercise B
For each statement which follows the paragraph below, write “Yes”
if you can infer the information and “No” if the information cannot
be inferred. Give reasons for your answer.
China, with an estimated 1.6 billion people at the end of 1998, has the
largest population in the world. Each year, the population grows by 12
million people. This has placed great pressure on the environment and
socio-economic development. To add to that, the Chinese population is
mainly rural with a large proportion being illiterate or semi-literate.
This could have been worse, but the China Family Planning Association
(CFPA) has been making great efforts to control the population. The
Chinese birth rate actually declined from 33.4 per thousand in 1970 to
15.0 per thousand in 1998. Actual population growth declined from
25.0 per thousand to 9.5 per thousand. The CFPA has 83 million
volunteers working for its one million subsidiary family planning
associations which aim, through their programmes, to improve the
educational level of the Chinese population and the quality of life.
Statement Whether Reason(s)
statement
can be
1. A large population has a negative inferred
impact on a country’s water
2. resources.
India has the largest population in
the world after China.
3. The Chinese are aware of the aims
of the China Family Planning
Association and what it is trying to
4. do for them.
In 1998 China’s population grew at
less than half the rate of that in
5. 1970.
China’s development is marred by
the low educational level of its
population and the poor quality of
the people’s lives.

Exercise C
Read the following passage and answer the questions.
Apart from physical, intellectual and social development, childhood is also a
time for emotional development. It is a period when children learn about their
emotions, whether these emotions are socially acceptable, and how they can be
managed. Learning about emotions and learning how to handle emotions can
be traumatic in the real world, which is why children turn to play instead.
Role-playing, either with dolls or their friends, allows children to experiment
with their emotions and feelings. Play removes the risks of unpleasant
consequences resulting from a display of socially unacceptable emotions.
Another way in which children learn about emotions is by reading. Through
reading, children learn about the range of emotions other people have. This
helps them to come to an understanding of their own sometimes irrational
feelings. In fact, reading enables children to earn about a wider range of

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emotions than they would in real life. It is also consoling for them to know that
they are not alone in having these sometimes irrational feelings.
Learning about emotions through reading, is "safe". Distress, embarrassment,
pair_ sadness and so on, are experienced from a distance. Children feel secure
in the knowledge that they can stop or withdraw from a situation if it gets too
emotional for them.

Based on the passage, we can infer that

A play is an important element in a child’s development
B emotional development is more important than physical development
C the real world is threatening to children
D reading is the best way to learn about emotions
We can infer that children
A find irrational feelings natural
B find it better to play alone
C do not like unpleasant emotions
D are sensitive to adult opinions
We can infer that a display of strong emotions and feelings
A should be experienced at a distance
B is embarrassing to witness
C is socially unacceptable
D emerges during a child’s play
We can infer that reading
A is a child’s favourite way of learning
B provides a non-threatening learning environment
C is a form of escapism for the child
D makes a child more self-reliant in learning

Exercise D
Read the following passage and answer the questions.
With survey results showing that about 70% of workplaces have at least one
romance, it does appear that workplace romance is a rather widespread
occurrence. While romantic partners often share similarities in their attitudes,
likes and dislikes, it often happens that the male partner has a higher status, a
higher educational level, and is also older.
Researchers quote three reasons why people get romantically involved at work.
The first is love motivation where the partners’ yearning for romance is
genuine with intentions of eventual marriage. Some people, however, are
ego-motivated. These people view the romance as merely a physical attraction
and a temporary channel for excitement. Then there are those who are
job-motivated, hoping to reap benefits like career advancement, power and
security from the romantic liaison.
Workplace romance, however, is usually viewed negatively for its adverse
effects on the organization as such romances usually lead to a spate of gossip
and feelings of jealousy. If an office manager is romantically involved, he loses
the respect of his subordinates. The question also arises as to how he can
objectively appraise the work of the object of his desire. There have been
reports that those who are romantically involved often arrive late for work,
leave early and are often absent from work.

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However, some researchers have reported that female employees who are
love-motivated do show an improvement in their work, translating the
increased excitement in their lives into 'reater enthusiasm for their work.

We can infer that female partners in a workplace romance are

usually attracted to
A men who are good-looking
B men who have more power than they have
C men who share similar attitudes
D men who need a long-term partner
A person who is ego-motivated is
A exciting B uncommitted C romantic D sincere
A person who is job-motivated
A is only interested in career advancement
B is unlikely to be romantically involved with a subordinate
C will do anything for power and security
D usually comes from a deprived socio-economic background
We can infer that people generally
A are objective about workplace romance
B like to gossip about workplace romance
C are jealous of those who have romance with managers
D do not approve of workplace romance
We can make the following inferences from the passage except
A workplace romance is not encouraged by managers
B workplace romance leads to backbiting
C workplace romance jeopardizes reputations
D workplace romance blurs people’s objectivity

Unit 10
Drawing Conclusions
Situation A
Read the passage below and answer the following questions.
Inspector Ramy looked at the body of Mrs. Coco lying face down on the carpet
with its widening circle of blood. He noted the gunshot wound at the back of
the head. A Rolex watch still strapped to the right wrist of the victim indicated
that no robbery was intended. There was a shotgun in her right hand.
Head in his hands, Mr. Coco told Inspector Ramy in between sobs, “I really
can’t believe that she has done this to herself. Why, why, why? We loved each
other - I don't understand.”
"You were in the house when she shot herself?’’ asked Inspector Ramy.
“Yes, yes. Right in the next room. I heard a shot. I rushed into the room and....
and... found her like this.”
“Mr. Coco, this is no suicide. In fact, this is murder, and I will have to take you
to the police station for further questioning as the prime suspect.”

What was Inspector Ramy’s conclusion about the case?

_________________
(Inspector Ramy concluded that Mrs. Coco was murdered by, possibly, her
husband.)
List the evidence he based his conclusion on.
_________________

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(Mrs. Coco was most probably left-handed as she was wearing her watch on
her right wrist. Thus, she would not have used the shotgun with her right
hand. In addition, Mrs. Coco couldn’t have killed herself as the gunshot
wound was at the back of her head.)

Situation B
Read this passage.
Miss Spice examined herself in the mirror with an extremely critical eye - front
view, side profile, back view.
“I swear I can see a little bulge of fat around my abdomen,” she squealed. So
she got out her exercise mat, lay down and did a hundred sit-ups. Then she
fished out a tape-measure from among her sets of dumb-bells and measured
her waistline.
“Phew,” she sighed in great relief. “That was purely my imagination. Still 18
inches.” She proceeded to complete her morning’s routine by jogging on the
spot for 45 minutes, pumping iron for 30 minutes and stretching for 15
minutes.
“Now for breakfast,” said Miss Spice as she took down her calorie counter from
the kitchen shelf.

What conclusion would you draw about Miss Spice? What made
you come to that conclusion?
____________
(We can conclude that Miss Spice is weight-conscious and a health freak. We
know this through her unwonted hysterical reaction to an imaginary lump of
abdominal fat, her rigorous exercise routine, and the care with which she
measures out the amount of food she eats.)

In Situation A, the conclusion is stated - Mrs. Coco was murdered by, possibly,
her husband.
In Situation B, you had to come to your own conclusion about Miss Spice - that
she is weight- conscious and a health freak.
In both cases, the conclusions were based on facts, details, evidence and logic.
To help you identify or draw conclusions, do the following:
-Identify the topic or main idea of the text. The title of the text, if there is one,
and the first and last paragraphs will usually help you.
-Look at the facts, details and evidence given in the text. What do they say
about the topic or the main idea?
-Make a logical deduction by putting together the facts, details and evidence.
-Ask yourself questions:
What does the writer want to prove?
What is the result of these actions?
What will happen because of these events?
What does the writer want me to conclude?
-Watch out for words and expressions which indicate a conclusion: conclude
that, therefore, because of this, it is believed that, we can deduce that, in fact,
proves that, points to the fact that, it follows that, as a result, etc

Example
Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow.

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Plyometrics are “ballistic” training exercises (a term used by fitness experts) in
which you leap on and off a raised platform, throw heavy balls around or
execute any movement that requires a sudden spurt of strength. To effect a
ballistic movement, maximum strength is required in a split second - like
two-tenths of a second - whereas in traditional exercises, strength is required a
second after the start of the movement.
In a study reported in Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, half of a
group of sixteen volleyball players did plyometrics in addition to the
traditional exercises. After eight weeks, this group showed a six percent
improvement in their jumps; the control group did not improve at all. Ballistic
exercises increased not only strength but also the speed at which strength was
generated. The researchers concluded that ballistic exercises were effective in
improving strength and speed.

What is the topic of the passage?

COMMENT
This passage is concerned with the practice and effects of ballistic exercises.
The first paragraph tells us that maximum strength is required very quickly
during a ballistic movement.
What is the conclusion of the passage?
COMMENT
Ballistic exercises are effective in improving strength and speed.
Are there any words or expressions that help you to identify the
conclusion?
COMMENT
The words ‘The researchers concluded that...” indicates very clearly the
conclusion.
What evidence is there to support the conclusion?
COMMENT
The maximum strength required in a split second during a ballistic movement
The study done on sixteen volleyball players, and the results of the study

Exercise A
Read the passage below and answer the questions.
A photographic memory - known as eidetic imagery in psychology - is a rare
phenomenon, usually occurring in children younger than 12 years. Children
who possess eidetic imagery are able to recall details, down to the minutest
feature, of pictures shown to them for about 30 seconds. While this trait
usually disappears with the onset of adolescence, there are some adults who
continue to have it. A good example is the chessmaster, George Kotanowski,
who used this feat of memory to good advantage although, of course, his chess
skills were not entirely dependent on his photographic memory.
Eidetic imagery, however, may not always be a blessing. Take the case of a
subject, known only as ‘S’ in a particular study. ‘S’ could remember all the
details of pictures shown to him for three or four seconds. His problem was
that these images tended to stay in his mind, with two images sometimes
overlapping, leading to the inability to concentrate so that he could become
utterly lost and confused during a normal conversation.

We can conclude that it is very rare

A for children to have photographic memories

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B for adults to have photographic memories
C for teenagers to have photographic memories
D for people to have photographic memories
The writer wants you to conclude that
A eidetic imagery is not necessarily an advantageous quality
B eidetic imagery can give chess players a winning edge
C eidetic imagery can cause loss of concentration
D eidetic imagery limits ordinary conversation

Exercise B
Read the passage below and answer the questions.
In a United Nations survey, it was found that 1.3 billion people in the world live
in poverty. Of these, 70% are women. Women make up one-third of the world’s
labour force; however, they are often in unskilled and temporary jobs.
Women’s rate of unemployment is also twice that of men’s. The small
percentage of women who hold top positions earn less than their male
counterparts for doing the same job. For example, they earn 50% less than the
men in South Korea and Brazil, and 30% less in Britain.
Women politicians also trail behind the males. Worldwide, 14.8% of
parliamentarians were women in 1988. In 1997, this fell to 11.7%. Women’s
representation in elections is also dismal. In the Arab countries, only 2% of
party candidates are women, while in Asia and Africa, the figure is 10%. Only
in Iceland is there an impressive representation of 50%, but this is the
exception rather than the norm.
Even though great advances have been made in medical science, complications
in childbirth affect 23 million women every year. Difficulties in pregnancy kill
about 600,000 women, while 120 million women have no access to any form
of contraception.
It is obvious that despite great strides made in science and technology, women
continue to be plagued by economic and health problems, while their
participation in the political realm remains disheartening.

What can we conclude about the job market?

What can we conclude about the position of women in politics?
What can we conclude about health care for women?
Is the overall conclusion of the passage stated or implied?
What is the conclusion?

Exercise C
Read the passage below and answer the questions.
Learning of the violin was revolutionized by Shimichi Suzuki through a
technique now renowned throughout the world as the Suzuki Method. Suzuki
himself came from a very musical family and before he could talk, he was
already listening to recordings of great works for the violin.
Suzuki believed that children should, at a tender age, listen to recordings of
great musical works performed by such legendary performers like Casals,
Kreisler and Heifetz. As children like and take comfort in familiar things, they
should listen to these works repeatedly. This underlies one of his learning
principles - that of learning to play by ear, a more rational approach as these
children often start learning music even before they are three. In Suzuki’s

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music classes, young children were not taught to read music until much later
when they were ready to read.
Just as he advocated repeated listening to great musical works, so Suzuki
believed in learning through repetition. Thus, the children repeated whatever
they learned many times, in the process of which they also learned to listen to
each other, an important skill in making music. Repetition of pleasing sounds
reinforces the association of pleasure with music. Negative reinforcement is
avoided as under the Suzuki Method, students do not play exercises, etudes or
scales, thereby eliminating the boredom which often accompanies these.
Another form of positive reinforcement comes with his insistence that mothers
had to attend classes with their children. They also had to practise with the
children at home, encouraging them to feel that playing the violin is a
wonderful and important experience.
Children also learn in a non-threatening environment. Suzuki did not set out
to produce child prodigies, but to make them put in their best effort because
they enjoyed playing the violin.

The passage describes

A how children learn to play the violin
B the principles behind the Suzuki Method
C how Suzuki’s family background influenced him
D why children like playing music
We can conclude that
A positive reinforcement is important in the Suzuki Method
B children learn best when they listen to great musical works
C it is not necessary to learn how to read music
D learning by rote is better than reading music
Which of the following statements does not support the
conclusion?
A Suzuki dispensed with exercises, etudes and scales.
B Mothers must attend classes and practise with their children.
C Repetition is a technique which the Suzuki Method advocates.
D Children must learn to listen to each other while they are playing.

Exercise D
Read the passage below and answer the questions.
During the Tokugawa period (1603-1868), the Japanese were ranked
according to their functions. Occupying top position were the warriors
(samurai), followed by farmers, artisans ind merchants. Below these four
categories was a group of outcasts called the burakumin, whose social status
was similar to India’s untouchables. Although the burakumin were similar to
the “pure” Japanese in every way, even sharing the same genes, they were
considered unclean and did “unclean” jobs like slaughtering animals or
removing dead bodies.
The burakumin continue to face discrimination up to this day. The education,
social facilities, housing, employment opportunities, and medical facilities
which the Japanese enjoy axe denied them. Their addresses in poor buraku
neighbourhoods which often lack proper sanitation, work against them when
they apply for jobs or for a place in a school. Japanese teachers and children
refuse to eat with burakumin children in school. Employers refuse to hire
burakumin workers for fear that they will give the company an unclean image.

61
Also, it is zommon for the Japanese to check out the backgrounds of their
intended spouses to ensure that there are no traces of burakumin ancestry.

What is the issue explored in this text?

A The ancestry of the burakumin
B The burakumin's life and fate
C Japanese attitude towards the burakumin
D The burakumin and the Japanese people
What can we conclude from the passage?
A Life is unfair to the burakumin children.
B The burakumin suffer as much as India’s untouchables.
C The burakumin are different from the Japanese.
D Prejudice against the burakumin is deep-seated.
Which of the following statements does not support the
conclusion?
A The burakumin handle menial and unclean jobs.
B Burakumin schoolchildren are stigmatized.
C Burakumin do not wish to work in established companies.
D It is a step in the wrong direction to mariy a burakumin.

Exercise E
Read the passage below and answer the questions.
It sounds like a book-lover’s dream - a book-sized device that can hold up to
ten boo magazines or newspapers, pages that turn at the push of a button,
sections that can be book marked, and annotated. Hail the arrival of e-books,
otherwise known as electronic books However, very few people seem to be
relaxing with an e-book in hand.
About a dozen e-reader companies have tried to put e-books on the market,
but with little success. Only Rocket eBook and Softbook have made some kind
of inroads although it has been estimated that, so far, only a few thousand
“copies” have been sold in the United States of America. Sales of ordinary
books, however, have soared to US$23 billion, equivalent to a 6.4% increase.
Poor sales of e-books are partly due to the fact that publishers are unwilling to
conver their books into the e-book format. Last year, 45,000 new titles were
published in paper compared with 1,000 titles, mainly the classics, in the
e-book format. A Catch-22 situation exists here — if the number of books in the
e-book format is limited, customers will not be willing to invest in e-books
which can cost between US$349 to US$599 each.

In this passage, the writer’s intention is to

A explain what e-books are and what they do
B compare conventional books with e-books
C discuss why e-books are not catching on
D predict a dismal future for e-books
The writer wants us to conclude that
A e-books are too expensive for most people
B people still prefer conventional books
C c-books only appeal to e-readers
D there are too few titles in the e-book format
Which of the following statements does not support the
conclusion?

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A Very few people seem to be relaxing with an e-book in hand.
B Sales of conventional books soared to US$23 billion.
C Rocket eBook and Softbook have made some kind of inroads.
D Last year, 45,000 new titles were published in paper.

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