SOUTH OF MANILA REVIEW & TUTORIAL CENTER

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)

Enhancement Course
WHAT TO EXPECT
FOCUS: Professional Education
FACILITATING LEARNING, CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
LET Competencies:
• Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational socio-cultural factors that affect learning.
• Apply theories of learning and development to the teaching-learning process.
• Draw educational implications of research findings related to child and adolescent learning and
development along with the biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and psychological dimensions.
• Organize a learning environment that is responsive to learner’s needs and that promotes fairness
among learners of various cultures, family background and gender.

PART I: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

I. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

The human development is about the remarkable voyage we have taken through our lifespan from the union of the
egg cell and the sperm cell, through childhood and adolescence up to the unfolding of our adult life.

Two Approaches to Human Development

A. Traditional Approach – Individual will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change
in adulthood and decline in late old age.

B. Life-span Approach – Even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as it does during
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood; will continue developing even in adulthood.
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible throughout
the life-span.
3. Development is multidimensional. Development consist of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
dimensions. Development as a process is complex because it is the of product biological, cognitive, and
socio-emotional processes.
 Development is relatively orderly. Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable
(Phylogenetic trend).
 Development occurs in cephalocaudal (head-to-toe) direction.
 Example: Babies raise their heads before sitting up.
 Development occurs in a proximodistal (center to extremities) manner.
 Example: Babies are able to move his arms before picking up things
using his hands and fingers.
 Development takes place gradually

The bud does not blossom suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight. While some changes
occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo
changes that result in the display of developmental characteristics.

4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings who respond to and act on contexts. These
contexts include the individual’s biological make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical,
social and cultural contexts.

5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth, maintenance and regulation are 3
goals of human development. The goals of individual vary among developmental stages.

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II. THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS (Santrock, 2002)

 Prenatal (conception - birth) – It involves tremendous growth- from a single cell to an organism
complete with brain and behavioral capabilities.
 Infancy (birth - 2 years) – A time of extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological activities are
just beginning- language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
 Early Childhood – 3 - 5 years (Grade 1) – These are the preschool years. Young children learn to be
more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop social readiness skills and spend many hours in
play with peers.
 Middle and Late Childhood – 6 - 12 years (elementary school years) – The fundamental skills of
reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and to its
culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child’s world and self-control increases.
 Adolescence - (13-18 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) Begins with rapid physical changes –
dramatic gains in weight, changes in body contour; and the development of sexual characteristics. Pursuit
of independence and identity is prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time
spent outside of the family.
 Early adulthood – (19-29 years). Time for establishing economic independence, career development,
selecting a mate, starting a family and rearing children.
 Middle Adulthood (30-60 years of age) Expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility;
of assisting the next generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; reaching and maintaining
satisfaction in career.
 Late adulthood (61 and above) – time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review,
retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

Robert Havighurst – Developmental Tasks

Developmental Stage Age Developmental Tasks
 Infancy and 0 – 5 years old 1. Basic skills (eat, walk, talk etc)
Early 2. Control elimination of wastes
Childhood 3. Relate emotionally to others
4. Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and
physical reality
5. Distinguish right from wrong and developing a
conscience
6. Learn sex differences and sexual modesty
7. Achieve psychological stability
8. Form simple concepts of social and physical reality
9. Readiness for reading
 Middle 6 – 12 years old 1. Learn physical skills necessary for ordinary games
Childhood 2. Build a wholesome attitude towards oneself
3. Learn to get along with age-mates
4. Learn appropriate sex role (masculine and feminine)
5. Gain basic 3Rs (reading, ‘riting, ‘rithmetic)
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values.
8. Achieve personal independence
9. Developing acceptable attitudes towards society
 Adolescence 13 – 18 years old 1. Establish more mature relationships of age-mates of
both sexes
2. Achieve masculine and feminine roles
3. Accept ones physique
4. Establish emotional independence of adults
5. Prepare for an occupation
6. Prepare for marriage and family life
7. Develop a set of values that guides behavior
8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
 Early 19 – 29 years old 1. Select and learn to live with a partner
Adulthood 2. Start and manage a family
3. Rearing children
4. Establish self in a career/occupation
5. Assume civic responsibility
6. Become a part of a social group

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 Middle 30 – 60 years old 1.
Fulfill civic and social responsibilities
Adulthood 2.
Maintain an economic standard of living
3.
Assist adolescents to become responsible and happy
Relate to one’s partner
4.
5.
Adjust to physiological changes
6.
Adjust to aging parents
7.
Developing adult leisure time activities
 Later 61 years old and 1.
Adjust to physiological changes and alterations in
Maturity over health status
2. Adjust to retirement of altered income
3. Adjust to death of spouse
4. Develop affiliation with one’s age group
5. Meet civic and social responsibilities
6. Establish satisfactory living arrangements
Data from Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental Tasks and Education. New York. Longman.

III. TWO MAJOR FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT

Heredity/ Nature – is a process whereby traits of parents are handed down to their offspring via the genes.
 Genetics
Environment/Nurture – refers to all forces that affect man
 Learned
Development Heredity/Nature Environment/Nurture
Intelligence  Came from parents  Educational background
 ‘born smart’  School system
 Child’s upbringing
Personality  Similar to the parents  Learned through social exposure
 ‘Born with personality same  Observation
as his/her parents’  Life experiences

Other factors of Development

 Health Status – Healthy people most likely experience ‘normal’ life cycle. Development of people with
illness or disability are mostly negatively affected (usually delayed development).
 Cultural expectations – Mastery of skills depends on the society’s expectations. Example: Toilet
training are expected to be mastered between two to three years old (early childhood).

Mechanics of Heredity
Chromosomes
 Threadlike structure
 Found in nucleus
 Carries genes (contains genetic information)
 Human has 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs
 Normally, a person has 22 pairs of chromosome plus the two sex chromosomes (XY-male; XX-female)
Kinds of chromosomes
1. Autosomes or Trait chromosomes
2. Gonosomes or Sex chromosomes
Gene - the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes,
which are made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules
called proteins.
o The real bearers of heredity traits.
o Located on chromosomes, they control how
o organism develops.

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Kinds of Genes
1. Dominant genes – strong genes
 the trait that dominant genes carry will always be manifested in the offspring.
2. Recessive genes – weak genes
 the trait that recessive gene carries can only be manifested when paired with
another recessive gene of its kind.

IV. DEVEOPMENTAL THEORIES and OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES

1. SIGMUND FREUD’s Psychoanalytic Theory

 Explains the unconscious drives that motivate man to act in certain ways
Stages Age brackets Foci Major Development Possible
Fixations
Oral Birth to 18 months Mouth, Weaning off Smoking,
tongue, lips – Breastfeeding overeating, nail
sucking, biting
chewing,
biting
Anal 18 months to 3 Anus – bowel Toilet training Orderliness,
years and bladder messiness
elimination
Phallic 3-6 years Genitals – Resolving Oedipus Deviancy, sexual
coping with and Electra Complex dysfunction
incestuous
feelings
Latency 6-12 years None- Developing defense None
dormant nmechanisms
sexual feeling
Genital 12 years and Genitals- Reaching full sexual Sexual maturity
above maturation of maturity and stable
sexual interest mental health

*Fixation – obsessed attachment to things, man, or inanimate objects

- inadequate mastery or failure to achieve developmental tasks.
*Oedipus Complex – incestuous feelings of the son towards his mother
*Electra Complex - incestuous feelings of the daughter towards her father
*Defense Mechanism – manners in which man behaves to protect or ‘defend’ himself.

Freud’s Tripartite Theory of Personality

 Explains that personality involves instinctual drives, unconscious and conscious processes, and
environmental influences.
Personality/Psyche Description Example
ID Instincts; unconscious; want A child who wanted another helping of ice
cream whined incessantly until she was given
another serving.
EGO Reality; conscious; will Sarah really wanted to borrow her mom’s
necklace, but knew her mom would be angry if
she took it without asking, so she asked her
mom if she could wear it.
SUPER EGO Morality; conscience; Eljane knew that she could steal the supplies
should from work and no one would know about it.
However, she knew that stealing was wrong, so
she decided not to take anything even though
she would probably never get caught.

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2. ERIK ERIKSON’s PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
 presents eight (8) stages from infancy to adulthood. Each stage has a crisis that could affect to the
personality development, positively (if resolved) or negatively (if not resolved).

Age Crisis Virtue Important Existential Outcomes

Events Question (Positive;Negative)
0 to 18mos Trust vs Hope Feeding Can I trust Sense of trust; mistrust
(Infant) Mistrust the world?
18mos to 3yrs Autonomy vs Will Toilet Is it okay to Sense of personal control
(Toddler) Shame/Doubt Training be me? over physical skills, sense
of independence; shame
and doubt
3 to 6yrs Initiative vs Purpose Exploration Is it okay for Assertion of control and
(Pre-schooler) Guilt me to do, power over the
move, and environment, sense of
act? purpose; guilt
6 to 12yrs Industry vs Competence School Can I make it Coping with new social
(Grade- Inferiority in the world and academic demands,
schooler) of people and sense of competence;
things? inferiority
12 to 18yrs Identity vs Fidelity Social Who am I? Sense of self and personal
(Teenager) Role Relationships What can I identity; role confusion
Confusion be? and a weak sense of self
18 to 24yrs Intimacy vs Love Relationships Can I love? Forming intimate, loving
(Young Adult) Isolation relationships with other
people, strong
relationships; loneliness
and isolation
24 to 54yrs Generativity Care Work and Can I make Having children or
(Middle-age vs Self Parenthood my life creating a positive change
Adult) Absorption count? that benefit others,
feeling of usefulness and
accomplishment; shallow
involvement in the world
54 to Death Integrity vs Wisdom Reflection on Is it okay to Looking back on life and
(Older Adult) Despair life have been feeling a sense of
me? fulfilment, feeling of
wisdom; regret,
bitterness, and despair

3. JEAN PIAGET’S Cognitive Development Theory

 Explains how man acquires, constructs, and uses knowledge.
 Claims cognitive development is a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from
biological maturation and environmental experience.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.
Assimilation. The process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive
structure or schema.
Accommodation. The process of creating a new schema.
Equilibration. Achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences
do not match our schemata or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means
there is discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through
assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Stage Age Description
Range
Sensorimotor Birth to 2 The infant builds an understanding of
years old himself or herself and reality (and
how things work) through
interactions with the environment.
It is able to differentiate between
itself and other objects.
Preoperational 2 – 7 years The child is not yet able to
old conceptualize abstractly and needs
concrete physical situations.
Objects are classified in simple ways,
especially by important features.
Concrete 7 – 11 As physical experience accumulates,
Operational years old accommodation is increased.
The child begins to think abstractly
and conceptualize, creating logical
structures that explain his or her
physical experiences.
Formal 11 above Can think about abstract concepts,
Operational and logically test hypotheses.
Cognition reaches its final form.
By this stage, the person no longer
requires concrete objects to make
rational judgements.
He or she is capable of deductive and
hypothetical reasoning.
His or her ability for abstract
thinking is very similar to an adult.
FACILITATING LEARNING, CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Developmental Phenomena
Object Permanence – knowing that
an object still exists, even it is
hidden.
Assimilation
Accommodation
Stranger Anxiety
Symbolical thinking – the ability to
make one thing – a word or an object
– stand for something other than
itself.
Egocentric – difficulty understanding
other people’s point of view
Centration- the tendency of the child
to only focus on one aspect of a thing
or event and exclude other aspects
Irreversibility – inability to reverse
thinking
Animism – tendency of children to
attribute human – like traits or
characteristics to inanimate objects.
Transductive Reasoning – pre-
operational child’s reasoning that is
neither inductive nor deductive.
Pretend Play
Decentering – ability of the child to
perceive the different features of
objects and situations.
Reversibility- the child can now
follow that certain operations can be
done in reverse.
Conservation - understanding that
something stays the same in quantity
even though its appearance changes.
Hypothetical reasoning – ability to
come up with different hypothesis
about a problem and to gather and
weigh data in order to make a final
decision or judgment. This can be
done without concrete objects. The
individual can now deal with “What
if” questions.
Mature Moral Reasoning
Analogical Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
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4. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

 planes of moral adequacy to explain the development of moral reasoning.
 uses moral dilemmas (Heinz’s Dilemma) to identify a person’s level of moral reasoning.
Stages of Moral Development
Level/Stage Other terms Age Heinz’s Dilemma Description
Response
Level I. Pre- Moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or
conventional breaking their rules.
Stage 1. Obedience Punishment- Infancy Heinz was wrong to Individuals focus on the direct
and Punishment avoidance steal the drug consequences of their actions
because "he might be on themselves.
caught and sent to
jail’.
Stage 2. Self-interest Individualism Pre-school Heinz might steal the Shows a limited interest in the
orientation and exchange drug if he wanted his needs of others, but only to a
wife to live, but that point where it might further
he doesn't have to if the individual's own interests.
he wants to marry
someone younger
and better-looking
Level II. Internalizing the moral standards of valued adult role models.
Conventional
Stage 3. Social School- Heinz intentions The self enters society by
Interpersonal accord Approval/ age were good, that of conforming to social
and conformity Good boy/ saving the life of standards. The person gives
good girl someone he loves. importance on what people
orientation will think or say.
Stage 4. Authority Law and School- Heinz's motives were It is important to obey laws,
and social-order Order age good, but they cannot dictums, and social
maintaining condone the theft. conventions because of their
orientation importance in maintaining a
functioning society.
Level III. Post Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based
Conventional on individual rights and justice.
Stage 5. Social Morality of Teens It is the husband's Laws that do not promote the
contract orientation contract and duty to save his wife. general welfare should be
individual The fact that her life changed when necessary to
rights is in danger meet "the greatest good for the
transcends every greatest number of people".
other standard you
might use to judge
his action. Life is
more important than
property.
Stage 6. Universal Principled Adulthood The druggist, Heinz, Moral reasoning is based on
ethical principles Conscience and his wife--take the abstract reasoning using
roles of the others. universal ethical principles.
Thus, they would all
agree that the wife
must be saved--this
would be the fair
solution.

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5. LEV VYGOTSKY’s Socio-Cultural Theory

 Children’s knowledge are socially-constructed
and they are active learners.
 Learning is largely influenced by values,
culture, and customs
 Expert individuals contribute to children’s
learning
 Emphasizes of Zone of Proximal Development
Themes of Vygotsky
 The importance of culture
 The central role of language
 The "zone of proximal growth or development."
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) – the
difference between what the child can do with support and
without support Source:http://instructionaldesign.org/theories/social-development/

MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO) – an

individual who provides assistance because he is more knowledgeable or expert.

Culture: - Tools of intellectual adaptation

Vygotsky and Language

 social interactions develop language.
 Language is used for communication with other individuals.

V. DEVELOPMENT of the LEARNERS at VARIOUS STAGES

There are three stages prior to birth known as the prenatal stages.
1. Prenatal stage
1.1 Germinal stage/ Ovum period
 starts from fertilization to two weeks.
 the fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes rapid cell division which results into a complex organism with
rudimentary parts leading to the next period.
1.2 Period of the embryo
 begins from the second week to eight weeks or two months.
 Nurturing organ umbilical cord connect the embryo to the placenta.
o This cord brigs oxygen, nourishment to the embryo; it absorbs body wastes. The amniotic sac is a
thin membrane that protects and encases the embryo.
 Rapid growth takes place where the major body parts, organs and systems, like the nervous system, heart,
respiratory and the rest of the systems develop.
 Due to rapid changes, this period is the most vulnerable for prenatal environmental influence.
 Most developmental defects like incomplete limbs, blindness and cleft-palate as well as cases of
abortions occur during this critical three-month period or first trimester of pregnancy.
1.3 Period of the fetus
 runs from eight weeks to birth.
 appearance of the first bone cell.
 kicking and squirming could be observed and felt by the mother.
 Within the last three months of pregnancy, the fetus gains about eight ounces in weight every week.
Birth
Birth is the time of transition from the prenatal environment to the world outside the fetus. The time needed to
adjust to the change from the mother’s womb to the external world.
2. Post natal stages
2.1 Infancy period – (birth to 2 weeks)
Four major adjustments involved during infancy stage:
 Adjustment to temperature Changes
 Adjustment to breathing

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 Adjustment to taking nourishment
 Adjustment to elimination
2.2 Babyhood (2nd week of infancy to 2 years old)
 also known as the “Age of Helplessness”
 Babies are helpless that adults usually have to care and do practically almost everything for the
baby’s needs.
Reflexes
Reflex Stimulation Response Duration
Babinski Feet are stroked Toes fan out and feet Starts to disappear at
twist in nine months to a year
Blinking Light flashes or air Eyes close Permanent
puffs near the eyes
Grasping Palms touched Tight grasp Starts to weaken at
three months and
disappears at a year
Moro Loud noise and sudden Throwing out of arms Starts to disappear at
move and legs and then three to four months
pulling them toward the
body; startles
Rooting Touching the side of Turns toward source, Starts to disappear at
mouth; stroking the opens mouth and sucks three to four months
cheeks
Stepping Holding the infant Feet move as if walking Starts to disappear at
upright with his feet three to four months
touching the ground
Sucking An object touched the Sucking of an object
Starts to disappear at
mouth three to four months
Swimming face is placed in water
Makes coordinated Disappears at six to
swimming movements seven months
Tonic neck An infant is placed on Makes fists and turns Starts to disappear at
back head to the right two months
SOURCE : Table after Child Development, 6th ed. Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc., 1994.

 NOAM CHOMSKY’s Language Acquisition Theory

 Children are born with inherited ability to learn any human language
 Language Acquisition Device (LAD) – encodes basic language structure and grammatical principles

3. Childhood Stage
3.1 Early Childhood stage (2 to 6 years old)
 It is also called the “Age of Curiosity”
 this period is also characterized by aggression and negativism.
3.2 Late childhood stage (6 to the onset of puberty)
• This stage is labelled as the “Smart Stage”
• It is also called the “ gang stage”
• there is the desire for acceptance and belongingness.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 Infants – Latin word ‘Infans’ which means ‘without speech’
o Dramatic gains in weight and height
o Development of reflexes
 Early Childhood – language improves children’s understanding of self and others, thinking skills, and
remembering.
o Ego-centric – limited viewpoint
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Tremendous development of motor skills like ability to raise head and chest (2 to 4 months), roll over (2 to 5
months), sit up with support (4 to 6 months), sit up without support (6 to 7 months), crawl (7 to 8 months) and
walk (8 to 18 months).

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Brain weight triples in first two years.
 Major advancement in cognitive skills including memory, problem solving, and thinking.

4. ADOLESCENCE STAGE
 Adolescence is the transition period of life from childhood to adulthood.
 Not determined by age but with life issues such as family, work, and relationships.
 May come earlier of later for different individuals.
Puberty
 Physical changes in teenagers
 Growth of reproductive organs, and other sex characteristics such as breasts and body hair
 Development of sex hormones
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Achieving higher level of abstract, conceptual, and logical thinking
 Self-conscious since they feel everyone is looking at them
 Concern of how other people think of them
 They are children in an adult body
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 Puberty changes  Growth spurt
 Full maturity in height and weight  Develop sexually
 Onset is different from other individuals
Boys:
 In mid-puberty, boys can produce sperm  Nocturnal emission
 Develop muscle tissue
Girls:
 Start puberty earlier  Physically mature two years earlier than
 Grow taller and earlier than boys boys
 Menstruation

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
 Regulates emotions
 Emotions depend on others and social situation
 Development of expectations
 Increase of empathy
 Start to connect emotionally with friends and break emotional ties with parents
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 Needs guidance in decision-making in terms of academics, goals, and plans
 Understanding of social development and its importance
 Romantic partners are seen to be their main support
 Increase in spending time with friends
 Boys tend to have an increase ‘alone time’
 Less social time with family
 More loyal and intimate with friends
 Develop self-confidence and self-identity
 Begin to form an organized system of personality traits

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 Major factor of moral development is education
 Moral development is different of each individual
o Lowest form – pre-conventional
o Average form – conventional
o Highest from – post conventional
4.1 Early Adolescence(12-14)

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 Confusion occurs due to rapid growth and  Rebels at home
changes  Wants to be belong
 Curiosity is high  Longs for connection and companionship
 Moody  Asks personal identity
 Interested in own personal development
4.1.1. Early Adolescence (12-14) Boys
 Energetic and rowdy  Aggressive and secretive
 Tend to be out of the house of the  Interested in conversation about sex
time
4.1.2 Early Adolescence (12-14) Girls
 Fuzzy and verbose
 Attraction on older men
 Funny – easy to laugh
Sexuality in Early Adolescence
 Boys masturbate to express sexuality
 Encounters with same-gender seem to be common
o Thus, erotic feelings and behaviors towards the same-sex need to be addressed fully
and directly.
4.2 Middle Adolescence (15-16)
 Risk-takers, experimental
 ‘I can do everything’ and ‘I am unshakeable’
 Become more intentional to have one-on-one friendships
 Occurrence of parental conflicts
 Interest in dating
 Want to be independent and to make personal decisions
 Surge in sexual drives (having sexual fantasies)
 Increase in testosterone causes boys to be more sexually aggressive
4.3 Late Adolescence (17-18)
 Growth tend to achieve full status, thus, subsides
 Self-conscious especially in appearance
 Need acceptance – in community and in work
 ‘Fitting in’ in the society
 Moodiness
 Want companions
 Develop interest towards opposite sex
 Ask oneself about his ‘future as a professional’

Late Adolescence (17-18)

Factors Influencing vocational choice:
 Decisions of the family
 Socio-economic status
 Special talents/skills
4.3.1 Late Adolescence (17-18) Boys:
 Prominent and demanding sexual
interest
4.3.2 Late Adolescence (17-18) Girls:
 Less interest in planning for the future
 Interest in mate-seeking
 Inclinations
 Need of recognition and fame
 Plan for the future
 Less interest in mate-seeking
 Romantic love fantasies
 Less demanding in terms of sexual interests

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VI. RESEARCH IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

1. Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct research and are consumers or end
users of knowledge when they utilize findings to improve instruction
2. Quality research adheres to the Scientific Method
 Identify and define the problem
 Determine the hypothesis
 Collect and analyse data
 Formulate conclusions
 Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

1. Research Design. Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us
with valuable information about child and adolescent development.

Research Designs
1. Case Study. An in-depth look at an individual that helps a psychologist understand that person’s
development.
2. Correlational Study. A research design that determines associations. Useful because the more
strongly two events are correlated, the more we can predict from one another.
3. Experimental. A research design that determines cause-and-effect relationships. The only true
and reliable method establishing cause and effect. Limited to what is observable, testable and
manipulable.
4. Naturalistic Observation. A research design that focuses on children’s natural settings.
5. Longitudinal. Studies and follows through a single group over a period of time. The same
individuals are studies over a period of time, usually several years or more.
6. Cross-sectional. Individuals of different ages are compared at one time. Allows researchers to
record and monitor development trends. They do not need to wait for the individuals to grow up
and become older.
7. Sequential. This is the combined cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to learn about life-
span development. This starts with a cross-sectional study that includes individuals of different
ages. A number of months or years after the initial assessment, the same individuals are tested
again-this is the longitudinal aspect of the design. At this later time, a new group of subjects is
assessed at each grade level.
8. Action Research. A reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working
with others in teams or as part of a “community of practice” to improve the way they address and
solve problems.

2. Data-Gathering Techniques
1. Observation. Observations can be made in either laboratories or naturalistic settings.
2. Physiological Measures. Certain indicators of children’s development such as, among others,
heart rate, hormonal levels, bone growth, body weight, and brain activity are measured.
3. Standardized. These are prepared tests that assess individuals’ performance in different domains.
These tests are administered in a consistent manner.
4. Interviews and Questionnaires. Involve asking the participants to provide information about
themselves based on the interview or questionnaire given by the researcher. Gathering of data
may be conducted through a printed questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail, in person or on-
line. Information is obtained by utilizing standardized procedures so that every participant i8s
asked the same questions in the same manner.
5. Life-History Records. These are records of information about a lifetime chronology of events and
activities. The often involve combination of data records and events and activities. They often
involve combination of data records on education, work, family and residence.

3. Ethical Principles in Research

 Research procedures must never harm children physically, or psychologically.
 Children and their families have the right to full information about the research in which they may
participate, including possible risks and benefits. Their decision to participate must be based on
‘informed consent.”
 Children’s questions about the research should be answered in a truthful manner and in ways that
children can understand. Researchers must be honest and clear in their communications.
 There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research with children should
remain confidential.

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4. R.A. 10173 – The Data Privacy Act of 2012. This law was passed in the Philippines “to protect
the fundamental human right of privacy communication while ensuring free flow of information
to promote innovation and growth.”

5. Research has a transformative effect on teachers’ self- understanding and on their classroom
practice. It enables teachers to develop a better understanding of themselves, their classrooms,
and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.

PART 2: FACILITATING LEARNING

I. LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process
a. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the learning process
b. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge
c. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking
d. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking
 Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking.
6. Context of learning
 Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional
practices.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on Learning
 What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn,
is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
 The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity (w/in yourself) all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation and effort
 Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning

 As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective
when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken
into account.

11. Social influences on learning

 Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

 Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity.

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13. Learning and diversity
 Learning is most effective when differences in learners linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are
taken into account.

14. Standards and assessment

 Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning
progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning
process
LEARNING DYNAMICS

• Cognitive Learning – is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts.

• Affective Learning – Involves assimilation of values, emotional reactions and acquisition of attitudes.
• Psychomotor Learning – understanding the external world through the senses and muscles.

Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Motivation (Hierarchy of Needs)

Maslow’s theory shows that human should meet the basic needs first before ‘climbing’ the hierarchy to meet the
complex needs.
o Maslow claims that people are motivated by achieving their hierarchical needs.
Five (5) Stage Hierarchy Model

1. Physiological (Biological Needs) – food for hunger, water for thirst, shelter for sleep etc.
2. Safety Needs – protection from danger and freedom from pain (security).
3. Love and Belongingness (Social Needs) – giving and receive love, sense of connection, friendship.
4. Esteem Needs – feeling good about on oneself. self-esteem, confidence, self-esteem etc.
5. Self-actualization - fulfilling one’s potential, ‘becoming everything one is capable of becoming’ (Maslow,
1987).
 Highest need of human (early years)
6. Self-transcendence - having a higher sense of purpose aside from self. This includes spiritual
awakening/liberation. (later years)

OTHER VIEWS/THEORIES ON LEARNING AND THEIR PROPONENTS:

BEHAVIORISM

Learner Learner’s involvement basically passive

Key Principles 1. Learning happens when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of
a specific stimulus.

2. Emphasis is on measurable and observable behaviors.

Indicated Design Teacher designs the learning environment

Assets 1. Integrating complex muscular and cognitive activities.

2. Sequenced knowledge presented in small, logical and limited steps.

Goals 1. Communicate or transfer behaviors representing knowledge and skills to the learner who
does not consider mental processing.
2. Instruction is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a
target stimulus.
3. Learner must know how to execute the proper response as well as the conditions under
which the response is made.
4. Instruction utilizes consequences and reinforcement of learned behaviors.

1. Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov):

• Dog’s Salivation Experiment
• Eliciting automatic response using new stimuli
• It is based on ADHESIVE principle which means that a response is attached to a stimulus through the
stimulus occurring just prior to the response so that the recurrence of the stimulus will evoke or cause
the response.

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LET Hint: A child is afraid at the sight of the dental clinic because of his previous
painful experience in the clinic.

Stimulus: something that evokes response

Response: reaction to the stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that evokes an automatic reaction:

LET Hint: In Pavlov’s experiment, food is the UCS
since it elicits an automatic response (salivation) from
the dog.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): an unlearned
response; a natural reaction

LET Hint: Dog’s salivation is the UCR in Pavlov’s

experiment since salivation is a natural tendency of
animals when hungry.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a previous neutral stimulus that

eventually elicited a response after associating with an
Image retrieved from: http://fos.cmb.ac.lk/blog/classical- unconditioned stimulus.
conditioning-pavlovs-dog-experiment/
LET Hint: In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell was previously a
neutral stimulus but when associated with the food
(unconditioned stimulus), it elicited salivation (conditioned response).
Neutral Stimulus (NS): does not elicit response alone at the beginning of conditioning.
After conditioning, NS (bell) can evoke conditioned response (salivation).

Conditioned Response (CR): a learned reaction towards the previously neutral stimulus.
LET Hint: The salivation (CR) of the dog towards the bell after conditioning.

Discrimination – responding to one stimulus and not other similar stimuli.

LET Hint: A boy who can discriminate will not be afraid of all the dogs even if he had painful experience
with dogs before (a dog bit him).
Generalization – response to one stimulus is the same to all other similar stimuli.
LET Hint: The mere sight of dental clinics cause fear to a child since he had painful experience during
his/her dental check-up. He thinks that all dental clinics are established to use injection and extract tooth
only.
Extinction – is the weakening or disappearing conditioned response due to the weakening association of stimulus
and response.
LET Hint: The bell does not elicit salivation from the dog since the association of food (UCS) and the
ringing of the bell (NS/CS) disappeared.
Spontaneous recovery – re-emergence of a conditioned response it was gone for a period of time.
LET Hint: Gabby sleeps every time the light is turned-off. However, for some weeks, he does not fall
asleep when the light is turned off. Then, after some time, when the light is turned off, he begins to fall
asleep when the light is turned off.

2. Operant Conditioning (B F Skinner)

1. Rat in Skinner’s box
2. Organism has to do something in order to get a reward that is, it must operate on its environment.
 Reinforcement: is any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It increases the likelihood of
the recurrence of a particular type of response
• Positive Reinforcement: These are rewarding reinforcers.
LET Hint: Giving rewards (token, stars etc.) to pupils who answer correctly.
• Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by unpleasant reinforcer.
LET Hint: Removal of final exam to pupils who gained 95 average during the first three
grading period.
 Reinforcer: response from the environment that increases behavior.
Schedule of Reinforcement
Explains the cases (time and number of responses) when reinforcement should be applied to strengthen
behavior.

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A. Continuous Reinforcement
 desired behavior is reinforces each and every time it occurs.
LET Hint: Every correct answer of pupils should be given a reward.

B. Partial Reinforcement
 Desired behavior are only reinforced part of the time.
 This makes the reinforced behavior more resistant to extinction.

B. 1 Fixed Schedules
B. 1.1 Fixed-Ratio. Reinforcement after a specified number of responses.
LET Hint: Give additional merits to a pupil after providing three correct answers.
B. 1. 2 Fixed-Interval. Reinforcement after a specified amount of time.
LET Hint: Pupils can enjoy their snacks every after 30 minutes of lecture.
B. 2 Variable Schedules
B. 2. 1 Variable-ratio. Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses.
LET Hint: Give star merits to a pupil after providing one correct answer, again after three
correct answers, and another start merit after two correct answers.
B. 2. 2 Variable-interval. Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.
LET Hint: Letting pupils take a rest after five-minute activities, again after 30-minute activities,
and another rest after 15-minute activities.

 Punishment: opposite of reinforcement; Weakens behavior

3. Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

 Bobo Doll Experiment
 puts emphasis on OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING.
 Children tend to imitate their models.
Stages in Social Learning Theory (ARRM)
• Attention. Paying attention to the model’s behavior is an important condition to learn.
• Retention. Remembering what and how the model did is important to imitate the behavior.
• Motoric Reproduction. The ability to imitate or perform the observed behavior.
• Motivation. The reward and punishment resulted from the observed behavior reinforce one to do, avoid,
or delay the reproduction or performance of the model’s behavior.
4. Connectionism/Associationism Theory (Edward Thorndike)
 Law of Effect
• positive/satisfying effect = strengthened/repeated actions
• negative/dissatisfying effect = weakened/eliminated actions
LET Hint: Rewards increase repetition of good behavior. Negative consequences lessen
unwanted behavior.
 Law of Exercise
 Repeated actions strengthen retention and learning.
 Use of practice and drills.
LET Hint: Use of drills in class is an effective strategy to master a concept.
 Law of Readiness
 Preparation of action is important in learning
LET Hint: Children should be ‘oriented’ about school and study before their first day of class.
 Law of Use and Disuse
 the more association is exercised, the stronger association;
 the less association is exercised, the weaker association.
LET Hint: Rewards and consequences should be given in a timely manner.

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5. Edward ChaseTolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

• AKA “ Sign Learning Theory ”
• Learning is a cognitive process
• Learning is acquired through meaningful behavior

Major Theoretical Concepts

1. Learning is always purposive and goal – directed
• Individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions,
and they strive towards goal.

2. Cognitive Maps
• Famous experiment on rats concluded that Organism or Individual to be exact learned the
location and will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve goal.
• Ex. Going to school everyday.

3. Latent Learning
• Learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed.
• Learning that is outwardly manifested at once.
Ex. A 2 yr. old handling remote for the first time.

4. The Concept of Intervening Variable

• Variables that are not readily seen but serves as determinants of behavior.
• Learning is mediated or influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and
other internal or environmental variables.
Ex. Experiment on Rats - Hunger

Reinforcement Not Essential for Learning

1. Reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance.
Ex. Rats acquired knowledge of the way through maze in the absence of reinforcement.

COGNITIVISM
Learner Learner is viewed as an active participant in the learning process; he processes, stores and
retrieves information for use
Key Principles a. Learning is a change of knowledge state
b. Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal
coding and structuring by the learner.
c. Emphasis is on the building blocks of knowledge (e.g. identifying
prerequisite relationships of content)
d. Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate
optimal processing

Indicated Design Teacher manages problem solving and structured group learning strategies

Assets Interactive problem-solving

Goals 1. Communicate or transfer knowledge in the most efficient, effective manner (mind-
independent, can be mapped onto learners)
2. Focus of instruction is to create learning or change by encouraging the learner to
use appropriate learning strategies
3. Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized,
meaningful way.
4. Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing information
in an optimal way so that it can be readily assimilated

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1. HIERARCHICAL LEARNING - Robert Gagne

 Learning causes observable change
 Skills need to be taught one at a time
 Each new skill should build on previous ones
 Learning is hierarchical in nature.

Nine Instructional Events

Behavioral Operations
1.) Gaining attention (reception)
2.) Informing learners of the objectives (expectancy)
3.) Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4.) Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5.) Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

Behavioral and Cognitive Operations

6.) Eliciting performance (responding)
7.) Providing feedback (reinforcement)

Cognitive Operations
8.) Assessing performance (retrieval)
9.) Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

2. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory

• Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing and restructuring perceptions until a
solution is arrived at.
• It involves a sudden realization distinct from cause-and-effect problem solving.
3. Kurt Lewin’s Topological and Vector Theory (Field Theory) – The behavior of an individual at a given
moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space. (Internal and External forces)

4. Gestalt Theory (Kohler, Wertheimer and Koffka) –

 The primary focus of this theory is on PERCEPTION and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli.
 “The whole is more than the sum of all its parts and the whole gets its meaning from its parts.
 One does not learn by doing; for learning to occur, doing must be accompanied by realization of
consequences. Learning occurs as a result of or through experiences.
5. Phenomenology
Study on how people organize learning by looking at their lived experiences. Learning happens best when the
instruction is related to their real life experiences. The human brain has the ability of to make a map of the stimuli
caused by these life experiences. This process of mapping is called isomorphism.
• Law of Closure- Whenever the brain sees only part of the picture, the brain automatically attempts to
create a complete picture. Applies to images, thoughts, feelings and sound.
• Law of Proximity - The human brain maps elements that are presented close to each other as a whole
rather instead of separate - e parts.
• Law of Similarity - Learning is facilitated when groups that are alike are linked together and contrasted
with groups that present differing ideas.
• Figure and Ground - When observing things around us, it is normal for the eye to ignore space or holes
and to see, instead whole objects.
• Trace Theory - As new thoughts and ideas are learned, the brain tends to make connections or traces,
that are representative of the links that occur between conceptions and ideas, as well as images.
6. David Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory and Subsumption Theory
 Individuals must relate new knowledge to relevant concepts they already know.
 He defined meaningful learning as the acquisition of new meaning. It implies that the material to be
learned is potentially meaningful;
 Advance organizers – a mechanism to help link new learning material into existing related ideas.
Teachers should incorporate advance organizers when teaching a new concept.
Ex. Teachers should use a number of examples and focus on both similarities and differences.
 The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows.

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7. Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning – Also known as Instrumental Conceptualism.
Learning involves 3 simultaneous processes: acquisition, transformation and evaluation.

 Three ways to represent knowledge

 Spiral Curriculum Principles of instruction by Bruner
 Discovering Learning
 Four major aspects that should address in theory of instruction
 Four things about object
 Several Kinds of Categories

Three Ways to Represent Knowledge

 Enactive Representation - At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through actions on
physical objects and the outcomes of these actions.
 Iconic Representation - This second stage is when learning can be obtained through using models
and pictures.
 Symbolic Representation - In this third stage, the learner has developed the ability to think in
abstract terms.

Spiral Curriculum
Teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on students’
developmental levels.

Principles of Instruction by Bruner - Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that
make the student willing and able to learn.
 Spiral Organization - Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student.
 Goal Beyond the Information Given - Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and
or fill in the gaps.
 Discovering Learning - Refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself.

8. CONSTRUCTIVISM

Learner Learners create their own unique education because learning is based on prior
knowledge

Key Principles 1. Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and
interactions
2. Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in
meaningful realistic settings)
3. Create novel and situation-specific understandings by "assembling" knowledge
from diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand (flexible use of
knowledge)
4. Inquiry-based using discovery learning

Indicated Design Instructor provides peer interaction and builds on known concepts

Assets Learning is interactive using dialogue

Goals of 1. Build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and
Instruction interactions (constantly open to change, cannot achieve a predetermined, "correct"
meaning, knowledge emerges in relevant contexts)
2. Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge
3. Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than
communicating knowledge
4. Do not structure learning for the task, but engage learner in the actual use of the
tools in real world situations

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9. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (MI)
1. Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition
2. H. Gardner (1983 to present)
3. All people are born with NINE (9) intelligences:
4. Enables students to leverage their strengths and purposefully target and develop their weaknesses

Intelligence Area of Strength

1. Verbal-Linguistic Word
2. Visual-Spatial Picture
3. Logical-Mathematical Number/Reasoning
4. Kinesthetic Body
5. Musical Music
6. Naturalistic Nature
7. Interpersonal Self
8. Intrapersonal Other people
9. Existential Human existence, purpose, and death

10. Information Processing Theory – The theory describes the psychological events in terms of transformations
of information from input to output. It stresses the value of perception, attention and memory in the learning
process.

10. James Marcia’s Identity Status

Goal/Role/Crisis
LOW
FORECLOSURE: choices and identity
are based on others.
LOW CRISIS. HIGH COMMITMENT
“I’ve made a choice without thinking”
LET Hint: John has taken Education
because his parents told him so.
IDENTITY DIFFUSION: No clear
sense of self.
LOW CRISIS. LOW COMMITMENT.
HIGH
IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT: Clear sense
of sense of self and clear set of goals and
conscious and definite commitment.
HIGH CRISIS. HIGH COMMITMENT.
HIGH
“I thought about my goals, I know how to do
achieve them, and I know what I should do Commitment
with my life.”
LET Hint: John wanted to be a teacher so he
took up Education and passed the LET.
MORATORIUM:
Personal choices are defined but there is low
commitment to achieve them.
LOW

“I don’t know and I don’t care I am HIGH CRISIS. LOW COMMITMENT.

supposed to do with my life.” “I’m thinking how my life would be in five
LET Hint: John does not know what do years”
with his life. He does not study. He does LET Hint: John has taken three different
not work. He has no goals. courses and has not finished any course yet.

11. Carl Jung’s Personality Theory

- friend of Sigmund Freud
Introvert
 a person who prefers to be alone.
 Reserved, quiet, and more comfortable alone.
 Rely on themselves and their own inner world

Extrovert
 a person who is expressive, outgoing, and comfortable in interacting with the environment.
 Enjoy engaging with the external world.
 Communication with other people is the person’s way to recharge energy.

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Personality vs. Attitude
Personality Attitude
Static – cannot be changed. Dynamic – can be changed over time.
Traits and qualities one possess One way of responding or treating something or
someone
Emotions, thoughts, and qualities How a person behaves at a certain point of time

12. John B. Watson

 Father of Behaviorism
 Little Albert (Douglas Merritte/ William Barger) Experiment
 Strongly believes environment a great factor in shaping
children’s behavior

13. Uri Bronfenbrenner – Bioecological Model

Human is influenced by different environmental systems.
Five Environmental Systems according to Bronfenbrenner:
 Microsystem
 Direct environment
 Direct social interactions
 Social agents: Family, friends, classmates, teachers,
neighbors, etc.
 Mesosystem
 Relationship of microsystem in one’s life.
 Interaction between spouse that affects parent-child
interaction
 Environmental interaction between home and school
 LET Hint: Active and positive interaction between the parent and the teacher during the child’s primary
grades is correlated with child’s demonstration of initiative and independence in high school.

 Exosystem
 The child has no direct contact but is indirectly affected
 Child’s observation and interpretation of a situation that affect his behavior or performance.
 LET Hint: Parents’ promotion causing them to travel farther may affect the parent-child bonding.
Parents’ promotion may cause relocation, consequently, affecting the schooling of the child.

 Macrosystem
 Actual culture of a person
 Economic scenario of the country, poverty, ethnic, or racial identity.
 Belief system, bodies of knowledge, material resources, values, or way of life.
 Political, cultural, economic, and social realities.
 LET Hint: A child who is born poor obliged him to work to afford studying.

 Chronosystem
 Major decisions, transitions and shifts in one’s lifespan.
 Example: Parent’s death
 LET Hint: World War II affected the schooling of children in the devastated areas during the time.

14. Max Wertheimer’s Gestalt Psychology

 Mind forms global whole with self-organizing tendencies
 Mind perceives objects as part of a greater whole and as elements of more complex systems.

15. David Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory

 “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb,
1984, p. 38).
16. Harry Stack Sullivan’s Interpersonal Relations
 Empathized the effects of interpersonal relationships and social relationships in shaping one’s personality.

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17. Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Style
Support
LOW HIGH
AUTHORITARIAN. AUTHORITATIVE.
LOW SUPPORT. HIGH DEMAND HIGH SUPPORT. HIGH DEMAND.
LET Hint: Controlling. Power-assertive. LET Hint: Responsive while having high

HIGH
Uni-directional. standards.

Demand
REJECTING-NEGLECTING PERMISSIVE.
(UNINVOLED). HIGH SUPPORT. LOW DEMAND.
LOW SUPPORT. LOW DEMAND. LET Hint: No rules, no consequences. Kind

LOW
LET Hint: No responsiveness. No and loving but becomes frustrated when
demand. No limits, no monitoring. children become uncontrollable.

18. Mildren Parten’s Stages of Play

Stage Age Description
Unoccupied 0 to 2 years old Stationary; Not engaged nor active; just
observing
Solitary Between 2 and 3 years old Plays alone; doesn’t care of others; focus on own
activity
Onlooker 2 ½ to 3 ½ (but can take Objects and asks to learn the game but does not
place at any age) join the play;
Parallel 2 ½ to 3 ½ (but can take Mimics others but does not join the group play.
place at any age)
Associative 3 to 4 years old Begin to play together but no goal nor rules;
Cooperative 4 ½ to 6+ years old Organized play – there is a leader and members
have specific roles.

19. William Glasser – Choice Theory

 Almost of man’s behaviors are chosen to satisfy basic needs such as survival, love and belonging, power,
freedom, and happiness.
20. John William Atkinson’s Expectancy-Value Theory
 Motivation depends on an individual's retention of positive expectancies and values.
 Expectancy – individual’s belief of his/her ability to do a task
 Value – individual’s belief on the importance of doing something

Facilitating Learning and Bloom’s Taxonomy’s of Objectives

 Knowledge – remembering. Memorizing, recognizing, recalling, identification and recall of

information
 Comprehension – Interpreting, translating from one medium to another, describing in one’s
own words, organization and selection of facts and ideas
 Application - Problem solving, applying information to produce some result, use of facts, rules
and principles
 Analysis - Subdividing something to show how it is put together, finding the underlying
structure of a communication, identifying motives, separation of a whole into component parts
 Synthesis - Creating a unique, original product that may be in verbal form or may be a physical
object, combination of ideas to form a new whole
 Evaluation - Making value decisions about issues, resolving controversies or differences of
opinion, development of opinions, judgements or decisions

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Effective Questioning Techniques

• Pose the question first, before asking a student to respond.
• Allow plenty of “think time” by waiting at least 7-10 seconds before expecting students to respond.
• Make sure you give all students the opportunity to respond rather than relying on volunteers.
• Hold students accountable by expecting, requiring, and facilitating their participation and contributions.
• Establish a safe atmosphere for risk taking by guiding students in the process of learning from their mistakes

MEANING AND TYPES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation – is an inner drive that causes you to:
• do something• persevere at something
• energizes you to do something• initiate• direct• become intense\
• persistence of behavior

Types of Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation – the source of motivation is from within the person herself/himself or the activity
itself.
• Example: A student reads pocketbooks because it is enjoyable.

• Extrinsic Motivation – the source of motivation is something outside herself/himself or the rewards and
incentives.
• Example: A student studies because she/he was told by her/his teacher or because she/he is afraid to fail
and her/his parents makes her/him stop schooling.

The Role of Extrinsic Motivation

• Rewards
• Incentives
• Praises or words of encouragements
• Approval of significant others like teachers, parents, peer group

Opposites:• Punishment• Withdrawal• Privileges• Censure• Ostracism

We may begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the students get
intrinsically motivated themselves. It plays a significant role in the development of motivated students.

THEORIES AFFECTING MOTIVATION

Attribution Theory- explains that we attribute our successes or failures or other events to several factors. For
instance, you attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling academic performance. Or
you attribute the poor economic condition you are in to the Land Reform of the Phil. Gov’t. (your lands were
subjected to land reform) or to the vices of your father. These attributions differ from one another in three ways –
locus, stability, and controllability (Ormsrod, 2004).

Locus (“place”): Internal vs. external. If your student traces his good grade to his ability and to his work, he
attributes his good grade to internal factors. If your student, however, claims that his good grade is due to the
effective teaching of his teacher or to the adequate library facilities, he attributes his good grades to factors
external to himself.

Stability Stable vs. unstable. If you attribute your poor eyesight to what you have inherited from your parents,
then you are attributing the cause of your sickness to something stable, something that cannot change because it is
in your genes. If you attribute it to excessive watching of tv, then you are claiming that your poor eyesight is
caused by an unstable factor, something that can change. (You can prolong or shorten your period of watching tv).

Controllability: Controllable vs. uncontrollable. If your student claims his poor academic performance is due to
his teacher’s in-effective teaching strategy, he attributes his poor performance to a factor beyond his control. If,
however, your student admits that his poor class performance is due to his poor study habits and low motivation,
he attributes the event to factors which are very much within his control.

Self-efficacy Theory• Is the belief that one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role
expectations, or meet a challenging situation successfully.

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Self-efficacy enhancing strategies:
• Make sure students master the basic skills
• Help them make noticeable progress on difficult tasks
• Communicate confidence in students’ abilities through both words and actions
• Expose them to successful peers

Self-determination and regulation theories

• Students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated when they believe they can determine their learning
goals and regulate their learning.

SPECIAL EDUCATION
13 Categories of Exceptionalities according to IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)
1. Specific learning disability (SLD)
 Covers specific group of learning difficulties including difficulty in reading (dyslexia), writing
(dysgraphia), and/or doing math (dyscalculia).
 Others that fall in this umbrella are Auditory processing disorder and Nonverbal learning disability
2. Other health impairment
 Includes conditions that that limit a child’s strength, energy or alertness (e.g Attention-
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder).
3. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
 Includes conditions that significantly affect child’s social, communication, and behavior.
 It is a developmental disability.
4. Emotional disturbance
 Include mental disorders like anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive, depression,
and bipolar disorder.
5. Speech or language impairment
 Includes different communication problems like stuttering, impaired articulation, language
impairment or voice impairment.
6. Visual impairment, including blindness
 Includes partial sight problems and blindness.
7. Deafness
 Includes children who are not able to process language through hearing because of severe hearing
impairment which led to the diagnosis of deafness.
8. Hearing impairment
 Includes hearing loss not covered by the definition of deafness. This type of loss can change or
fluctuate over time.
9. Deaf-blindness
 Includes children who have both hearing and visual impairments.

10. Orthopedic impairment

 Includes any impairment to a child’s body whatever the cause of impairment. Example is
Cerebral Palsy which is a condition caused by the damage to areas of the brain that control the
body.
11. Intellectual disability
 Includes children who have significantly below-average intellectual ability which results to poor
communication, self-care and social skills (e.g Down Syndrome)
12. Traumatic brain injury
 Includes children with brain injury that is caused by an accident or some kind of physical force.
13. Multiple disabilities
 Includes children with more than one condition/impairment covered by IDEA.:

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References:

Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, Ma. Rita D., Borabo, Heidi Grace L., Lucido, Paz, I. (2018) The Child and
Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing Inc.

Galant, Michelle. Vygotsky's Cultural/Cognitive Theory Of Development. Retrieved April 20, 2018 from
http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/VYG/STAGES.HTML

http://intranet.tdmu.edu.ua/data/kafedra/internal/i_nurse/classes_stud/bsn%20(4year)%20program/full%
20time%20study/third%20year/Foundations%20of%20Nursing%20Practicum/27.%20Developmental%
20Theories,%20Conception%20Through%20Adolescence.htm

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