INDEX

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures, and t indicate tables.

A C
Activation function, 121–122 Capacitance resistance models
Advanced collaborative environment (CRM), 200
(ACE), 298, 300 Case-based reasoning (CBR), 139–140,
AHM. See Assisted history matching (AHM) 140f
Alarm system, well optimization, 188 Categorical variable, 117
Alkaline, surfactant, and polymers (ASP) Center for High-Performance Computing
injection, 283–287 (CHPC), 24
ARPANET, 5 Centroids, 119
Artificial intelligence (AI), 85, 103–107, 165 Change management, high-performance
Artificial lift (AL) system teams, 308–318
Artificial neural network (ANN), 86 Choke model, 167, 169f
Assisted history matching (AHM), 132–133, Classification and regression tree (CART)
212–213 analysis, 135–136
Augmented reality (AR), 341–344, Classification problems, 117
342–343f Closed-loop field development (CLFD),
Authorization for expenditure (AFE), 103 214
Auto-gas lift injection, 255, 256f Closed-loop model
Automated model analysis, well assisted history matching, 223–224,
optimization, 188 224f
Automated workflow. See Workflow integrated reservoir decisions, 336–340
automation Closed-loop reservoir management
Automatic choke, 60 (CLoReM), 223, 224f
Automation and remote control, 331–334 Cloud computing, 6
Autonomous ICD (AICD), 252–253, Clustering, 119
270–271 Cognitive analytics, 107–111, 108f
Collaboration, 165, 341
B Collaboration work environments (CWE),
Back end process, workflow automation, 18, 297–298, 303–306
162–164, 163f Competency development, 311–313
Big Data analytics Competency management system (CMS),
value, 114 313–316, 315t
variability, 114 Competency management tool (CMT),
variety, 113 316
velocity, 113 Connectivity layer, IPMA, 238, 238f
veracity, 113 Constellation plot, 128–129f
virtual data, 113 Control-loop process, components,
volume, 112 150–151, 150f
Big-loop workflows, 223–224, 225f Control modes, 151t, 152f, 273
Bonferroni’s Principle, 116 COP’s integrated operations, 26
Bubble flow, 54 Coriolis meters, 46, 49, 50f, 89, 89f
Buoyancy factor, 284–285 Cybersecurity, 68–73

351
352
D Differential pressure meter, 48
Data acquisition, 6
Data aggregation, 230
Data analytics
cognitive analytics, 107–111, 108f
descriptive analytics, 107, 108f
diagnostic analytics, 108, 108f
Data assimilation, 221–223
Data clustering, 107
Data down sampling, 93–96, 95f
Data-driven models, 158
Data integration
decision support framework, 103, 104t
in DOF environment, 102–103
Data lake, 328
Data management, 15
Data mining (DM), 106, 114–116, 115f
classification tree, 137f
decision tree analysis, 138f
Data physics models, 339
Data processing, 78–79
Data quality control (DQC), 80–82
Data receiver and transmission, 66f
Data reconciliation, 88–91, 89f
Data replacement techniques, 85–88
Data transmission, 15
Data types, 102, 102t
Data validation and conditioning (DV&C)
management, 76
Data validation system architecture, 76–79
filtering, 83
freeze detection and value hold, 82–83
out-of-range detection and value clip, 82
rate of change, spike detection, and value
hold, 82
statistical detection and value hold, 83
Decision-making process, workflow
automation, 158–159, 158f
Decision support centers (DSC), 18,
297–298
Decision trees methods, 117
Decline curve analysis (DCA), 91
Deep learning (DL), 133
Deep neural network (DNN), 133–134,
134f
Design of experiments (DoE), 214–216
Diagnostic analytics, 108, 108f
Index
Digital Energy Technical Section, 105–106
Digital oil field (DOF), 43, 75, 197–198,
291–292
benchmarks across world, 22–26
knowledge capture, 335
summarizing from raw data, 96–97
ticketing and flow process, 194
transition, key performance metrics, 297
ubiquitous sensors, 323–327
virtual reality, 341–344
workflow automation levels, 160, 162f
world energy consumption by energy
type, in 2016, 2f
zero accident performance, 21
Dimensionality reduction, 119, 217–219
Discrete cosine transform (DCT), 221
Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS), 93, 144,
234–235, 277
Distributed control systems (DCS), 63, 67
Distributed temperature sensing (DTS), 144,
234–235, 277
DM. See Data mining (DM)
Downhole gauges, 45–46
Down-hole valves, 252–254
Drones, 330, 334
Dual-energy γ-ray densitometers, 58
Dynamic coupling, IAM workflows,
226–227, 227–228f
Dynamic data integration, 214
E
Eigenvalues, 119
Eigenvectors, 119
Electric submersible pump (ESP), 108,
186–190
pump head vs. total liquid rates, 192, 192f
Electronic field measurements (EFM), 304
Elemental analysis meter, 50
Engineering process, workflow automation,
153–156, 158
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 232,
255–256, 275–278, 283–287
Ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF), 204,
221–222
Ensemble smoother (ES), 222
Index
Estimated ultimate recovery (EUR),
133–134
ES with multiple data assimilation (ES-
MDA) algorithm, 222–223
Exploratory data analysis (EDA), 107
F I
Factor analysis, 107
Failure analysis, 136–141
Failure reporting analysis and corrective
action system (FRACAS) information,
139
Field control devices, 66–67
Field of the Future (FoF) program, 24, 32t
Filtering technology, 83, 156–158
Flowing bottom-hole pressure (fBHP), 26,
88
Flowmeters, 50–51
Flow table coupling, IAM workflows, 225
Forecast analysis, 156
Fracture modeling and optimization (FMO),
234–235, 235f
Freeze detection and value hold, 82–83
Functional design, 164
Fuzzy logic techniques, 189–190
G uncertainty, 212
Gas composition meter, 58
Gas-oil ratio (GOR), 58
Gauges
downhole, 45–46
surface, 44–45
Gauss-Newton method, 221–222
Geographical information system (GIS),
179
Global optimization, IAM, 206–209, 208f
Gradient-based algorithms, 203
Gradient boosted machine (GBM), 135
Gradient-free algorithms, 204
Graphic processing unit (GPU)-based
reservoir simulation, 340
H Internal control devices (ICD), 251–252,
Heuristic optimization, IAM, 201, 209,
210–211t, 218t
Hierarchical clustering, 128–129f
353
High-performance computing (HPC),
204–205, 215, 237, 340–341
Human–machine interface (HMI), 296,
344–345
Hybrid single-phase flowmeters, 56–58
ICV. See Interval control valve (ICV)
I-Field program, 25
Improved oil recovery (IOR), 255–256,
275–278
Inductance and capacitance meters, 58
Industrial Internet of things (IIoT), 323, 329f
Infrared meter, 58
Instrumentation, 13–14
Integrated asset management (IAM),
197–198
dynamic coupling workflow, 226,
227–228f
flow table coupling workflow, 225
static coupling workflow, 226, 226f,
228f
tight iterative coupling workflow, 226,
229f, 230–232
Integrated asset modeling (IAMod),
197–198
concept, 198–199
Integrated operations (IO), 8
Integrated operations center (IOC), 8–9
Integrated production management
architecture (IPMA)
benefits, 239–240
layers of, 238–239, 238–239f
Integrated production system model
(IPSM), 22–24
Intellectual property (IP), 111
Intelligent agents, 131, 131f
Intelligent data analytics, 114–127
Intelligent energy, 107
Intelligent well technology, 250
Interactivity, 127
Intermittent flow, 54
252f, 267–270
International Energy Agency (IEA), 1–2
Internet of Things (IoT), 6, 7f
354
Interval control valve (ICV), 250, 251f,
253
IOR. See Improved oil recovery (IOR)
IPMA. See Integrated production
management architecture (IPMA)
IPR. See Productivity index relationship
(IPR)
J Mass flow meter, 49
Job-pause time (JPT), 135–136
K 220–221
Kalman gain, 222
Key performance indicator (KPI), 10, 11f,
108
K-means clustering, 85, 128–129f, 136
Knowledge capture
benefit, 165
people resources, 335
Knowledge management (KM), 311, 316
Kohonen self-organizing map (SOM),
131–132, 132f
Kuwait Intelligent Digital Field (KwIDF)
program, 9, 24–25, 37t, 175
Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), 9, 251
L Multidimensional scaling (MDS), 107,
Learning management system (LMS),
313–314
Li-Fi, 333
Light-based communication technology,
333
Likelihood function, 219–220
Linear programming, oil/gas industry,
201
Liquid-gas ratio (LGR), 58
Local optimization methods, IAM,
206–209
Lockhart–Martinelli parameter, 54
Loose coupling, IAM workflows, 226,
227f
M Multivariate adaptive regression splines
Machine learning (ML), 106–107, 116–127,
118–119t
and predictive analytics, 110–111,
127–134
Index
Management layer, IPMA, 238f, 239
Manual automation, 154f
Many-objective problems (MaOP),
205–206
MapReduce, 114
Markov chain Monte Carlo (McMC), 208,
216, 220–221
Markov decision processes (MDP), 120
Mature assets, 63
Maximum-A-Posteriori (MAP) estimate,
Mean squared error (MSE), 135
Metering-based model, VMF, 166–176
Microsoft Upstream Reference Architecture
(MURA), 234–235
Mist flow, 54
Mixed-integer linear programming (MILP),
201
Mixed-integer nonlinear programming
(MINLP), 201
Mobile applications, 341
Mobility, 301–306, 341
Model-Based Operational Support
(MBOS), 24
Model-based validation methods, 85
128–129f
Multidisciplinary collaboration, 165
Multi-island genetic algorithms (MIGA),
234–235
Multiobjective genetic algorithm (MOGA),
205, 207f
Multiobjective optimization, IAM,
202–206, 206f, 208f
Multiphase flow meter (MPFM), 54, 58–60,
59f, 89, 89f, 183
Multiple-zone control analysis, 262–266,
265f
Multipurpose environment for parallel
optimization (MEPO),
199–201
(MARS), 135
Multivariate analysis, 134–136
Multivariate imputation by chain equations
(MICE), 110
Index
Multivariate potential scale reduction factor
(MPSRF), 220–221
Multivariate statistics or analysis (MVA),
107
N Predictive analytics, 108f, 109
Nanosensors, 326–327, 326f
Nanotechnology, 326
Natural flow diagnostics, well optimization,
186
Near-wellbore reservoir model, 168
Net present value (NPV), 203–204, 208,
212–214
Neutron interrogation, 58
Nodal analysis, 188, 261
Nonlinear programming, 201
Nonstationary process, VMF, 169–173, 171f
Normal score transform (NST), 136
North American unconventional field
operation, 317, 317f
O Productivity index relationship (IPR),
Offshore oil production platform, 3f
Oil and gas (O&G) industry, 321–322
automation level, 12
cybersecurity, 68–69
DOF level, 12–13
manual process level, 12
operational levels of, 10, 11f
RTOC level, 12
Oil wells, autonomous ICD, 270–271
Onshore production, artificial lifted wells, 3f
Optimal control theory, 203–204, 223
Optimization See Well optimization
Organizational transformation, 19f
Over-range (OFR) test, 82
P Rate transient analysis (RTA), 88
Parallel virtual machine (PVM)
connectivity, 233, 233f
Parameterization techniques, 217–219
Pareto-based algorithms, 205–206
Pareto optimal set, 205
Passive control, smart well, 273
Performance analysis, 134–136
Permian Basin artificial lift, 303–304
355
Petroleum Data-Driven Analytics (PD2A),
105–106
PLTs. See Production logging tools (PLTs)
Population-based methods, characteristics,
209
Positive displacement meter, 49, 49f
machine learning and, 110–111, 127–134
Predictive data mining, 116
Predictors, 117
Prescriptive analytics, 108f, 109
Pressure test analysis (PTA), 93
Pressure transient analysis, 93
Principal component analysis (PCA), 107
Proactive control, smart well, 273
Process control, 150–152
Production data quality control (DQC),
80–82
Production engineer (PE), 185–186
Production logging tools (PLTs), 256–261,
258f, 260f
Production reconciliation, 88–89
168–169, 179
Professional service automation (PSA), 103
Programmable logic controllers (PLC), 13
Progressive cavity pump (PCP), 186–190
PSO with mesh adaptive direct search (PSO-
MADS), 214
Q
Quantitative variable, 117
R
Radial basis function (RBF) algorithm, 175
Random forest (RF), 126–127, 135
Randomized maximum likelihood (RML)
method, 220–221
Reactive control, smart well, 273
Real-time analytics, on streaming data,
141–144
Real-time DOF, 45f
Real-time operation center (RTOC), 10,
17–18, 121
Recommendation systems, 121
Reconciliation method, 90t
356
Regression problems, 117
Reinforcement learning (RL), 118–119t,
120
Relative error, VMF, 171, 172f, 173
Remote operation center (ROC), 66–67
Remote sensing, 13–14
Remote terminal units (RTU), 13–14, 64
Reservoir development under uncertainty
(RDU), 234–235, 235f
Reservoir model, 214, 219, 335–336
Response variable, 117
Retrospective optimization (RO), 212
Rocky Mountain oil production, 304, 305f
Root-cause analysis, 116, 134–136
S 125f, 135
San Joaquin Valley cyclic steam production,
304–306, 307f
Saudi Aramco, 251
Scatterplot matrix, 128–129f
Self-organized neural networks, 85
Self-organizing map (SOM), 131–132, 132f
Semantic layer, IPMA, 238, 238f
Shell collaboration centers, 298–299, 299t
Simulated annealing (SA) algorithms, 215
Simultaneous water and gas (SWAG)
injection, 278
Single-objective optimization, IAM,
202–206, 203f
Single-phase vs. multiphase flows, 51
Single-zone control analysis, 262, 264f
Smart Field program, 22–24
Smart production surveillance, 177–183
Smart well
full field dashboard, 180f
ICDs, 267–270
well dashboard, 182f
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE),
105–106, 114, 131–132, 198
Soft-computing techniques, 164–166
Software component, workflow
automation, 156–158
Static bottom-hole pressure (SBHP), 26
Static coupling, IAM workflows, 226, 226f,
228f
Statistical detection and value hold, 83
Statistical learning, 116–127
Index
Statoil, 25, 251
Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)
process, 282–283
Stochastic integrated asset model (SIAM),
213–214
Stochastic programming (SP), 212
Strategic inflection point (SIP), 107
Stratified/wavily stratified flow, 51
Stream computing, 141–144, 144f
Subsea well production template, 3f
Superficial liquid vs. gas velocity, 52f
Supervised learning, 117, 118–119t
Supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA), 4–5, 43, 65, 254, 295
distributed control system (DCS), 67–68
Support vector machine (SVM), 124–126,
Support vector regression (SVR), 126
Surface flowmeters, 46–47
Surface gauges, 44–45
Surrogate reservoir model (SRM), 127–131,
208, 216
Survival analysis, 136–139
Swim lane diagram, 163
T
Taylor’s theorem, equation, 175
Team synergy, 316–318
3D numerical model, 88
3D reservoir model, 337f
Tight iterative coupling, IAM workflows,
226, 229f, 230–232
Top-down intelligent reservoir modeling
(TDIRM), 200
Top-down reservoir models (TDRM),
199–201
Tracking action workflow, 193–194
Tree-based methods, 117
True mass flowmeters (TMFM), 47
Tuckman model, 308–311
Turbine meter, 49f
Turndown ration (TR), 51
24-h DOF operational setting, 308f
U
Ubiquitous sensors (IIoT), 323–327
Unconventional assets, 64–65
Index
Unified Modeling Language (UML),
237–238
Unsupervised learning, 118–119t, 119
User interface (UI), 162–164
dashboard and layout, 179–181
smart production surveillance, 177
and tool selection, 164
V Well optimization, 185–192
Value of information (VOI), 107–109
Velocity flowmeter, 48
Vertical lift performance (VLP), 167–169
Virtual flowmeter, 89f
Virtual multiphase flow (VMF), 175–176
Virtual reality (VR), 341–344
Visualization
357
integrated asset management, 230
intelligent data analytics, 127
W
Water alternating gas (WAG) process, 251,
278–282
Wellbore model, 167–168
Well test (WT), 183–185, 184f
WiMAX technologies, 12
Wireless technology, 333
Workflow automation, 16–17, 152–153
Workflow engine, 164
Workflow process controller (WPC), 230,
232–233