Antenna and Radio Wave Proppagation

EC2353-Antennas and Wave
Propagation
Chapter I
Electromagnetic Radiation and Antenna
Fundamentals
P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
Syllabus – UNIT I
Review of electromagnetic theory: Vector potential,
Solution of wave equation, retarded case, Hertizian
dipole. Antenna characteristics: Radiation pattern,
Beam solid angle, Directivity, Gain, Input impedance,
Polarization, Bandwidth, Reciprocity, Equivalence of
Radiation patterns, Equivalence of Impedances,
Effective aperture, Vector effective length, Antenna
temperature.
Principals of Radiated Electromagnetic (EM)
Fields
Two laws (from Maxwell Equation)

1. A Moving Electric Field Creates a Magnetic (H) field
2. A Moving Magnetic Field Creates an Electric (E) field
An AC current i(t), flowing in a wire produces an EM field
Assume i(t) applied at A with length l = /2

• EM wave will travel along the wire until it reaches the B
• B is a point of high impedance  wave reflects toward A and is
reflected back again
• resistance gradually dissipates the energy of the wave
• wave is reinforced at A
 results in continuous oscillations of energy along the wire and a high
voltage at the A end of the wire.
A B
l = /2
c  3 108m/s
l = /2: wave will complete one cycle from A to B and back to A
 = distance a wave travels during 1 cycle
f = c/ = c/2l P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
EM waves in free space
 • v2 = 1/(oµo) so, v = 3 x 108 m/s
– o = 8.855 x 10-12 Farads/m
– µo = 1.2566 x 10-6 Henrys/m
EM waves in free space
propagate freely without
attenuation
 What is a plane wave?
– Example is a wave propagating
along the x-direction
– Fields are constant in y and z
directions, but vary with time and
space along the x-direction
– Most propagating radio (EM)
waves can be thought of a plane
waves on the scale of the
receiving antenna P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
Maxwell’s Equations
Relate Electric and Magnetic fields generated by charge
and current distributions.
E = electric field
D = electric displacement Gauss’ Law
H = magnetic field
Gauss’ law for magnetism
B = magnetic flux density
= charge density Faraday’s Law
j = current density
0 (permeability of free space) = 4 10-7
0 (permittivity of free space) = 8.854 10-12 Ampère’s Law
c (speed of light) = 2.99792458 108 m/s
   
In vacuum D  0E, B  0H ,  0  0c 2  1
Changing Electric Fields Produce
Magnetic Fields; Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell ’ s equations are the basic equations of
electromagnetism. They involve calculus; here is a
summary:
•Gauss’s law relates electric field to charge
•A law stating there are no magnetic “charges”
•A changing electric field produces a magnetic field
•A magnetic field is produced by an electric current,
and also by a changing electric field
Only one part of this is new—that a changing electric
field produces a magnetic field.
Ampère’s law relates the magnetic field around a
current to the current through a surface.
In order for Ampère’s law to hold, it can’t matter
which surface we choose. But look at a discharging
capacitor; there is a current through surface 1 but none
through surface 2:
Therefore, Amp è re ’ s law is modified to include the
creation of a magnetic field by a changing electric
field—the field between the plates of the capacitor in
this example.
Production of Electromagnetic Waves
Since a changing electric field produces a
magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field
produces an electric field, once sinusoidal fields
are created they can propagate on their own.
These propagating fields are called electromagnetic
waves.
Oscillating charges will produce electromagnetic
waves:
Far from the source, the waves are plane waves:
The electric and magnetic waves are perpendicular
to each other, and to the direction of propagation.
When Maxwell calculated the speed of propagation of
electromagnetic waves, he found:
Using the known values of ε0 and μ0 gives

c = 3.00 x 108 m/s.
This is the speed of light in a vacuum.
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light was known to be a wave. The production and
measurement of electromagnetic waves of other
frequencies confirmed that light was an
electromagnetic wave as well.
The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is related to
its wavelength:
Production of EM Waves by an
Antenna
Neither stationary charges nor steady currents
can produce electromagnetic waves
The fundamental mechanism responsible for
this radiation is the acceleration of a charged
particle
Whenever a charged particle accelerates, it
radiates energy
Radiation mechanism
Charges transmitted over a straight metal at a constant
speed do not produce radiation.
+++ No radiation
If the charges encountered a discontinuity (Open Connection,

bend) their speed changes, then there is radiation.
+++ Radiation
In a resonant structure, charges continuously oscillate,

creating a continuous stream of radiation.
High radiation
+++
Loaded two-wire line
Reminder on transmission lines:
Zr
superposition of an incident and a

Two-wire line closed on a load
reflected wave
 jβ x jβ x
i  Ae  Be
x
Without loss
Open-ended two-wire line
Open-ended line:
O.C.
Line with an open-circuit Stationary waves
jβ y  jβ y
 2 ji sin  y
  
i i e i e
y r r r
v
i   r sin  y cos t
 y, t  Zc
Resonant line
C.O.
Line with an open-circuit Stationary waves

jβ y  jβ y
 2 ji sin  y
  
i i e i e
x r r r
v
i   r sin  y cos t
 y, t  Zc
In practice, when the wires are relatively close, the currents are out of
phase, the total radiated field is close to zero.
Bended wires
The classical approximation considers that if the arms of the line are
moved away, the current distribution remains the same.
Radiating dipole
Then we have in-

phase currents
for effective
radiation: the
principle of the
dipole antenna
Problem: in practice, there is

mismatch. Then we seek a resonant
antenna having an input impedance
matched to a progressive wave line.
Radiation sources
Currents and charges present in this medium are called
primary sources:
Surface current density Ip (A/m²)
Volume charge density Q p

(Cb/m3)
These sources create:
Electric and magnetic fields E (V/m)
H (A/m)
Other currents and charges I c

and Q c
Induction Phenomena
Relation to the surface
with perfect conductor
n  E1  0 E1 H 1
1, 1, 1
n H1  IS
n . E 1  Q S The electric field is always
perpendicular to the conductor.
n.H 1  0
The magnetic field is always
tangent to the conductor.
The electric field is proportional

to the charges on the surface.
The magnetic field is proportional

to theP.Jothilakshmi,
surface current.
AP/EC-SVCE
EM Potentials
To assess the effects of an isotropic source at a point P of
space we can introduce the vector and scalar potentials:
   
Knowing that div B  0 we can write B (r , t )    A(r , t )
z
P
 Vector A is defined in a gradient
approximate, then there is a
r
function V satisfying:
o y 
  A(r, t )
 E (r, t )   V(r, t ) 
t
x
EM Potentials
Expressing Maxwell's equations based on the
potential, we obtain the wave equations:
 V Q 2
 V  
2

t  2
  A 2
 A  
2
 I
t 2
The resolution (based on the complex Green's functions)

provides for a linear distribution:
1 e  j r
V   Ql (r ) .dl Scalar potential
4 0 L r
   e  j r
A   I l (r ) .dl Vector potential
4 L r
Vector Magnetic Potential-Basics
The vector potential is defined to be consistent with Ampere ’s
Circuital Law and
It can be expressed in terms of either current i or current density j
(i.e. the sources of magnetic field)
B  0
B    A (T )

  A  0 
A - vector magnetic potential (Wb/m)
The vector potential in the cross-section of
a wire with uniform current distribution.
Poisson’s Equation
    A  0 J
    A  (  A)  (  ) A  (  A)   A 2
Laplacian Operator (Divergence of a gradient)
 (  A)   A   0 J 2
  A  0   A   0 J 2
Vector Poisson’s equation

In electrostatics
 D  

 E  0   E      E 

 E  V 
D  E    V  


 V 
2 Poisson’s Equation

in electrostatics
Cont.,
 1 
 V   V  
2
dv
0 4 0 v R
0 J
 A  0 J  A  
2
dv
4 v
R
Retarded Vector Potential
The fields propagate at the speed of light c, so the delay of
the fields connecting cause and effect at earlier and later
times is an important factor: the signal takes a finite time to
propagate from a point in the charge or current distribution
(the point of cause) to another point in space (where the
effect is measured).
The time delay can be represented as (t-r/c) instead of t.
HISTORY
The first antennas were built in 1888 by German
physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering
experiments to prove the existence of
electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of
James Clerk Maxwell.
 Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of

parabolic reflectors for both transmitting and
receiving.
Introduction
An antenna is a transducer that converts radio
frequency electric current to electromagnetic
waves that are radiated into space
It is a device used to transmit and receive
electromagnetic waves
In two-way communication, the same antenna
can be used for transmission and reception
Purpose of Antenna
• Transformation of a guided EM wave
in transmission line (waveguide) into
Space wave a freely propagating EM wave in
space (or vice versa) with specified
directional characteristics
– Transformation from time-function in
one-dimensional space into time-function
in three dimensional space
– The specific form of the radiated wave is
defined by the antenna structure and the
environment
Guided wave
Antenna functions
• Transmission line
– Power transport medium - must avoid power reflections,
otherwise use matching devices
• Radiator
– Must radiate efficiently – must be of a size comparable with
the half-wavelength
• Resonator
– Unavoidable - for broadband applications resonances must be
attenuated
Applications of Antennas
Antennas are used in systems such as radio and
television broadcasting, point to point radio
communication, wireless LAN, radar and space
exploration
Antennas are most utilized in air or outer space
But can also be operated under water or even through
soil and rock at certain frequencies for short distances
TYPES OF ANTENNAS
According to their applications and technology available,
antennas generally fall in one of two categories:
Omnidirectional or only weakly directional antennas which

receive or radiate more or less in all directions. These are
employed when the relative position of the other station is
unknown or arbitrary. They are also used at lower frequencies
where a directional antenna would be too large, or simply to
cut costs in applications where a directional antenna isn't
required.
Directional or beam antennas which are intended to

preferentially radiate or receive in a particular direction or
directional pattern. P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
Cont.,
According to length of transmission lines available,
antennas generally fall in one of two categories:
Resonant Antennas – is a transmission line, the length of

which is exactly equal to multiples of half wavelength
and it is open at both ends.
Non-resonant Antennas – the length of these antennas is

not equal to exact multiples of half wavelength. In these
antennas standing waves are not present as antennas are
terminated in correct impedance which avoid reflections.
The waves travel only in forward direction.Non-resonant
antenna is a unidirectional antenna.
Classification of Antennas
Wire-Type Antennas Aperture-Type Antennas
Dipoles Horn and open waveguide
Monopoles Reflector antennas
Biconical antennas Slot antennas
Loop antennas Microstrip antennas
Helical antennas
Linearly polarised antennas Circularly polarised antennas
Element antennas Antenna array
Narrow-band Broad-band
Transmitting Receiving
Cont.,
Fundamental Antenna Parameters
Radiation Pattern
An antenna radiation pattern is defined as “ a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna
as a function of space coordinates. In most cases, the
radiation pattern is determined in the far-field region.
Radiation properties include radiation intensity, field

strength, phase or polarization.
Antenna Field Pattern
Types of Radiation Patterns
Idealized
Point Radiator Vertical Dipole Radar Dish
Isotropic Omnidirectional Directional

Isotropic pattern is a pattern of an antenna having equal radiation in all
directions. This an ideal concept. However it is used to define other antenna
parameters. It is represented simply by a sphere whose center coincides with
the location of the isotropic radiator.
Directional antenna is an antenna, which radiates (receives) much more
efficiently in some directions than in others. Usually, this term is applied to
antennas whose directivity is much higher than that of a half wavelength
dipole.
Omnidirectional antenna is an antenna, which has non-directional pattern in
given plane, and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane (eg:single-wire
antennas)
Radiation Patterns (cont.)
 Beam width (or half-power beam width)
– Measure of directivity of antenna
Cont.,
Beamwidth, Lobes & Nulls
Lobe: area of high signal strength
- main lobe
- secondary lobes
Nulls: area of very low signal strength
Beamwidth: total angle where relative signal power is 3dB
below peak value of main lobe
- can range from 1o to 360o
Beamwidth & Lobes indicate sharpness of pattern focus
90o
beam
180o 0o width
null
270 o
Radiation Pattern Lobes
Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is a angle between two vectors, originating

at the pattern ’ s origin and passing through these points of the major lobe
where the radiation intensity is half of its maximum
First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors. Originating

at the pattern ’ s origin and tangent to the main beam at its base.
FNBW=2xHPBW P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
Pattern lobes
Pattern lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern with

a local maximum
Lobes are classified as: major, minor, side lobes, back

lobes.
Example
Power pattern vs. Field pattern
 The power pattern is the measured (calculated) and plotted
received power: |P( θ , ϕ )| at a constant (large) distance from
the antenna
 The amplitude field pattern is the measured (calculated) and
plotted electric (magnetic) field intensity, |E(θ, ϕ)| or |H(θ, ϕ)|
at a constant (large) distance from the antenna
The power pattern and the field patterns are inter-related:

P(θ, ϕ) = (1/)*|E(θ, ϕ)|2 = *|H(θ, ϕ)|2
P = power
E = electrical field component vector
H = magnetic field component vector
 = 377 ohm (free-space, plane wave impedance)
Polarization
• Defined as the orientation of the electric field (E-
plane) of an electromagnetic wave
• Types of polarization
– Linear
• Horizontal
• Vertical
– Circular
Polarization
 Vertically Polarized Antenna
– Electric field is perpendicular to the Earth’s surface
– e.g., Broadcast tower for AM radio, “whip” antenna on an automobile
 Horizontally Polarized Antenna
– Electric field is parallel to the Earth’s surface
– e.g., Television transmission (U.S.)
 Circular Polarized Antenna
– Wave radiates energy in both the horizontal and vertical planes and all
planes in between
Polarization
Polarization of EM Waves
AR = Axial Ratio
Elliptical Polarization
LHC
Ex = cos (wt) Ex = cos (wt) Ex = cos (wt) Ex = cos (wt)

Ey = cos (wt) Ey = cos (wt+pi/4) Ey = -sin (wt) Ey = cos (wt+3pi/4)
RHC
Ex = cos (wt) Ex = cos (wt)
Ey = -cos (wt+pi/4) Ey = sin (wt)
Polarization ellipse
Ex
• The superposition of
two plane-wave
M components results in
Ey an elliptically polarized

wave
• The polarization ellipse
is defined by its axial
N ratio N/M (ellipticity),
tilt angle  and sense
of rotation
Polarization states
LHC
(Poincaré sphere)
UPPER HEMISPHERE:
ELLIPTIC POLARIZATION
LEFT_HANDED SENSE LATTITUDE:
REPRESENTS
AXIAL RATIO
EQUATOR:
LINEAR POLARIZATION
LOWER HEMISPHERE: 450 LINEAR

ELLIPTIC POLARIZATION
RIGHT_HANDED SENSE LONGITUDE:
REPRESENTS
TILT ANGLE
RHC
POLES REPRESENT
CIRCULAR POLARIZATIONS
Cont.,
Animations
E & H fields and
Poynting Vector for Power Flow
• Power flow in the EM field
– P=ExH (P is Poynting
vector)
• In free space E and H are
perpendicular
• P is perpendicular to both E and
H
• Plane wave radiated by an
antenna
– P = E x H -> Eo Ho Sin2(t-kx)
– P = [Eo2/] Sin2(t-kx)
– Pavg = (1/2) [Eo2/] in W/m2
–  = impedance of free space
= 377 
Field Regions
Reactive near-field region

Far-field (Fraunhofer) region 3
R1  0.62 D

D
R1 Radiating near-field
(Fresnel) region
R2 D2
R2  2

RADIAN AND STERADIAN
A radian is defined with the aid of Figure a). It is the angle

subtended by an arc along the perimeter of the circle with length
equal to the radius.
A steradian may be defined using Figure (b). Here, one steradian

(sr) is subtended by an area r2 at the surface of a sphere of radius r.
Ωa Antenna beam solid angle (steradians)
Ω a corresponds to the solid angle which would be required to radiate all
the power Prad at the maximum radiation intensity level φmax:
Pr ad   a max
An alternate definition of directivity is then:

4
D
a
Ae Effective area or Effective aperture (square meters)

The effective area corresponds to the effective absorbance area
presented by an antenna to an incident plane wave. For an aperture
antenna, it is equal to or smaller than the physical aperture. The
relationship between the gain and the wavelength is ,
4
G  2 Ae

ηap Aperture efficiency or Antenna efficiency of an aperture
antenna (unitless) η ap is the ratio between the effective area Ae and the
physical area of the aperture in an aperture antenna. 50% is often a
convenient approximate value to use for the aperture efficiency.
Ae
 ap 
Ap
F/B Front-to-back ratio
A ratio comparing the signal strength in the desired direction of
transmission or reception to the signal strength in the opposite direction.
One use of this ratio is to describe the antenna's ability to discriminate
between the signal coming from the front and the interfering signals
coming from the rear when the antenna is used for reception.
F / B  Main Lobe(dB)  Back Lobe(dB)
Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle
radiated in this direction by the antenna
Aside on Solid Angles
surface area  r 2
 arc length   r
  1.0 rad
  1.0 sr
total surface area  So  4 r 2   r 2

total circumfrance  2 radians
S
  2o sr
infinitesimal area r
of surface of sphere ds  r sin( ) d d
2
ds
d  2  sin( ) d d
r
Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle
radiated in this direction by the antenna.
tot
dPrad W
U  Prad
tot
 U d
d sr
4
tot
dPrad W 2
Prad   Prad
tot
  Pradds
ds m
U r P 2
rad
since Prad ( ,  , r ) decays as 1/r2 in the far field

U ( ,  ) will be independent of r
The power pattern is a trace of the function U ( , ) usually normalized to

its maximum value. The normalized pattern will be defined as U ( , ) .
Radiation Intensity
The power pattern is a trace of the function U ( , ) usually normalized to
its maximum value. The normalized pattern will be defined as U ( , ) .
1~ ~ 1 ~ 1 2
P ( ,, r )  E  H  E  E  E * 2 2
2 2 2
rad
r 2
U ( , )  E  E
2 2
2
U ( , )
U ( , ) 
U max
Directive Gain or Directivity
Directivity of an antenna in a given direction is the ratio of the radiation
intensity in this direction and the radiation intensity averaged over all
directions. The radiation intensity averaged over all directions is equal to
the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4  . If the direction is
not specified, then the direction of maximum radiation is implied
U ( ,) U ( ,) U ( ,)

D( ,)    4
U P P
tot
rad
tot
4
ave rad
U
D  D  4  1 (directivity)
max
P
max o tot
rad
Directivity(D)
The maximum directive gain is called directivity of an antenna and is
denoted by D. where D is constant.
Directivity(D) = Maximum radiation intensity of
test antenna
Average radiation intensity of
test antenna
Or
D = Φ(θ,φ)max both of test antenna
Φav
Cont.,
Directivity(D) = Maximum radiation intensity of subject test
antenna
Radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna
radiating the same total power
Or
D = Φ(θ,φ)max.(test antenna)
Φ0(isotropic antenna)
Directivity of an antenna is in term of the radiated power is given as:

Directivity(D) = Power radiated from a test antenna
Power radiated from an isotropic antenna
D = W’ (from test antenna)

Wn (from isotropic antenna)
Cont.,
Since the average radiation intensity()is obtained by
dividing total radiated W by 4π in steradian is given as:
D = Φ(θ,φ)max.
W
4π
D = 4π Φ(θ,φ)max.
W
Cont.,
D = 4π(maximum radiation intensity)
Total radiated power
Power Gain
The antenna power gain is defined as :
Gp = Power density radiated in a particular direction
by the subject antenna
Power density radiated in that direction by
isotropic antenna.
Assuming the same input power to both Directive gain & Power
gain is related as:
Gp = η Gd
η = Efficiency factor lies between 1 & 0
If η = 1,then Gp = Gd
Cont.,
Gp = Radiation intensity in a given direction

Average total input power
Gp = Φ(θ,φ)
WT
4π
where WT = Wr+Wl = total input power
Wl = Ohmic Loss
Gp = 4π Φ(θ,φ)
WT
Gp = Power input supplied to the subject antenna in the

direction max.radiation
Power antenna supplied to reference antenna
Antenna Gain
The Gain G of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity
U in a given direction and the radiation intensity that would be
obtained, if the power fed to the antenna were radiated
isotropically.
U ( ,  )
G ( ,  )  4
P input
POWER DENSITY IN A CERTAIN DIRECTION

DIRECTIVITY
DIVIDED BY THE TOTAL POWER RADIATED
GAIN POWER DENSITY IN A CERTAIN DIRECTION

DIVIDED BY THE TOTAL INPUT POWER
TO THE ANTENNA TERMINALS (FEED POINTS)
IF ANTENNA HAS OHMIC LOSS…
THEN, GAIN < DIRECTIVITY
Antenna Gain
Sources of Antenna System Loss
1. losses due to impedance mismatches
2. losses due to the transmission line
3. conductive and dielectric losses in the antenna
4. losses due to polarization mismatches
According to IEEE standards the antenna gain does not include losses due to
impedance or polarization mismatches. Therefore the antenna gain only accounts
for dielectric and conductive losses found in the antenna itself. However Balanis
and others have included impedance mismatch as part of the antenna gain.
The antenna gain relates to the directivity through a coefficient called the
radiation efficiency (ηt)
impedance mismatch conduction losses dielectric losses
G ( ,  )    D ( ,  )      D ( ,  )
t r c
d  1 t
Antenna Gains Gi, Gd
• Unless otherwise specified, the gain refers to the
direction of maximum radiation.
• Gain is a dimension-less factor related to power
and usually expressed in decibels
• Gi “Isotropic Power Gain” – theoretical concept,
the reference antenna is isotropic
• Gd - the reference antenna is a half-wave dipole
Gain, Directivity, Radiation Efficiency
• The
directivity
radiation intensity,
and gain are
G ( ,  )   D ( ,  )
measures of the ability of an PT
antenna to concentrate power 
in a particular direction. P0
• Directivity relates to the power
radiated by antenna (P0 ) • : radiation efficiency
(0.5 - 0.75)
• Gain relates to the power
delivered to antenna (PT)
Antenna gain and effective area
• Measure of the effective absorption area presented by
an antenna to an incident plane wave.
• Depends on the antenna gain and wavelength
 2
Ae   G ( ,  ) [m ]
2
4
Aperture efficiency: a = Ae / A
A: physical area of antenna’s aperture, square meters
Overall Antenna Efficiency
The overall antenna efficiency is a coefficient that accounts for all the
different losses present in an antenna system.
 et
         
p r c d p r cd
  polarization mismatches
p
 r
 reflection efficiency (impedance mismatch)
 c
 conduction losses
 d
 dielectric losses
 cd
 conductor & dielectric losses
Reflection Efficiency
The reflection efficiency through a reflection coefficient () at the input (or
feed) to the antenna.
  1 
2
R R
 input generator
R R input generator
R input
 antenna input impedance()
R output
 generator output impedance()
Antenna Input Impedance
Input Impedance (resistance + reactance)

Radiation Resistance (corresponds to energy
that is transmitted)
Loss Resistance
Antenna Input Impedance
Input resistance (red line) and reactance (green line) of a dipole antenna as
a function of antenna length
Radiation Resistance
The radiation resistance is one of the few parameters that is relatively straight
forward to calculate.
2P total 2  U ( ,  ) d 
R  rad
2  4
2
I I
rad
o o
Example: Hertzian Dipole
2 2
   l I  2 
   l I  8
P  U ( , )d  
tot o
   sin ( )  sin( )d d  
2 o

2  4 2  4  3
rad
4
 0 0
2
   l I  8
2   o
2  4  3
2
  l  8 2  l 
2
R        
  3AP/EC-SVCE3   
2
 4P.Jothilakshmi,
rad
I o
Radiation Resistance
Example: Hertzian Dipole (continued)
2
   l I  8
2   o
2  4  3
2
  l  8 2  l 
2
R        
 4 3   
2
 3
rad
I o
1l
l  and   377 
et
 100
2 1
R  377  0.079 
3 10000
rad
 50  7.9 
2
  1    0.0063
 50  7.9 
r
Antenna Radiation Efficiency
Conduction and dielectric losses of an antenna are very difficult to separate and
are usually lumped together to form the η cd efficiency. Let Rcd represent the
actual losses due to conduction and dielectric heating. Then the efficiency is
given as
R
  rad
R  R
cd
cd rad
For wire antennas (without insulation) there is no dielectric losses only conductor
losses from the metal antenna. For those cases we can approximate Rcd by:
l 
R  o
2 b 2
cd
where b is the radius of the wire,  is the angular frequency,  is the conductivity
of the metal and l is the antenna length
Effective Length
The term effective length represents the effectiveness of an
antenna as radiator or collector of electromagnetic wave energy. It
indicates how far an antenna is effective in transmitting or
receiving the electromagnetic wave energy.
Effective Length is the ratio of induced voltage at the terminal of

the receiving antenna under open circuited condition to the
incident electric field intensity (or strength) E. Thus,
Effective Length = Open Circuited Voltage
Incident Field Strength
le =V/E meter or wavelength
Cont.,
For transmitting antenna the effective length is that length of an
equivalent linear antenna that has the same current I(c) (as at terminals
of the actual antenna) at all the points along its length and that radiates
the same field intensity E as the actual antenna.
If I(c)=>Current at the terminals of actual antenna
I(z)=>Current at any point Z of antenna
le=>Effective Length l / 2
l=>Actual Length
I ( c )l e   I ( z )dz
l / 2
l / 2
1
le   I ( z ) dz
I (c )  l / 2
l/2
2
le 
I (c )  I ( z )dz
0
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
STATEMENT: If an emf is applied to the terminals of an antenna no. 1 and
the current measured at the terminals of another antenna no.2 ,then an
equal current both in amplitude and phase will be obtained at the
terminals of antenna no.1 if the same emf is applied to the terminals of
antenna no.2
OR
If a current I1 at the terminals of antenna no. 1 induces emf E21 at the

open terminals of antenna no. 2 and a current I2 at the terminals of
antenna no. 2 induces emf E12 at the open terminals of antenna no. 1
then E21=E12 PROVIDED I1=I2.
ASSUMPTIONS:1)emfs are of same frequency
2)Medium between two antennas are linear passive and
isotropic
3)Generator producing emf and ammeter for producing
current
have zero impedance or if not both the generator an ammeter
impedances are equal.
Cont.,
Transfer Impedance=Z12=E12/I2
Z21 =E21 /I1
From Reciprocity it follows
E12 E21
Z m  Z12  Z 21  
I2 I1
Cont.,
Proof: To prove the reciprocity theorem the space between antenna
1 and antenna 2 is replaced by a network of linear ,passive and
bilateral impedances.
Z11,Z22=>Self Impedance of antenna 1 and 2 respectively
Zm=>Mutual Impedance between two antennas
1 I1 2
Z11 Z22
E12 Zm I2
1 2
2
1
Cont.,
I1
1 2
Z11 Z22
Zm E21
I1 1 2
2
1
Cont.,
Applying kirchoff’s mesh law to loop 2
( Z 22  Z m ) I 2  Z m I1  0
Zm
I 2  I1 Eq1
Z 22  Z m
Applying kirchoff’s mesh law to loop 1
( Z11  Z m ) I1  Z m I 2  E12
2
Zm
( Z11  Z m ) I1  I1  E12
( Z 22  Z m )
2
( Z  Z m )( Z 22  Z m )  Z m
I1 11  E12
( Z 22  Z m )
2 2
Z Z  Z11 Z m  Z 22 Z m  Z m  Z m
I1 11 22  E12
( Z 22  Z m )
Cont.,
2 2
Z 11 Z 22  Z 11 Z m  Z 22 Z m  Z m  Z m
I1  E 12
( Z 22  Z m )
E 12 ( Z 22  Z m )
I1  Eq2
Z 11 Z 22  Z 11 Z m  Z 22 Z m
E 12 ( Z 22  Z m )
I1 
Z 11 Z 22  Z m ( Z 11  Z 22 )
Putting value of I1 from eq 2 in eq 1
E12 ( Z 22  Z m ).Z m
I2 
[ Z11 Z 22  Z m ( Z11  Z 22 )]( Z 22  Z m )
E12 Z m Eq 3
I2 
[ Z11 Z 22  Z m ( Z11  Z 22 )]
Cont.,
Similarly the current I1 can be obtained by symmetry Suffix 2 may be replaced by 1
And vice versa
E21Zm
I1  Eq 4
[Z11Z22  Zm (Z11  Z22 )]
From Eq 3 and Eq 4 it is clear that if E21 and E12 are same then I1=I2
Effective Aperture
The effective antenna aperture is the ratio of the available power at the
terminals of the antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident
upon the antenna. If there is no specific direction chosen, the direction of
maximum radiation intensity is implied.
Aphysical plane wave

Pload
incident
Question: P A
load
W
physical inc
P
Answer: Usually NOT P  A W  A 
load
W
load eff inc eff
P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE inc
Directivity and Maximum Effective Aperture
(no losses)
Antenna #1 Antenna #2
Direction of wave propagation

receiver
transmit
Arm, Dr
Atm, Dt R
 2
A  D
4
em o
Directivity and Maximum Effective Aperture
(include losses)
Antenna #1 Antenna #2
Direction of wave propagation receiver

transmit
Atm, Dt Arm, Dr
R
 2
* 2
A   (1   ) D ˆ  ˆ
2
4
em cd o w a
conductor and dielectric losses

reflection losses (impedance mismatch) polarization mismatch
Friis Transmission Equation (no loss)
Antenna #1
tran Antenna #2
smi
t
rr)
Atm ,
Dt tt)
receive
r
R
Arm , D
r
The transmitted power density supplied by Antenna #1 at a distance R and direction rr)is given by:
P D ( , )
W  t gt t t
4 R
t 2
The power collected (received) by Antenna #2 is given by:
P D ( , ) P D ( , ) D ( , ) 2
P W A  A 
t gt t t t gt t t gr r r
4 R 4 R 4
r t r 2 r 2
2
P   
 r
 D ( , ) D ( , )
P  4 R  P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
gt t t gr r r
t
Friis Transmission Equation (no loss)
Antenna #1
tran Antenna #2
smi
t
rr)
Atm ,
Dt tt)
receive
r
R
Arm , D
r
2
P   

r
 D ( , )D ( , )
P  4R
gt t t gr r r
t
If both antennas are pointing in the direction of their maximum radiation pattern:
2
P   
r
  D (,)D ( , )
P 4R
gt t t gr r r
t
Friis Transmission Equation ( loss)
Antenna #1
tran Antenna #2
smi
t
rr)
Atm ,
Dt tt)
receive
r
R
Arm , D
r
conductor and reflection losses in receiving free space loss factor

dielectric losses (impedance mismatch)
receiving antenna
2
P    2
  (1   )( 1   )   D (  ,  ) D (  ,  ) ˆ  ˆ
2 2 *
r
P  4 R
cdt cdr r t gt t t gr r r w a
t 
conductor and reflection losses in transmitter

dielectric losses (impedance mismatch)
transmitting antenna polarization mismatch
Power Transfer in Free Space
: wavelength [m]
 G P   G 
2 •
P  T
 T R • PR: power available at the
 4 r   4 
R 2 receiving antenna
• PT: power delivered to the
transmitting antenna
  
2
• GR: gain of the transmitting
 PG G   antenna in the direction of the
 4 r 
T T R
receiving antenna
• GT: gain of the receiving
antenna in the direction of the
transmitting antenna
• Matched polarizations
Transmitting antenna equivalent circuit
Antenna
Transmitter Transm. line Radio wave
The transmitter with the transmission line is represented

by an (Thevenin) equivalent generator
jXG jXA
The antenna is represented by its input impedance (which
Generator
is frequency-dependent and is influenced by objects

RG nearby) as seem from the generator
Rr
jXA represents energy stored in electric (Ee) and magnetic
(Em) near-field components; if |Ee| = |Em| then XA = 0
Rl (antenna resonance)
VG Rr represents energy radiated into space (far-field
components)
Rl represents energy lost, i.e. transformed into heat in the
antenna structure
Power transfer: Tx antenna
Transmitter is represented by an eqivalent
generator with VG , RG , X G  const.
Let RA  RR  RL ; RA , X A  var.
jXA The power absorbed by antenna P  I 2 RA
jXG
2
 
VG
I2   
Generator

RG  RG  RA    XG  X A  
2 2
RR 
RA
P  VG2
 RG  RA    XG  X A 
2 2
RA
VG RL
 VG2  RG
P  2 2
R
 G   RA   X G X A 
1      
 RG  R
 G RG 
Cont.,
RA RA
P  VG2 Let X G  X A  0. Then P  VG2
 RG  RA   RG  RA 
2 2
 X G2  2 X G X A  X A2
   
   
2
P  R  2 X  2 X   P 
 VG2  G
R  R  R 2 R  R A 

A A G
 VG2   A G A
2 2  RA 2
X A   RG  RA   2

  RG  RA    X G  X A   
 2
       
P  2 
 0, when X A   X G  R  2 RG RA  RA  2 RG RA  2 RA 
2 2
X A  VG2  G 
2 2
 G
  R  RA   
  
P P P
Maximum :  0  0, when RG  RA
RA X A RA
RA  RG , X A  XG
VG2
P
4 RG
Impedance matching
R A  Rr  Rl  R g
X A  X g
2
Vg
PA 
4RA
2
Vg
Pg   PA 
4Rg
Rr
Pr  P A
 Rr  Rl 
Rl
Pl  P A
 Rr  Rl 
Cont.,
• When the antenna impedance is not matched to the
transmitter output impedance (or to the receiver input
impedance) or to the transmission line between them,
impedance-matching devices must be used for
maximum power transfer
• Inexpensive impedance-matching devices are usually

narrow-band
• Transmission lines often have significant losses
Power vs. field strength
2
E
Pr   E  Pr Z 0
Z0
E  E  E
2 2
E
H 
Z0
Z 0  377 ohms
for plane wave
in free space
Receiving antenna equivalent circuit
Antenna
Radio wave Transm.line Receiver
The antenna with the transmission line is

represented by an (Thevenin) equivalent
jXA generator
jXL The receiver is represented by its input

Rr
Antenna
impedance as seen from the antenna terminals

(i.e. transformed by the transmission line)
Rl RL VA is the (induced by the incident wave) voltage
at the antenna terminals determined when the
antenna is open circuited
VA
Note: The antenna impedance is the same when
Thevenin equivalent the antenna is used to radiate and when it is
used to receive energy
Power transfer
• The maximum power

is delivered to (or
from) the antenna
when the antenna
impedance and the
impedance of the
equivalent generator
(or load) are matched
Cont.,
• When the impedances are matched
– Half of the source power is delivered to the load and half
is dissipated within the (equivalent) generator as heat
– In the case of receiving antenna, a part (Pl) of the power
captured is lost as heat in the antenna elements, , the
other part being reradiated (scattered) back into space
• Even when the antenna losses tend to zero, still only half of the
power captured is delivered to the load (in the case of
conjugate matching), the other half being scattered back into
space
Cont.,
• When the antenna impedance is not matched to the
transmitter output impedance (or to the receiver input
impedance) or to the transmission line between them,
impedance-matching devices must be used for
maximum power transfer
• Inexpensive impedance-matching devices are usually
narrow-band
• Transmission lines often have significant losses
Dipole Antennas
Dipole Antennas (Hertz): simple, old, widely used
- root of many advance antennas
• consists of 2 spread conductors of 2 wire transmission lines
• each conductor is ¼  in length ½
• total span = ½  + small center gap ¼ ¼
Transmission
Distinct voltage & current patterns
Line
driven by transmission line at midpoint gap
• i = 0 at end, maximum at midpoint
• v = 0 at midpoint, vmax at ends i
• purely resistive impedance = 73 +v

• easily matched to many transmission lines -v
High Impedance 2k-3k
Low Impedance 73

HERTZ ANTENNA
• The Hertzian dipole is a theoretical short dipole

(significantly smaller than the wavelength) with
a uniform current along its length.
• A true Hertzian dipole cannot physically exist,
since the assumed current distribution implies an
infinite charge density at its ends, and significant
radiation requires a very high current over its
very short length.
Cont.,
E-field (E) & M-field (B) used to determine radiation pattern
• E goes through antenna ends & spreads out in increasing loops
• B is a series of concentric circles centered at midpoint gap
E B
Cont.,
3-dimensional field pattern is donut shaped
-antenna is shaft through donut center
radiation pattern determined by taking slice of donut
- if antenna is horizontal  slice reveals figure 8
- maximum radiation is broadside to antenna’s arms
Azimuth Pattern Elevation Pattern

Polar Radiation Pattern
HALF WAVE DIPOLE ANTENNA
• The half-wave dipole antenna is just a special case of the
dipole antenna.
• Half-wave term means that the length of this dipole antenna
is equal to a half-wavelength at the frequency of operation.
• The dipole antenna, is the basis for most antenna designs, is
a balanced component, with equal but opposite voltages and
currents applied at its two terminals through a balanced
transmission line.
Cont.,
• To make it crystal clear, if the antenna is to radiate at 600
MHz, what size should the half-wavelength dipole be?
• One wavelength at 600 MHz is = c / f = 0.5 meters.
Hence, the half-wavelength dipole antenna's length is
0.25 meters.
• The half-wave dipole antenna is as you may expect, a
simple half-wavelength wire fed at the center as shown in
Figure
FOLDED DIPOLE
• Folded antenna is a single antenna
but it consists of two elements.
• First element is fed directly while
second one is coupled inductively at
its end.
• Radiation pattern of folded dipole is
same as that of dipole antenna i.e
figure of eight (8).
Advantages
• Input impedance of folded dipole is four times higher
than that of straight dipole.
• Typically the input impedance of half wavelength
folded dipole antenna is 288 ohm.
• Bandwidth of folded dipole is higher than that of
straight dipole.
Intuitive Picture of Radiation
Antenna temperature
Antenna ”sees” a region of radiation through its

directional pattern, the temperature of the region
within the antenna beam determines the
temperature of the radiation resistance.
= Antenna temperature, TA.
Not (directly) related to the physical temperature
within the antenna structure!
P = kTA [W/Hz].
The observed flux density (point source in the
beam)
So = 2kTA / Ae
Cont.,
There are some second order effects to TA from
physical temperature!
Ae: Heat expansion  Ae decreases, increases.
Heat deformation η  Ae
Pn: Heat deformation.
Tsys: Trx includes losses from the waveguides &
transmission lines, may depend on the physical
temperature.
Conversion of everything to temperatures.
Suppose our antenna is inside a cavity with the

walls at temperature T (in kelvin).
It can be shown that the power per unit
frequency picked up by the antenna is
w = kT Watts per Hertz.
Because of this linear relation between a white

noise power spectrum and temperature, it is
customary in radio astronomy to convert all
power spectral densities to ‘ temperatures ’.
Hence:
System temperature
Ttotal = Tsource + Tbackground + Tatmosphere + Tsystem
• Tsource only says something about the real temperature

of the source if
– The source area is >>ΩA, and
– The physical process producing the radio waves really is
thermal.
• Tatmosphere is a few kelvin at about 1 GHz.
• Tbackground may be as much as 300 K if the antenna is
seeing anything of the surroundings! Therefore avoid
this.
• Tsystem again says nothing about the real temperature of
the receiver electronics. Rather it is a figure of merit –
the lower the better.
Cont.,
The more usual way to write the measurement uncertainty:
Ttotal
T 
t 
• Thus the minimum detectable flux is,
2k Ttotal
Smin  
Ae t 
• The minimum detectable brightness:
2k Ttotal
Bmin  2 
• Note:  t 
1. Bmin not dependent on Ae.
2. Factors of 2 only for un-polarized case.

Antenna and Radio Wave Proppagation

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EC2353-Antennas and Wave

Two laws (from Maxwell Equation)

Assume i(t) applied at A with length l = /2

Far from the source, the waves are plane waves:

Using the known values of ε0 and μ0 gives

If the charges encountered a discontinuity (Open Connection,

In a resonant structure, charges continuously oscillate,

superposition of an incident and a

Line with an open-circuit Stationary waves

Line with an open-circuit Stationary waves

Then we have in-

Problem: in practice, there is

Volume charge density Q p

These sources create:

Electric and magnetic fields E (V/m)

Other currents and charges I c

The electric field is proportional

The magnetic field is proportional

The resolution (based on the complex Green's functions)

Laplacian Operator (Divergence of a gradient)

Vector Poisson’s equation

The time delay can be represented as (t-r/c) instead of t.

 Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of

Omnidirectional or only weakly directional antennas which

Directional or beam antennas which are intended to

Resonant Antennas – is a transmission line, the length of

Non-resonant Antennas – the length of these antennas is

Radiation properties include radiation intensity, field

Isotropic Omnidirectional Directional

Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is a angle between two vectors, originating

First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors. Originating

Pattern lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern with

Lobes are classified as: major, minor, side lobes, back

The power pattern and the field patterns are inter-related:

Ex = cos (wt) Ex = cos (wt) Ex = cos (wt) Ex = cos (wt)

LOWER HEMISPHERE: 450 LINEAR

Reactive near-field region

A radian is defined with the aid of Figure a). It is the angle

A steradian may be defined using Figure (b). Here, one steradian

An alternate definition of directivity is then:

Ae Effective area or Effective aperture (square meters)

Aside on Solid Angles

total surface area  So  4 r 2   r 2

since Prad ( ,  , r ) decays as 1/r2 in the far field

The power pattern is a trace of the function U ( , ) usually normalized to

U ( ,) U ( ,) U ( ,)

Directivity of an antenna is in term of the radiated power is given as:

D = W’ (from test antenna)

Gp = Radiation intensity in a given direction

Gp = Power input supplied to the subject antenna in the

POWER DENSITY IN A CERTAIN DIRECTION

GAIN POWER DENSITY IN A CERTAIN DIRECTION

impedance mismatch conduction losses dielectric losses

Input Impedance (resistance + reactance)

Example: Hertzian Dipole

Effective Length is the ratio of induced voltage at the terminal of

If a current I1 at the terminals of antenna no. 1 induces emf E21 at the

From Reciprocity it follows

Aphysical plane wave

Direction of wave propagation

Direction of wave propagation receiver

conductor and dielectric losses