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ii
TITLE
MAY 2019
ii
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini adalah gabungan kejuruteraan struktur, geoteknik, kejuruteraan asas dan
juga geomatik. Kawasan kajian ini ialah di Tanjung Laboh terdapat jeti yang sering
digunakan untuk mencerap data. Oleh kerana faktor berlakunya deformasi dapat
dikesan dengan mudah, pemantauan struktur tersebut perlu dilakukan. Hal ini penting
untuk memastikan struktur tersebut stabil untuk digunakan. Terdapat beberapa faktor
yang menyumbang kepada deformasi di jeti seperti jenis tanah, bahan yang digunakan
untuk membuat jeti dan kaedah pembinaan jeti. Cerapan akan dilakukan sebanyak tiga
(3) kali dalam tempoh enam (6) bulan. Berdasarkan kajian literatur yang telah
dilakukan, Total Station telah dipilih sebagai kaedah untuk memantau jeti kerana
kesesuaian peralatan dan cerapan yang hendak dijalankan. Kajian ini dilakukan dengan
melakukan banyak kajian literatur, melawat kawasan kajian, kerja lapangan, analisis
data, membuat perbincangan dan kesimpulan. Daripada kajian ini, deformasi pada
struktur boleh dikesan jika terdapat perbezaan data dalam tempoh enam (6) bulan
pemerhatian. Selain itu, dengan melakukan kajian ini, tahap awal kegagalan struktur
dapat dikesan dan tindakan dapat dilakukan untuk mengelakkan kegagalan struktur.
Memandangkan kawasan kajian terletak berhampiran kawasan pantai, struktur yang
berada dikawasan ini perlulah stabil dan selamat digunakan.
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CONTENT
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................... ii
CONTENT ............................................................................................ iv
2.6 Summary.................................................................................. 21
v
REFERENCE ........................................................................................................... 33
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................... 37
vi
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
2D - 2 Dimension
3D - 3 Dimension
a - Tilting axis
AutoCAD - Auto Computer-Aided Design
c - Line of sight
CAGeD - Centre of Applied Geomatics for Disaster Prevention
DXF - Drawing Exchange Format
EDM - Electronic Distance Measurement
FKAAS - Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
GPS - Global Positioning System
HA-L - horizontal angle left
HA-R - horizontal angle right
IATS - Image Assisted Total Station
LCD - Liquid-Crystal Display
mgon - miligon
mm - millimetre
PC - prism constant
PPm - atmospheric correction
ppm - parts per million
SD Card - Secure Digital Card
SD - slope distance
SDR-Mapping - Software Designed Ratio Mapping
UAV - Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
VA - vertical angle
ZA - zenith angle
x
LIST OF APPENDICES
INTRODUCTION
Civil structures providing convenience to the community as each one of the structures
have its own purposes such as house, tunnel, factory, dam, bridge and jetty. Nowadays,
the development near the coastline area is increasing rapidly. One of the structure
commonly found near the coastline area is the jetty. The jetty for this study is located
at Tanjung Laboh, Batu Pahat should be monitored and maintained depending on the
risk, importance and factors contribute to deformation.
Tanjung Laboh, Batu Pahat is a fisherman village located at Batu Pahat, Johor
and there are many agricultural activities carried out in this area. But, there are also
structures build around Tanjung Laboh for many purposes. There are jetty, house and
building, and most of the structures are located at Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM) Tanjung Laboh Campus. Jetty Tanjung Laboh is mainly used as a
data observation complex for UTHM students and lecturers. Monitoring and
assessment of the jetty is necessary to allow detecting the early sign of deflection and
the stability of the jetty. From the study, the stability of the structure can be identified.
The factors contribute to decreasing of structural stability can be an aid to
improve maintainability of the jetty. Jetty Tanjung Laboh is built above the seabed
with clay and silt soil. Clays and silts are the most common soil material at Tanjung
Laboh that exposed to deformation due to natural phenomena and human activities.
(Das & Sobhan, 2013) stated that the soil is defined as the mineral grains with
2
uncemented aggregate and decayed organic matter which is solid particles with void
in the solid particles filled with liquid or gas.
The movement of soil at the seabed may cause the structure to have deflection.
This phenomena may affecting the jetty which build by Centre of Applied Geomatics
for Disaster Prevention (CAGeD) as an observation complex. CAGeD is the newest
research centre in Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering (FKAAS), UTHM
that has been established in early 2018. Since the jetty is built to be used for the student
and lecturer, the monitoring must be done to ensure the structure is stable.
permanent material for the modern construction. It is because the bamboo is strong
and can be hold together with ties without any difficulties. Then, it can be released
easily and can be reuse for the next construction. Bamboo is always be used as a main
material for the construction years ago, but with the latest technologies and method
used, the bamboo is not relevant anymore. The disadvantages of bamboo are listed as
follows:
i. Required preservatives for longer lasting.
ii. Low durability: Easy to get fungi attack and easy to deteriorate.
iii. Do not have specific shape due to natural growth.
iv. Easy to catch fire.
v. Bamboo life span is only 2 to 3 years.
vi. Although it is easy to join the 2 pillars together, but the strength of the structure
is low.
vii. Lack of design codes and guidelines.
Among the disadvantages listed above, there are also the advantages of bamboo
which are:
i. Good material for scaffolding, reinforcement, piping, walls and floor.
ii. It is renewable material and environmental friendly.
iii. A good material to be used as a furniture.
iv. Bamboo is stronger than steel.
1.3 Objective
1.4 Scope
The scope of the study will affecting the quality outcome and performance from this
study. Both need to be specified early in this study. The following scopes are:
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The location for this study is at coastal of Tanjung Laboh which is facing the straits of
Melaka. At Tanjung Laboh, there is also UTHM Tanjung Laboh Campus which
located 25 kilometre from the main campus which is at Parit Raja, Batu Pahat. For
future planning, UTHM will also develop Tanjung Laboh Airport as integrated airline
campus and will be the first university in South East Asia that have an airport with
complete facilities, lecture hall, residential college and faculty building. At Tanjung
Laboh, there is a jetty which the student and lecturer frequently used for data
observation. Furthermore, the jetty is also located near UTHM campus that currently
under development.
The observation for this study will be done for three (3) times in period of six (6)
months. The data observation process needs to be done 3 times to detect any changes
in the structure.
Figure 1.2: The equipment used in this study (Total Station, Prism, and Tripod)
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This study is important because the jetty will be used a lot as an observation complex
for research purposes. Considering that this place located along the shoreline area, it
is so important for the structure to be stable and safe to use by the student and lecturer.
If the movement of the structure can be detected at the early stage, an action can be
done in instant to avoid the reconstruction new structure. Furthermore, by detecting
the movement from the jetty at the early stage, the cost for maintenance work is
cheaper than reconstruction.
With this purpose, the need to monitor the structure is as important as
maintaining the structure. In other words, it is to ensure the user’s safety while on the
jetty especially the student and lecturer. To take an initiative, if the movement detected
on the jetty, the responsible party can notify them about the stability of the jetty. From
that, some unwanted issue can be avoided where the sudden structure failure, and the
maintenance can be done accordingly. The life span of the jetty also can be extended.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Coastal area is one of the rapidly developing area in country. There are so many types
of coastal structures that build near the shoreline which are house, jetty, building,
coastal defence structure, and for recreation. According to Kim (2014), the coastal
structure can be designed in small scale depends on the structure considerations. This
statement means that the coastal structure not only specified for buildings but there are
also jetty, coastal defence structure, modified and developed shoreline mainly use for
recreation.
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Coastal defence structure is built near the shoreline to protect and as a breakwater and
to protect the land from erosion. Due to lack of mangrove tree which is natural
breakwater, the man-made structure is needed to avoid the wave effects and energy at
the shoreline (Kamaluddin, 2019). Wave is produced when three major mechanisms
that provide wind, energy, gravitational force and even earthquake disturbing the
surface of water (Ibrahim, 2019). This statement means that the wave is formed
because of the stated phenomena below the sea. The movement of plates on earth also
one of the main reason for the formation of wave. The wave is the main aspect that
need to be highlighted because the forces and energy that hit the shoreline may causing
beach erosion. The types of coastal defence structure approaches are in Table 2.1
below.
Table 2.1: The difference between coastal defence approaches and methodologies
(French, 2001)
Hard Defences Soft Defences Indirect Solutions
Sea walls Beach feeding Building restrictions
Breakwaters Dune building True-cost insurance
Revertments Increasing natural sedimentation Holistic management
Groynes Managed realignment
Gabions Abandonment
Offshore breakwaters Beach drainage
Hard points Do nothing
Armourstone
French (2001) stated that the coastal protection is necessary. From that, a sea
wall is built along the cliff to prevent the cliff loss. However, all these protections will
be useless if the wave impact to the structure is still high. An alternative to reduce
wave impact is a good way to protect the man-made or natural structure at the shoreline.
The method is by placing the wave impact reducer under the sea near the shore. The
purpose of this breakwater is to reduce the wave impact to the cliff or at the beach. The
types of offshore breakwater structure is shown in Figure 2.1.
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2.2.2 Jetty
Other than breakwater structure, jetty also one of the coastal structure. According to
Agerschou (2004), jetty is a structure that projecting into the water. The jetty have
more than two piers which projected into the water. The jetty designed based on its
purposes. Based on Alexander (2016), the most common jetty structure built is type of
suspended concrete which is supported by bearer piles. There is also a deck-on-pile
structure where the typically designed fully decked jetty is suitable for tugs and fishing.
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2.2.3 Seawall
Seawall is a structure that built to protect the land from the harsh wave impact from
the sea. It is usually built to protect the land or cliff which is much higher from the
water surface. The wall must be strong enough to absorb the force and impact from the
sea wave.
According to Simitses & Hodges (2006), a lot of problems occurring at the modern
structural design systems. Some of them are economics factor, the materials used,
temperature effect, cost of the structure, and ease for maintenance. These are the
arising problems associated with the complicated design of the structure. Based on this
statement, it shows that all the structure changing in times so it is very important to
keep the stability of the structure as longest time as possible.
Deformation refers to the changes and displacement of the body that undergoes
different shape, dimension and position of the body. Deformation that happen at large
structures need to be measured in order to ensure that the structure is safe from
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deformation (Wan Aziz et al., 2005). Deformation monitoring has become crucial
nowadays because of the need to ensure the stability and safety of the structure for
public use. Deformation survey is one of the method use to get the precise data of any
movement of the structure, identifying stability information and to monitor the
structure.
According to Adeleke et al. (2013), the risk evolution process of the objects,
areas, and the earth surface can be monitored with the aim to give an early warning to
the disaster and it is one of the main focus of disaster risk management. As technology
improved, the monitoring technology for the structure also at its peak. When the
projects become more complex or the material, construction and design methods are
nonstandard, it is always advisable to measure the deformations, loads, stresses, and
strains of the structure and always monitor the structure at certain period so that the
performance and stability of the structure is satisfactory and ensured (Das & Sobhan,
2011).
JUPEM (1998) stated that deformation monitoring on land is also known as a
land survey activity which is observed repeatedly within specified chosen time with
the purpose to detect the movement of the land or man-made structure. From this
statement, it also proved that the monitoring the stability of the man-made structure is
as important as the land monitoring. The man-made structure may experience
movement due to several factors which taken into consideration.
Deformation of jetty refers to the deformable of the structure to change its shape,
distance and stability. All engineering structures facing possibilities of having
deformation because of several factors. According to Yi et al. (2013), an aging
structure carrying greater loads than predicted when designed has increased the need
to monitor the structure performance. There are so many survey and observation that
have been done to determine the deformation of the jetty. Furthermore, there are also
an observation done to determine the wave direction, impact and height with or without
jetty at the beach and the deformation that happen from it as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Condition of the observation (field value) (Park et al., 2012)
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The table shows that the current formed in the condition with jetties at the
research area which is at Choa-Kwang Stream in Busan City and Imrang Beach of
Korea. This study is done because of the recent urbanization of the area may affecting
the sand bar formation and the stability of the beach. The jetty is proposed as the
solution of the problems. The jetty contributes to the shoreline conservation only if the
jetty is build strong enough as the breakwater at the stream.
Monitoring the structure in the meantime has become so important to avoid the
structure to fail and causing much loss. The main purpose of this analysis is to
determine the deformation of a structure which are the displacements and strain fields
in the domains and space.
The structure build near the coastal area, on soft soil, and near slope have
higher possibility to get deformation because of its geological, geotechnical and
structural aspects. Deformation monitoring of engineering structure after construction
and during operation is to be able detecting the movement and changes of the structure
in a meantime. Any changes of data from the original point proving that the structure
is having minor or major deformation. The advantages and disadvantages of these
three methods for observation is shown in the Table 2.3.
From the table 2.3, there are at least 3 methods that can be used to find jetty
which are by using Total Station, GPS and UAV. It shows that Total Station have more
advantages than GPS and UAV.
15
16
GPS is one of the satellite positioning system which required the data receiving
through satellite retrieved information. This method is also known as one of the
economical and easy to use. It also works well to detect slow displacement movement
of the structure and especially useful at the bridge and dam monitoring. Error in GPS
during data collecting process falls into three categories which are satellite-dependent
error, receiver-dependent error, and signal-dependent error.
Mentioned by Zhang (2014), this system is able to work in high frequency thus
very suitable for deformation monitoring at bridge and railway. The GPS coordinates
have degree of uncertainty and the measurement requiring at least four satellites
tracked in order to compute three dimensional position of the survey location. This
system may work to produce both accuracy and may be beneficial for the data
observation.
GPS have 3 main segments which are the control segment, space segment and
also the user segment, as shown is Figure 2.5. The GPS satellites transmitted signals
to the user and the user will receive the exact data of the location and distance.
The space with satellites located 20200 kilometre from the earth. Mentioned
by Uren & Price (2010), it is necessary to have a great satellite coverage on the earth
with minimum satellites. So, a great care is need to be sure when designing the GPS
17
satellites constellation. The GPS satellites constellation is shown in Figure 2.6. From
the GPS measurement and observation, the X, Y, Z Cartesian coordinates will be
determined along with the height difference. The deformation analysis will be using
the height difference based on the obtained data from the GPS result, and also the data
from levelling obtained and carried out separately (Erol et al., 2004). The analysis from
the observation can have the general review regarding the deformation analysis of the
research area.
Figure 2.6: GPS satellite constellation (Courtesy Leica Geosystem) (Uren & Price,
2010)
In the opinion of Uren & Price (2010), there are three types of errors that need
to take into consideration before doing the observation which are satellite-dependent,
receiver-dependent and signal-dependent. The observer need to be aware that these
errors either can be modelled or using suitable field procedure to minimize an error, or
even removing the error. Knowing these errors are important for the accuracy of the
obtained data.
UAV is known as one of the remote sensing device. UAV is an effective device to
monitor large area of land or a structure. According to Cramer (2011), the digital
18
photogrammetric cameras in the last ten years has been available and commonly used,
and it has been one of the most important and affordable solution for the monitoring
especially at the coastal area. With this monitoring, this allow for the technology of
three dimensional point clouds and digital surface model (DSM) with a quality.
UAV is also widely known as a military device for the military purposes. But
as technology improved, it is also known for one of the surveying method. Nowadays,
the practice of photogrammetric surveys is increasing by using UAV because it can
produce a very detailed image of the land. From this, the geological conditions of the
area also can be determined such as weathering, faults, dip and types of rock. As stated
in Kamaluddin (2019), even though UAV is low cost and there is an accuracy, the
usage of this equipment is only for an accessible area. It is also has limited time and
charge with only 15 to 20 minutes with 0.5 kilogram for operation of UAV. It is limited
to the windy weather also. The equipment will be easily damaged if it is exposed to
the windy and rainy weather.
The types of UAV can be categorized according to the flight duration, speed,
height, and area covered. The Multi-Rotor which is commonly used for aerial
photography and videography. This type of UAV have limited flight period and
endurance. For Micro UAV, it is built for the entertainment such as for the robotic
competition, and photography (Kamaluddin, 2019). It can fly less than 1 hour and have
limited endurance. This UAV is able to reach 10,000 feet from the ground for the
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image taking from the air. The UAV is usually used for military, agriculture,
construction, surveying, and entertainment.
Total Station is one of the surveying equipment to measure horizontal distance, vertical
distance and bearing value at the specific point. It is highly sensitive equipment where
it can detect small changes. With the result that, it also can be used as a tool for
monitoring the structure and detect the displacement and deformation of structure in
the required time. Total Station also have high degree of precision making that the
value is accurate and have been used extensively in surveying engineering. Total
Station have ocular that work like a scope, a handle to make it easier to move it around,
Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD) to display data and units, and many more.
Modern technology provides total stations which are able to measure angles
with an accuracy of ±0.5'' (0.15 mgon), and distances with an accuracy of ±1mm +
1ppm to a range of 3,500m (Leica Geosystems, 2002a) (Hill & Sippel, 2002). From
the Rahim (2019), total station is widely used as a surveying equipment which
commonly used as the combined technology to measure angle and theodolite’s
capabilities by using Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) to measure horizontal
vertical, slope distance and bearing of the certain point.
The major manufacturers of Total Stations has released the Total Station with
integrated cameras. These devices are referred as Image Assisted Total Station (IATS)
and also video-theodolites. These combination are very practical and appealing if the
location of the camera is in the optical path of the telescope, which is at on-axis camera
(Kohut et al., 2013). The type of distances obtained from the Total Station is shown in
Figure 2.8.
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Figure 2.8: horizontal, slope and vertical distances from the Total Station (Uren &
Price, 2010)
Since the waves are being transmitted by Total Station either visible of infrared,
a plane mirror will act as a reflector could be used (Uren & Price, 2010). It needs to be
accurately aligned with the mirror because the reflector may be narrow spread making
the data is not accurate. The glass reflector that is used is called prism. There are two
types of prisms which are short distance measurement (small prism) and long distance
measurement (large prism). The prisms are attached to the tripod on site.
Furthermore, Total Station can measure distance without using the reflector.
The total station just need to shoot at the target to measure the distance. It can be done
especially with a difficult target. According to Coaker (2009), the reflector-less
measurement only becoming commonly becoming the in-built to the total station. It is
providing an easy and quick measurement with an accurate data. The range of these
equipment have increasing and exceeding 1500 meters for the white targets or hundred
meters for darker targets. Notably, this reflector-less total station still have some
limitations and still lack on research for it as the day-to-day surveying.
After survey on site, the obtained data need to be process and to be compared from all
the observations so that the differences can be detected.
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2.6 Summary
This chapter explained about the stability and the method used for monitoring. All the
factors have been considered. The movement from the structure can happen based on
the several factors which are the natural phenomena, type of soil, and the material of
the structure. Based on site visit at the study area, the most suitable method that can be
used at the jetty is monitoring by using Total Station. It is because the jetty need to
have fixed point but if using GPS or UAV, it is difficult to fix the point on jetty since
the material of the jetty is bamboo.
The case studies also providing information and methods for stability survey.
The method chosen based on the suitability of the study area and the equipment
provided. It is also important to properly understand the function and how to operate
the equipment and software that will be used. So, it is necessary to learn and collect
information from previous study.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter will be explained about the step and process to ensure that the processes
of this research will be carried out systematically. This chapter consist of six (6) sub-
sections to be explained in detail. The reason why this research need to be done as
planned and systematic because of the importance to make the objectives of the
research achieved. Figure 3.1 is this study’s work flow which is done from the
beginning until it is done.
The topic have been chosen at first week of the semester which is 19th February 2019.
The topic chosen is “Monitoring the Structure Stability of CAGeD Field Observation
Complex”. This topic is chosen to determine the stability of the structure and factors
contribute to deflection at the jetty by using Total Station as a method by observe
distance and bearing of the study area.
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START
Literature review
• Collecting information by reading case studies, journal and thesis.
• Finding the best method to carry out this study
• Find the most suitable method that can be used to monitor the
structure
Site investigation
• Location recognition
• Find suitable place for control points
• Establish the control points for each observation points
Field work
• Find distance and bearing for each points on jetty
• Three (3) observations in within six (6) months
END
In this phase of study, it is required to do a field work by fixing the reference points,
control points and points at jetty. For points on land, the method used is by dig a hole
and cast a cement inside the hole. Then for the central point on it, the nail and pipe are
used. The method is shown in Figure 3.2 below.
Next, for the points on jetty, the points is fixed at the bamboo by using nail. It
is important for the nail to be properly attached to the bamboo so that an actual and
accurate data for deformation on jetty can be obtained. The nail is placed at the bamboo
as central point for the reflector that being used, which is prism during the first
observation.
The equipment used are Total Station, tripod and prism. The prism will be
place on the central point on jetty and will be level with bubble before taking data. All
the collected data on site will be updated at the end of the observation. The collection
of data on site is important as it will be the main reason to achieve the objectives of
this study.
26
Figure 3.3: The reference points, control points and observation points of the study
area
The observation points placed on the jetty divided into 5 parts with 2 points
labelled as 1 and 2. Meanwhile, on the land, the points are divided into two parts which
are reference and control point. All these points will be referred as traverse points as
shown in Figure 3.3.
The data observation done based on the reference points from R1 and R2 to the target
points on jetty. The control points are measured to R1 and R2 by using a Total Station
to obtain distance and bearing. The reason why there are reference points is being
control by the control points is because to make sure that the data obtained for
deformation is not from the land deformation, but from the jetty. The work procedures
are:
i. The reference and control points are placed on the flat surface on land. The nail
is attached on the each points as a fixed point to avoid the points from moving.
27
ii. The target points are on jetty and fixed by using nail that attached to the bamboo.
iii. There 10 target points, 2 reference points and 3 control points.
iv. The Total Station is levelled at C1 and prism is levelled at C2. The bearing is
set to 0’ 00’ 00’’ while pointed at C2.
v. Press {MEAS} to get the distance from C1 to C2.
vi. Rotate the Total Station to T1 and press {MEAS} and get the bearing and
distance of that target point.
vii. Measure for all ten (10) target points which are located on jetty.
viii. Record all data.
ix. Step iv until viii is repeated for the next reference point, R2.
x. Step iv until viii are repeated for second and third observation by measuring
only bearing and directly point to the nail.
xi. All the data obtained which are the distance and bearing are calculated.
xii. From the calculation, the coordinates of the observation obtained and compared.
Figure 3.4: Total Station position towards the target points on jetty
After the first observation, for the next months, the second and third observation
is done by using the same work procedure. All the possible errors need to be taken into
consideration especially the equipment errors and setting up errors. It is because to
avoid inaccuracy for the end result.
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The data obtained is process to determine the stability of each points from all the three
observations where the data output is compared. From the comparison done, the range
of failure or the movement of the observed structure can be determined if there the
data obtained from all the observations are different.
29
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter will be explained about the data analysis throughout the observation. All
the data which obtained from all observation will be presented in this chapter. Based
on the distance and bearing, the coordinate value obtained calculate by using latitude
and departure method. The calculation need to be done so that it could be used to
process the data by using STAR*NET software.
All the distance and bearing obtained from each observation recorded in tabulated form.
The distance and bearing calculated to get the coordinates for each target by using
Latitude and Departure method. From that, the data can be simplified by process it by
using STAR*NET software. The formula used to calculate Latitude and Departure are:
Latitude = D × cos Ø
Departure = D × sin Ø
Where D is the distance of the observation and Ø is the bearing angle
The coordinates calculated are analyzed by using STAR*NET software and the
result shown in the software shows the difference or displacement for each point.
30
C1 C2
C1 R1
C1 R2
C3 C2
C3 R1
C3 R2
R1 C1
R1 T1
R1 T2
R1 T3
R1 T4
R1 T5
R1 T6
R1 T7
R1 T8
R2 C1
R2 T1
R2 T2
R2 T3
R2 T4
R2 T5
R2 T6
R2 T7
R2 T8
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Alexander, M. G. (2016). Marine Concrete Structures: Design, Durability and
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Precision and Reliability. University of Southern Queensland: Degree’s Final
Year Project.
Cramer, M. (2011). Geometry Perfect – Radiometry Unknown ? Photogrammetric
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Das, B. M. & Sobhan K. (2016). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI Edition.
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Das, B. M. (2011). Principles of Foundation Engineering, SI. 7th ed. United States of
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APPENDIX
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APPENDIX A
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APPENDIX B