DEVELOPMENTAL

READING 1 & 2

Dr. Remedios C. Bacus

Cebu Normal University
Slide Title
Can you guess these words and expressions?
 Theory of
Literacy
Development
The theory was developed by
Holdaway in 1979 and it states
that learning to read was a
natural development that is
closely linked to a child’s natural
development of oral language
skills. Holdaway’s theory of
literacy further contends that
literacy development begins in
children’s homes and is based on
meaningful learning experiences.
There are four key components in this theory as itemized by (Godwin etal, 2013):

(a) Observation -which demand that children need to have the

opportunity to observe literacy behaviours from others. For example,
parents and siblings to read for them.
(b) Collaboration – this require that children need to interact with
others who provide encouragement and help with the reading
process.
(c) Practice – children need the opportunity to practice alone in order
to self-evaluate, make corrections and increase their skills
independently.
(d) Performance – children need the opportunity to share their new
reading skills with those who support them.
Emergent
Literacy
Theory
In other ways, Emergent Literacy
Theorists believe that children’s
listening, speaking, reading, and
writing skills begin at birth, it also
emphasizes the importance of a
literacy rich home environment. This
early literacy development provides
educators with instructional
guidance to promote early literacy
growth among their students.
Components of a literacy rich home
environment include; having large
number of books available in the
home, newspapers and magazines.
• Marie Clay (1966) was the first one who used the term
emergent literacy. Emergent literacy refers to the
competencies and skills in early childhood.
• Emergent or emerging means that the children are always in
the process of becoming literate, probably since they are just
few months old(Teale,1987)
• Sulzby (1991) defines literacy as the reading and writing
behaviors of young children that precede and develop into
conventional literacy.
 How do a
child learn a
language?
 Theories of Language Acquisition
Do they learn it:
-because their parents or adults teach it to them?
- because they are genetically programmed to acquire a
language?
- because it is just there, thus they can't help learning it?
-in the service of some need to communicate with others
and to meet their needs through language?
- because their mental productivity forces them to emit
their production so that others may know it and because
the same productivity forces them to have insight what
others emit?
 THEORIES

üInnatist (Chomsky)
üBehaviorist (Skinner)
üCognitivist (Piaget)
üSocial Interactionist
(Bruner)
 Stages of Language
Development
• Stage 1- Holophrastic Stage- (10-12 mos.)- the child speaks one
word at a time.
Holophrases- one word utterances
• Stage 2- Joining Stage- (18-24 mos.)-producing two and three word
utterance
• Stage 3 –The Combining Stage- (age 3)- structures of questions and
negation evolves.
• Stage 4- Recursive Stage- (3.5-4 mos.)- develops first complex
sentences.
• Stage 5- Toward the adult Stage- vocabulary expands enormously;
language functions change and expand.
 READING defined
• Reading as the process of constructing meaning from
written texts (Richard Anderson)
• Reading is an interactive process between the author and
the reader (W.K. Brunan)
• Reading comprehension is defined as the level of
understanding of a text/message. This understanding
comes from the interaction between the words that are
written and how they trigger knowledge outside the
text/message (Keith Rayner)
• Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game (Goodman)
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• This message serves to prove how our minds can do amazing things!
Impressive things! In the beginning it was hard but now, on this line
your mind is reading it automatically without even thinking about it, be
proud! Only certain people can read this. Please forward if you can read
this.
• I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty
uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg.The
phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid,
aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde
Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the
ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng
is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit
pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you
can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm.
• (Source:http://www.sunbeltsoftware.com/stu/human_mind)
I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg.The phaonmneal
pweor of the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't
mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and
lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it
wouthit a porbelm.

• I couldn’t believe that I could actually understand what I was

reading. The phenomenal power of the human mind, according to a
research at Cambridge University, it doesn’t matter in what order the
letters in a word are, the only important thing is that the first and
last letter be in the right place. The rest can be a total mess and you
can still read it without a problem.
STAGES of the Reading Process

üWord perception
üComprehension
üReaction
üIntegration
 STAGES of the Reading Process
• The first step which is word perception is the ability
to pronounce the word as a meaningful unit. The
second step which is comprehension is the skill in
making individual word construct useful ideas as they
are read in context. Reaction, the third step, is a
judgment on what the author has said. The last step,
integration is the ability to assimilate idea or concept
into one’s background of experience so that it is
useful as part of the individual’s total experience.
 Reading as a
Total Integrative Process
(1) the affective
(2) the perceptual, and
(3) the cognitive
 READING MODELS

TOP DOWN READING

BOTTOM UP MODEL

INTERACTIVE MODEL
 TOP DOWN
READING MODEL

• Emphasizes what the reader brings to the text

• Says reading is driven by meaning
• Proceeds from whole to part

Frank Smith – Reading is not decoding written language to spoken

language. It is a matter of bringing meaning to print
 TOP DOWN READING
MODEL- Features
1. Readers can comprehend a selection even though they do not recognize each
word.
2. Readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify unrecognized
words.
3. Reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading, rather than mastery of
letters, letters/sound
4. Reading requires the use of meaning activities than the mastery of series of word-
recognition skills.
5. The primary focus of instruction should be the reading of sentences, paragraphs,
and whole selections
6. The most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of information
gained through reading.
BOTTOM UP
READING MODEL

• Emphasizes a single direction

• Emphasizes the written or printed texts
• Part to whole model
• Reading is driven by a process that results in meaning
BOTTOM UP READING
MODEL- Features

Believes the reader needs to:

1. Identify letter features
2. Link these features to recognize letters
3. Combine letter to recognize spelling patterns
4. Link spelling patterns to recognize words
5. Proceed to sentence, paragraph, and text- level processing
INTERACTIVE
READING MODEL
• It recognizes the interaction of bottom- up and top-down
processes simultaneously throughout the reading process.
• Reading as an active process that depends on reader
characteristics, the text, and the reading situation
(Rumelhart, 1985)
• Attempts to combine the valid insights of bottom-up and
top-down models.
Four stages of word development
1. Pre-alphabetic Stage/Logographic
2. Partial Alphabetic Stage
3. Full Alphabetic Stage
4. The Consolidated
Alphabetic Stage
Logographic Stage
COMPONENTS OF
READING INSTRUCTION
The National Reading Panel Report did not include
spelling as one of the essential components of
reading. The report implied that phonemic
awareness and phonics instruction had a positive
effect on spelling in the primary grades and that
spelling continues to develop in response to
appropriate reading instruction. However, more
recent research challenges at least part of the
National Reading Panel's assumption. A group of
researchers found that, although students' growth
in passage comprehension remained close to
average from first through fourth grade, their
spelling scores dropped dramatically by third grade
and continued to decline in fourth grade (Mehta et
al., 2005). Progress in reading does not necessarily
result in progress in spelling. Spelling instruction is
needed to develop students’ spelling skills.
Phonemic Awareness
• Phonemes, the smallest units making up spoken language, combine to form
syllables and words. Phonemic awareness refers to the student’s ability to
focus on and manipulate these phonemes in spoken syllables and words.

Phonics
• Phonics is the relationship between the letters (or letter combinations) in
written language and the individual sounds in spoken language. Phonics
instruction teaches students how to use these relationships to read and spell
words.
Fluency
• Fluent readers are able to read orally with appropriate speed, accuracy, and
proper expression. Fluency is the ability to read as well as we speak and to
make sense of the text without having to stop and decode each word.

Vocabulary
• Vocabulary development is closely connected to comprehension. The larger
the reader’s vocabulary (either oral or print), the easier it is to make sense of
the text.
Text Comprehension
• Comprehension is the complex cognitive process readers use to
understand what they have read. Vocabulary development and
instruction play a critical role in comprehension.

Spelling
 Factors that Affect Reading Progress

• 1.Cerebral Dominance- laterality of the individual is affected by the

dominance in the two hemispheres of the brain.
• 2. Directional Orientation-spatial and directional orientation underlie
in all aspects of perception- visual. auditory, tactile and kinesthetic.
• 3.Maturation- lag in the maturation of the brain part neopallium can
slow down intellectual and emotional development.
• 4. Intelligence- mental aptitude is considered a crucial factor in reading
growth and development
• 5. Visual Auditory Efficiency-Visual and auditory acuity are basic to
success in reading.
 Factors that Affect Reading Progress
• 6.Language Proficiency- linguistic factor is a major importance in the acquisition of
reading power.
• 7. Perception and Conceptualization- ability to perceive and conceptualize is
essential in the acquisition of and growth in reading skills.
• 8. Listening Comprehension- listening and reading are both receptive acts which
are requisites to comprehension.
• 9.Personality and Emotional Factors-personality traits. emotional condition and
reading achievement shape instructional procedure to a great extent.
• 10. Environmental factors- conditions related to personal relations, intragroup
relation, home condition contribute to progress or failure in reading skills.
• 11. Socio-economic status, mobility, education and attitudes of parents, home
conditions, some school variables and general physical condition.
Stages of the Reading Process
• -guide in determining the reading skills
of a particular child or the whole class.
 Stage 1: The Emergent Pre-reader (typically
between 6 months to 6 years old)
• “The emergent pre-reader sits on ‘beloved laps,’ samples
and learns from a full range of multiple sounds, words,
concepts, images, stories, exposure to print, literacy
materials, and just plain talk during the first five years of
life. The major insight in this period is that reading never
just happens to anyone. Emerging reading arises out of
years of perceptions, increasing conceptual and social
development, and cumulative exposures to oral and written
language.” (Wolf, 2008, p 115)
• By the end of this stage, the child “pretends” to read, can -
over time - retell a story when looking at pages of book
previously read to him/her, can names letters of alphabet;
can recognises some signs; can prints own name; and plays
with books, pencils and paper. The child acquires skills by
being dialogically read to by an adult (or older child) who
responds to the child’s questions and who warmly
appreciates the child’s interest in books and reading. The
child understand thousands of words they hear by age 6
but can read few if any of them.
 Stage 2: The Novice Reader (typically between 6
to 7 years old)
• In this stage, the child is learning the relationships between
letters and sounds and between printed and spoken words.
The child starts to read simple text containing high frequency
words and phonically regular words, and uses emerging skills
and insights to “sound out” new one-syllable words. There is
direct instruction in letter-sound relations (phonics). The child
is being read to on a level above what a child can read
independently to develop more advanced language patterns,
vocabulary and concepts. In late Stage 2, most children can
understand up to 4000 or more words when heard but can
read about 600.
 Stage 3: The Decoding Reader (typically between
7 - 9 years old)
• In this stage, the child is reading simple, familiar stories and
selections with increasing fluency. This is done by
consolidating the basic decoding elements, sight vocabulary,
and meaning in the reading of familiar stories and selections.
There is direct instruction in advanced decoding skills as well
as wide reading of familiar, interesting materials. The child is
still being read to at levels above their own independent
reading level to develop language, vocabulary and concepts. In
late Stage 3, about 3000 words can be read and understood
and about 9000 are known when heard. Listening is still more
effective than reading.
 Stage 4: The Fluent, Comprehending Reader
(typically between 9 - 15 years old)
By this stage, reading is used to learn new ideas in order to gain new
knowledge, to experience new feelings, to learn new attitudes, and to
explore issues from one or more perspectives. Reading includes the
study of textbooks, reference works, trade books, newspapers, and
magazines that contain new ideas and values, unfamiliar vocabulary
and syntax. There is a systematic study of word meaning, and learners
are guided to react to texts through discussions, answering questions,
generating questions, writing, and more. At beginning of Stage 4,
listening comprehension of the same material is still more effective
than reading comprehension. By the end of Stage 4, reading and
listening are about equal for those who read very well, reading may be
more efficient.
 Stage 5: The Expert Reader (typically from 16
years and older)
• By this stage, the learner is reading widely from a broad
range of complex materials, both expository and narrative,
with a variety of viewpoints. Learners are reading widely
across the disciplines, include the physical, biological and
social sciences as well as the humanities, politics and
current affairs. Reading comprehension is better than
listening comprehension of materials of difficult content
and readability. Learners are regularly asked to plan writing
and synthesise information into cohesive, coherent texts.
Stage 1- Emergent Reader
• -beginning reader
• -basic concepts of print Stages of the
• -picture analysis Reading Process
• -sound letter recognition
Stage 2- Early reader
• -word recognition strategies
• -sight words
• -print reading
Stage 3- Transitional reader
• -towards fluent reading
• -reading of lengthy texts
• -little reliance in picture Stages of the
Stage 4- Self Extending Reader Reading Process
• -independent reading
• -reading various texts
• -reading for information
• -gradual speed in reading
• Stage 5-Advanced/Fluent Reader
• -mastery in reading
Stages of the
• -proficient comprehension
Reading Process
• -reading for pleasure
• -interpretive reading
• -internalized reading strategies
 Conventional spelling
Stages of Writing Development
 Skills in Reading (Study Skills and
Comprehension)
1. PQRST Method- helps students focus on studying and prioritizing
the information that relates directly to how they will use that
information.
• Preview- looking at the topic by glancing over the major
headings or the points in the reading material.
• Question-formulating queries that maybe answered. That the
student wants to learn.
• Read- reading through the material that relates to the topic.
• Summary- put together the information read.
• Test- Assessing whether focus has remained.
Skills in Reading (Study Skills and
Comprehension)
 Skills in Reading (Study Skills and
Comprehension)
3. SQ4R Method
• Survey- to develop general idea of the structure.
• Question- asking oneself a question which serve to keep
the reader more involved in the material read.
• Read- reading carefully and trying to answer questions.
• Write- write down the answers to the questions formerly
read.
• Recite- reciting what has been read.
• Review- key to figuring out what one knows and what one
needs to concentrate on.
 Skills in Reading (Study Skills and
Comprehension)
4. PQ4R
• Preview-survey the chapter to determine the general topics
being read.
• Questions- making questions about the section.
• Read- reading the section carefully trying to answer the
questions one has made.
• Reflect - reflecting on the text as one is reading. Relate the
material to prior knowledge.
• Recite-recite the portion one had trouble remembering.
• Review- mental recalling of the main points.
 THE TAXONOMY OF READING
COMPREHENSION
Literal Comprehension
• The ability to obtain a low- level type of understanding by
using only information explicitly stated in the text.
• Answers to literal questions simply demand that the
reader recall what the text says.
• Word recognition is included here. It is obvious that not
even literal comprehension can occur unless the reader
recognizes the word in the passage.
 THE TAXONOMY OF READING
COMPREHENSION
Interpretation
• Demands a higher level of thinking because the questions are concerned
with answers not directly stated in the text but are suggested or implied
• It is at this level the most confusion exists when it comes to categorizing
skills. The confusion concerns the term inference.
• Inference may be defined as “something derived by reasoning; something
that is not directly stated but suggested in the statement; a logical
conclusion that is drawn from statements; a deduction, an induction.”
• The specific skill of “reading between the lines” is the one that teachers
refer to when they say that they are teaching inference.
• Grasping fully the author’s ideas and their supplementary meanings
 THE TAXONOMY OF READING
COMPREHENSION
Evaluation (Critical Reading)
• This level involves the making of a personal judgment on the text by the
reader.
• You can critically look at the text in two aspects:
• The content on theme: its accuracy, value truthfulness, objectivity,
relevance
• Elements of style: the use of language and literary devices
• Judging the worth of ideas and effectiveness of presentation
• Here are some questions, the answers to which require evaluation:
• Could this really happen? (This judgment is based on experience)
• What part of the story best describes the main character? (This requires
judging the different parts of the selection to answer the question.)
 THE TAXONOMY OF READING
COMPREHENSION
Creative Reading
• Users divergent thinking skills to come up with new ideas
or alternate solutions presented by the writer.
• You also creative reading when you reproduce the text
information in a different form through dramatization,
oral or musical interpretation, personal narrative, visual
expression, or written expression
• Reading to use the author’s ideas as a springboard to
new ideas
Reading Skills
INFERRING
Oftentimes, the information you are looking for in what you
read is not directly stated in the text. You still have to read
between the lines. Reading between the lines requires a
kind of sensitivity on your part, so that you will be able to
use some clues, link them to your own experiences and
arrives at the “new” desired information. When you do this
you do inferring. Inferring occurs when you mentally
explore and take a position in relation to the facts and
related details.
 Reading Skills
MAKING GENERALIZATIONS
Reading to generalize is a type of comprehension in which
the important elements within a passage are related to one
another so that they can be combined into a principle,
generalization or conclusion. Formulating a generalization is
in a sense a specialized form of summarizing. The reader
needs to note specific instances and then decide whether
the data presented are sufficient to warrant a significant
conclusion.
Pointers
1. Know what topic is being discussed. Take note of
the facts presented whether implied or directly stated.
2. Find out how the sentences related to one
another in content.
3. State a general idea that will include all the sub-
ideas expressed in each sentence.
 Reading Skills
GETTING THE MAIN IDEA
• Getting the main idea is similar to finding the most important thing an
author is trying to say.
• The main idea of the paragraph is a general statement of the content of
the paragraph. It is what the paragraph develops. It is the central thought
of the paragraph.
• The main idea provides order, progression, and unity of the paragraph
by tying together the sentences. Without the main idea, the paragraph
would be nothing but a collection of unrelated ideas.
• Recognition of the main idea of a paragraph is important because it is
not only helps you understand the paragraph but also helps you
remember the content.
Pointers
1. Find out what common elements or ideas the sentences share. This will be clues
as to what the paragraph is all about.
2. The presentational style may provide clues in finding the main idea. In some
paragraphs, the main idea is placed at the beginning of the paragraph. In others, it
may come at the end in the form of a summary statement. In some paragraphs, the
main idea is indirectly given and you have to use other clues by the author in order
to know it.
3. Remember that well- written paragraph is written about someone or something.
The someone or something is the topic. The main idea is the important information
about the topic.
4. A topic sentence may or may not contain the main idea.
5. See to it that the main idea statement is not so general that it suggests
information that is not given in the paragraph.
Reading Skills
PREDICTING OUTCOMES
• Reading to predict outcomes is a kind of reading where the reader is made
to identify an expected outcome or probable consequence based on certain
tendencies or trends observed. Just like in making a generalization, in order
to be able to predict outcomes, one must see the relationships between the
given facts first. Then the reader foretells a possible outcome. This skill is in
effect an aspect of what is considered active reading in which the reader
assumes an attitude of anticipation. This kind of thinking about the reading
material requires estimation beyond the data presented.
• In reading current events this skill is frequently employed. The reader
analyzes current happenings and based on his analysis predicts possible
consequences. The accuracy of his prediction depends in some measure
upon his ability to read, to appraise and to estimate the trends.
• Finding the Main Idea of the Paragraph
• Drawing Inferences
• Categorizing
• Understanding Analogies
• Finding Inconsistencies
• Noting Details
• Distinguishing between Fact and Opinion
• Detecting Propaganda Techniques and Bias
 4 Cueing Systems
• 1. Grapho-phonemic cues- the symbols in print and
the phonemes (speech sound) they represent
• 2. Syntactic cues- pertain to the order, rules,
grammar, punctuation
• 3. Semantic cues- using prior knowledge, context
clues , visual media to determine the meaning
• 4. Pragmatic cues- determining signs and symbols
(e.g. words with multiple meanings)
• Vocabulary Levels Test by Paul Nation
For you to know your Vocabulary Size