Vectors - Motion and Forces in Two Dimensions - Lesson 1 - Vectors: Fundamentals and Operations

Vector Addition
 Vectors and Direction
 Vector Addition
 Resultants
 Vector Components
 Vector Resolution
 Component Addition
 Relative Velocity and Riverboat Problems
 Independence of Perpendicular Components of Motion
A variety of mathematical operations can be performed with and upon vectors. One
such operation is the addition of vectors. Two vectors can be added together to
determine the result (or resultant). This process of adding two or more vectors has
already been discussed in an earlier unit. Recall in our discussion of Newton's laws of
motion, that the net force experienced by an object was determined by computing the
vector sum of all the individual forces acting upon that object. That is the net force was
the result (or resultant) of adding up all the force vectors. During that unit, the rules for
summing vectors (such as force vectors) were kept relatively simple. Observe the
following summations of two force vectors:

These rules for summing vectors were applied to free-body diagrams in order to
determine the net force (i.e., the vector sum of all the individual forces). Sample
applications are shown in the diagram below.
In this unit, the task of summing vectors will be extended to more complicated cases in
which the vectors are directed in directions other than purely vertical and horizontal
directions. For example, a vector directed up and to the right will be added to a vector
directed up and to the left. The vector sum will be determined for the more complicated
cases shown in the diagrams below.

There are a variety of methods for determining the magnitude and direction of the
result of adding two or more vectors. The two methods that will be discussed in this
lesson and used throughout the entire unit are:
 the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric methods
 the head-to-tail method using a scaled vector diagram

The Pythagorean Theorem

The Pythagorean theorem is a useful method for determining the result of adding two
(and only two) vectors that make a right angle to each other. The method is not
applicable for adding more than two vectors or for adding vectors that are not at 90-
degrees to each other. The Pythagorean theorem is a mathematical equation that
relates the length of the sides of a right triangle to the length of the hypotenuse of a
right triangle.

To see how the method works, consider the following problem:

Eric leaves the base camp and hikes 11 km, north and then hikes 11 km east.
Determine Eric's resulting displacement.

This problem asks to determine the result of adding two displacement vectors that are
at right angles to each other. The result (or resultant) of walking 11 km north and 11
km east is a vector directed northeast as shown in the diagram to the right. Since the
northward displacement and the eastward displacement are at right angles to each
other, the Pythagorean theorem can be used to determine the resultant (i.e., the
hypotenuse of the right triangle).

The result of adding 11 km, north plus 11 km, east is a vector with a magnitude of 15.6
km. Later, the method of determining the direction of the vector will be
discussed.
Let's test your understanding with the following two practice problems. In each
case, use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the magnitude of the vector sum.
When finished, click the button to view the answer.
 See Answer to Practice A

R2 = (5)2 + (10)2
R2 = 125
R = SQRT (125)
R = 11.2 km

See Answer to Practice B

R2 = (30)2 + (40)2
R2 = 2500
R = SQRT (2500)
R = 50 km

Using Trigonometry to Determine a Vector's Direction

The direction of a resultant vector can often be determined by use of trigonometric
functions. Most students recall the meaning of the useful mnemonic SOH CAH TOA from
their course in trigonometry. SOH CAH TOA is a mnemonic that helps one remember
the meaning of the three common trigonometric functions - sine, cosine, and tangent
functions. These three functions relate an acute angle in a right triangle to the ratio of
the lengths of two of the sides of the right triangle. The sine function relates the
measure of an acute angle to the ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle to
the length of the hypotenuse. The cosine function relates the measure of an acute
angle to the ratio of the length of the side adjacent the angle to the length of the
hypotenuse. The tangent function relates the measure of an angle to the ratio of the
length of the side opposite the angle to the length of the side adjacent to the angle.
The three equations below summarize these three functions in equation form.

These three trigonometric functions can be applied to the hiker problem in order to
determine the direction of the hiker's overall displacement. The process begins by the
selection of one of the two angles (other than the right angle) of the triangle. Once the
angle is selected, any of the three functions can be used to find the measure of the
angle. Write the function and proceed with the proper algebraic steps to solve for the
measure of the angle. The work is shown below.
Once the measure of the angle is determined, the direction of the vector can be found.
In this case the vector makes an angle of 45 degrees with due East. Thus, the direction
of this vector is written as 45 degrees. (Recall from earlier in this lesson that the
direction of a vector is the counterclockwise angle of rotation that the vector makes
with due East.)

The Calculated Angle is Not Always the Direction

The measure of an angle as determined through use of SOH CAH TOA is not always the
direction of the vector. The following vector addition diagram is an example of such a
situation. Observe that the angle within the triangle is determined to be 26.6 degrees
using SOH CAH TOA. This angle is the southward angle of rotation that the vector R
makes with respect to West. Yet the direction of the vector as expressed with the CCW
(counterclockwise from East) convention is 206.6 degrees.

Test your understanding of the use of SOH CAH TOA to determine the vector
direction by trying the following two practice problems. In each case, use SOH CAH
TOA to determine the direction of the resultant. When finished, click the button to view
the answer.

See Answer to Practice A

See Answer to Practice B

In the above problems, the magnitude and direction of the sum of two vectors is
determined using the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric methods (SOH CAH
TOA). The procedure is restricted to the addition of two vectors that make right angles
to each other. When the two vectors that are to be added do not make right angles to
one another, or when there are more than two vectors to add together, we will employ
a method known as the head-to-tail vector addition method. This method is described
below.

Use of Scaled Vector Diagrams to Determine a Resultant

The magnitude and direction of the sum of two or more vectors can also be determined
by use of an accurately drawn scaled vector diagram. Using a scaled diagram,
the head-to-tail method is employed to determine the vector sum or resultant. A
common Physics lab involves a vector walk. Either using centimeter-sized displacements
upon a map or meter-sized displacements in a large open area, a student makes
several consecutive displacements beginning from a designated starting position.
Suppose that you were given a map of your local area and a set of 18 directions to
follow. Starting at home base, these 18 displacement vectors could be added
together in consecutive fashion to determine the result of adding the set of 18
directions. Perhaps the first vector is measured 5 cm, East. Where this measurement
ended, the next measurement would begin. The process would be repeated for all 18
directions. Each time one measurement ended, the next measurement would begin. In
essence, you would be using the head-to-tail method of vector addition.

The head-to-tail method involves drawing a vector to scale on a sheet of paper

beginning at a designated starting position. Where the head of this first vector ends,
the tail of the second vector begins (thus, head-to-tail method). The process is
repeated for all vectors that are being added. Once all the vectors have been added
head-to-tail, the resultant is then drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of
the last vector; i.e., from start to finish. Once the resultant is drawn, its length can be
measured and converted to real units using the given scale. The direction of the
resultant can be determined by using a protractor and measuring its counterclockwise
angle of rotation from due East.
A step-by-step method for applying the head-to-tail method to determine the sum of
two or more vectors is given below.
1. Choose a scale and indicate it on a sheet of paper. The best choice of scale is one
that will result in a diagram that is as large as possible, yet fits on the sheet of
paper.
2. Pick a starting location and draw the first vector to scale in the indicated direction.
Label the magnitude and direction of the scale on the diagram (e.g., SCALE: 1 cm =
20 m).
3. Starting from where the head of the first vector ends, draw the second vector to
scale in the indicated direction. Label the magnitude and direction of this vector on
the diagram.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for all vectors that are to be added
5. Draw the resultant from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.
Label this vector as Resultant or simply R.
6. Using a ruler, measure the length of the resultant and determine its magnitude by
converting to real units using the scale (4.4 cm x 20 m/1 cm = 88 m).
7. Measure the direction of the resultant using the counterclockwise convention
discussed earlier in this lesson.

An example of the use of the head-to-tail method is illustrated below. The problem
involves the addition of three vectors:

20 m, 45 deg. + 25 m, 300 deg. + 15 m, 210 deg.

SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m

The head-to-tail method is employed as described above and the resultant is

determined (drawn in red). Its magnitude and direction is labeled on the diagram.
SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m
Interestingly enough, the order in which three vectors are added has no effect upon
either the magnitude or the direction of the resultant. The resultant will still have the
same magnitude and direction. For example, consider the addition of the same three
vectors in a different order.

15 m, 210 deg. + 25 m, 300 deg. + 20 m, 45 deg.

SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m

When added together in this different order, these same three vectors still produce a
resultant with the same magnitude and direction as before (20. m, 312 degrees). The
order in which vectors are added using the head-to-tail method is insignificant.
 SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m

Additional examples of vector addition using the head-to-tail method are given on a
separate web page.

We Would Like to Suggest ...

Sometimes it isn't enough to just read about it. You have to

interact with it! And that's exactly what you do when you use one of The Physics
Classroom's Interactives. We would like to suggest that you combine the reading of this
page with the use of our Name That Vector Interactive, our Vector Addition Interactive,
or our Vector Guessing Game Interactive. All three Interactives can be found in the
Physics Interactive section of our website and provide an interactive experience with
the skill of adding vectors.

Visit: Name That Vector | Vector Addition | Vector Guessing Game

Parallelogram Law of Vector
Addition

Statement of Parallelogram Law

If two vectors acting simultaneously at a point can be represented both in
magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from
a point, then the resultant vector is represented both in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.

Derivation of the law

Note: All the letters in bold represent vectors and normal letters represent magnitude only.

Let P and Q be two vectors acting simultaneously at a point and represented

both in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides OA and OD of a
parallelogram OABD as shown in figure.
Let θ be the angle between P and Q and R be the resultant vector. Then,
according to parallelogram law of vector addition, diagonal OB represents the
resultant of P and Q.

So, we have

R=P+Q
Now, expand A to C and draw BC perpendicular to OC.
From triangle OCB,

In triangle ABC,

Also,

Magnitude of resultant:
Substituting value of AC and BC in (i), we get

which is the magnitude of resultant.

Direction of resultant: Let ø be the angle made by resultant R with P. Then,

From triangle OBC,
which is the direction of resultant.

Numerical Problem
Two forces of magnitude 6N and 10N are inclined at an angle of 60° with each
other. Calculate the magnitude of resultant and the angle made by resultant
with 6N force.

Solution:
Let P and Q be two forces wih magnitude 6N and 10N respectively and θ be
angle between them. Let R be the resultant force.
So, P = 6N, Q = 10N and θ =
60°

We have,

which is the required magnitude

Let ø be the angle between P and R. Then,

which is the required angle.

Answer:
Parallelogram method is a method for finding sum or resultant of two vectors.
The polygon method is a method for finding sum or resultant of more than two vectors.
(Can be used for two vectors also).
Explanation:
Parallelogram method

hotmath.com
In this method, two vectors →uand→v are moved to a common point and drawn to
represent two sides of a parallelogram, as shown in the picture. Diagonal of the
parallelogram represents sum or resultant of the →u+→v
Polygon method
 tutorvista.com
In polygon method of finding the sum or resultant of vectors →P,→Q,
→R,→S,→T, are vectors are drawn from head to tail to form an open polygon, as
shown. The starting point A is arbitrary. The resultant vector →R is drawn from the tail
of first vector to head of the last vector.
it may so happen that head of the last may end at the tail of first vector, resulting in a
closed polygon. In such a case →R=0 or it is called null vector.

How to Convert between

Measurement Units in Physics

RELATED BOOK
Physics I Workbook For Dummies, 2nd Edition

By Steven Holzner

Physics problems frequently ask you to convert between different units of

measurement. For example, you may measure the number of feet your toy car
goes in three minutes and thus be able to calculate the speed of the car in feet
per minute, but that’s not a standard unit of measure, so you need to convert feet
per minute to miles per hour, or meters per second.

For another example, suppose you have 180 seconds — how much is that in
minutes? You know that there are 60 seconds in a minute, so 180 seconds
equals three minutes. Here are some common conversions between units:

 1 m = 100 cm = 1,000 mm (millimeters)

 1 km (kilometer) = 1,000 m

 1 kg (kilogram) = 1,000 g (grams)

 1 N (newton) = 105 dynes

 1 J (joule) = 107 ergs

 1 P (pascal) = 10 Ba

 1 A (amp) = 0.1 Bi

 1 T (tesla) = 104 G (gauss)

 1 C (coulomb) = 2.9979 x 109 Fr

The conversion between CGS and MKS almost always involves factors of 10
only, so converting between the two is simple. But what about converting to and
from the FPI and other systems of measurement? Here are some handy
conversions that you can come back to as needed:

 Length:

o 1 m = 100 cm

o 1 km = 1,000 m

o 1 in (inch) = 2.54 cm

o 1 m = 39.37 in

o 1 mile = 5,280 ft = 1.609 km

 o 1 angstrom = 10–10 m

 Mass:

o 1 kg = 1,000 g

o 1 slug = 14.59 kg

o 1 u (atomic mass unit) = 1.6605 x 10–27 kg

 Force:

o 1 lb (pound) = 4.448 N

o 1 N = 105 dynes

o 1 N = 0.2248 lb

 Energy:

o 1 J = 107 ergs

o 1 J = 0.7376 ft-lb

o 1 BTU (British thermal unit) = 1,055 J

o 1 kWh (kilowatt hour) = 3.600 x 106 J

o 1 eV (electron volt) = 1.602 x 10–19 J

 Power:

o 1 hp (horsepower) = 550 ft-lb/s

o 1 W (watt) = 0.7376 ft-lb/s

Because conversions are such an important part of physics problems, and

because you have to keep track of them so carefully, there’s a systematic way of
handling conversions: You multiply by a conversion constant that equals 1, such
that the units you don’t want cancel out.
 Sample question
1. A ball drops 5 meters. How many centimeters did it drop?
The correct answer is 500 centimeters. To perform the conversion, you do the
following calculation:

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction are forces of attraction between unlike charges, partially
positive and negative dipoles, that occur between two molecules.
They differ from bonds in that they are not as strong and occur between two adjacent or
neighboring molecules and not within the molecule itself. They do form, just like bonds, due to
the attraction of opposite charges.
IMFAs are typically noted with a dotted line while bonds are solid lines.
Types of IMFAs
1. London or Dispersion Forces
2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
3. Hydrogen Bonds
4. Ion-Dipole
London Dispersion Forces
Temporary or weak dipole interactions (such as those between nonmetals)
in nonpolar compounds are called London or Dispersion Forces. Notice that the partially
negative charge of the chlorine is attracted by a London force to the partially positive charge of
the carbon of the neighboring or adjacent molecule. Thus, an intermolecular, or between the
molecules, attraction between carbon and chlorine that helps the two molecules of carbon
tetrachloride stay together.
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
Permanent or strong dipole interactions (such as those between nonmetals)
in polar compounds are called dipole-dipole interactions.
This is indeed the molecular force driving the molecules to be soluble with one another and stay
in solution, for example, how an solution of dilute acid is formed, when acid and water are
combined.
In the molecule below, the partially positive dipole of the hydrogen atom in water is attracted to
partially negative dipole of the chlorine atom in the neighboring hydrochloric acid molecule.

Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular forces of attraction that form between the positive dipole of
a hydrogen atom of one molecule and the partially negative dipole of fluorine (F), oxygen (O),
and nitrogen (N) atoms of neighboring molecules.
Hydrogen bonds are simply very strong and very specific dipoles, which makes them them the
second-strongest intermolecular force of attraction, second to ion-dipole interactions. Their
dipoles are stronger because they occur between hydrogen which has a very low
electronegativity level and atoms of F, O, and N that have very high electronegativities. The
disparity between the atoms’ desires to obtain electrons creates a strong force of attraction.

In the molecules above, the positive dipole of hydrogen of water attracts the negative dipole of
the fluorine in the next molecule. Additionally, two water molecules are held together with a
hydrogen bond between the positive dipole of hydrogen of one molecule and the negative dipole
of the oxygen atom of an adjacent water molecule.

Ever wonder why it hurts so much when your attempted dive into the pool turns into a “belly
flop?”

It feels like you’re hitting a wall when you get slapped by the water…and hydrogen bonds are
responsible for creating that strong and very high surface tension. This also how some insects
float on water and how drops of rain keep their rounded shape: hydrogen bonds holding those
trillions of water molecules in place!

Ion-Dipole Interactions
A lone dipole may also interact with a single ion to form an ion-dipole interaction. For
example, the partially positive dipole of hydrogen in water as it interacts with a fully charged
chloride anion.
When sodium chloride, NaCl, is added to water to form a solution, the sodium and chlorine
dissociate and form the Na+ cation and the Cl – anion. The chloride ion is then attracted to the
positive dipole of hydrogen and the sodium ion is attracted to negative dipole of oxygen.
Because the interaction is between a fully charged ion and a partially charged versus two
partially charged dipoles, ion-dipole interactions are the strongest IMFA, even greater than
hydrogen bonds.
Summary of IMFAs

Dipole–Dipole Interactions
Dipole-Dipole interactions occur between polar molecules. Polar covalent bonds occur
between atoms of different electronegativity, where the more electronegative atom
attracts the electrons more than the electropositive atom. This results in a molecule
where the center of positive charge (defined by the nuclei) does not coincide with the
center of negative charge (defined by the electron orbitals). One can say that the more
electronegative atom removes electron density from the less electronegative atom
(often called the electropositive atom). A polar molecule with a permanent dipole
results if all the bond dipole vectors add to a net dipole. In this case the molecule's
center of positive charge (denoted by δ+) does not coincide with the center of negative
charge (denoted by δ-) and the molecular dipole is this partial charge times the distance
between them. You should review the section on polar bonds, and remember that if
bond dipoles are of symmetric orientation, like in the linear carbon dioxide, they cancel
each other and the molecule is non-polar. So polar bonds can result in non-polar
molecules! You should also note that the center of positive charge need not be where
there is a nucleus. For example, in water, the center of positive charge is half way
between the two hydrogens.
Although molecules in a liquid are in constant motion, they tend to align in the lowest
energy orientation, which would be to maximize attractions (parts a & b of fig. 11.3.1)
and minimize repulsion (parts c & d of fig. 11.3.1). This follows the same logic we used
for ion-dipole interactions, in that the attractive interactions cause dipoles of opposite
charge to be closer, resulting in stronger interactions, while moving dipoles of like
charge farther apart, resulting in reduced charge. Therefore, unlike ion-ion interactions,
dipole-dipole are always attractive.
Ion-Dipole Interactions
Ion-Dipole Forces are involved in solutions where an ionic compound is dissolved into a
polar solvent, like that of the solution of table salt (NaCl) into water. So these must be
for solutions (and not pure substances).
Na+↔(H2O)nNa+↔(H2O)N

Figure \PageIndex1\PageIndex1: Ion-Dipole interaction. Note the oxygen end of dipole is

closer to the sodium than the hydrogen end, and so the net interaction is attractive.
The name "Ion dipole forces" describes what they are, which simply speaking, are the
result of the Coulombic electrostatic interactions between an ion and the charged ends
of a dipole. Note that here, the term "Intermolecular Force" is a misnomer, even
though it is commonly used, as these are the forces between ions with molecules
possessing a dipole moment (unequal sharing of valence electrons). To gain an
understanding we can start by looking at the Coulombic potential between two ions
(Equation 2).

The liquid state of matter is an intermediate phase between solid and gas. Like the
particles of a solid, particles in a liquid are subject to intermolecular attraction; however,
liquid particles have more space between them, so they are not fixed in position. The
attraction between the particles in a liquid keeps the volume of the liquid constant.
The movement of the particles causes the liquid to be variable in shape. Liquids will flow
and fill the lowest portion of a container, taking on the shape of the container but not
changing in volume. The limited amount of space between particles means that liquids
have only very limited compressibility.

Cohesion and adhesion

Cohesion is the tendency for the same kind of particles to be attracted to one another.
This cohesive "stickiness" accounts for the surface tension of a liquid. Surface tension
can be thought of as a very thin "skin" of particles that are more strongly attracted to
each other than they are to the particles surrounding them. As long as these forces of
attraction are undisturbed, they can be surprisingly strong. For example, the surface
tension of water is great enough to support the weight of an insect such as a water
skipper. Water is the most cohesive nonmetallic liquid, according to the U.S. Geological
Survey.
Cohesive forces are greatest beneath the surface of the liquid, where the particles are
attracted to each other on all sides. Particles at the surface are more strongly attracted
to the identical particles within the liquid than they are to the surrounding air. This
accounts for the tendency of liquids to form spheres, the shape with the least amount of
surface area. When these liquid spheres are distorted by gravity, they form the classic
raindrop shape.

Adhesion is when forces of attraction exist between different types of particles. Particles
of a liquid will not only be attracted to one another, but they are generally attracted to
the particles that make up the container holding the liquid. Particles of the liquid are
drawn up above the surface level of the liquid at the edges where they are in contact
with the sides of the container.
The combination of cohesive and adhesive forces means that a slight concave curve,
known as the meniscus, exists at the surface of most liquids. The most accurate
measurement of the volume of a liquid in a graduated cylinder will be observed by
looking at the volume marks closest to the bottom of this meniscus.

Adhesion also accounts for capillary action when a liquid is drawn up into a very narrow
tube. One example of capillary action is when someone collects a sample of blood by
touching a tiny glass tube to the blood droplet on the tip of a pricked finger.
Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of how much a liquid resists flowing freely. A liquid that flows
very slowly is said to be more viscous than a liquid that flows easily and quickly. A
substance with low viscosity is considered to be thinner than a substance with higher
viscosity, which is usually thought of as being thicker. For example, honey is more
viscous than water. Honey is thicker than water and flows more slowly. Viscosity can
usually be reduced by heating the liquid. When heated, the particles of the liquid move
faster, allowing the liquid to flow more easily.
Evaporation

Because the particles of a liquid are in constant motion, they will collide with one
another, and with the sides of the container. Such collisions transfer energy from one
particle to another. When enough energy is transferred to a particle at the surface of the
liquid, it will eventually overcome the surface tension holding it to the rest of the liquid.
Evaporation occurs when surface particles gain enough kinetic energy to escape the
system. As the faster particles escape, the remaining particles have lower average
kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid cools. This phenomenon is known as
evaporative cooling.
Volatility

Volatility can be thought of as how likely a substance will be to vaporize at normal

temperatures. Volatility is more often a property of liquids, but some highly volatile
solids may sublime at normal room temperature. Sublimation happens when a
substance passes directly from solid to gas without passing through the liquid state.
When a liquid evaporates inside a closed container, the particles cannot escape the
system. Some of the evaporated particles will eventually come into contact with the
remaining liquid and lose enough of their energy to condense back into the liquid. When
the rate of evaporation and the rate of condensation are the same, there will be no net
decrease in the amount of liquid.

The pressure exerted by the vapor/liquid equilibrium in the closed container is called
the vapor pressure. Increasing the temperature of the closed system will increase the
vapor pressure, according to Purdue University's department of chemistry. Substances with
high vapor pressures can form a high concentration of gas particles above the liquid in a
closed system. This can be a fire hazard if the vapor is flammable. Any small spark,
even one occurring from the friction between the gas particles themselves, can be
enough to cause a catastrophic fire or even an explosion. The U.S. Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) requires Material Safety and Data Sheets to give
information about the volatility and flammability of liquids in order to help prevent
accidents from occurring.