ABE 527 Computer Models in Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering R.H. Mohtar Jan 2000 Open-Channel Flow Flow of water in a conduit can be classified as either open-channel flow or pipe flow. ‘The two types of flow are similar, but differ in one important aspect: Open-channel flow must have a free surface which is exposed to atmospheric pressure while pipe flow has no free surface since the pipe is flowing full. Open-channel and pipe flow are compared in the figures below. Pine tow Opea-honnel ow igure 1. Comparison of pipe and open-channel flow. (from Chow, 1959). ‘The schematic of pipe flow on the left of Figure 1, shows three heads or potentials which elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head. combine to move water through the conduit Piezometer tubes are installed in the pipe at positions 1 and 2. The water levels in the tubes are maintained by the hydraulic pressure in the pipe. The water levels in the piezometers are at elevations above the datum represented by the hydraulic grade line, ‘The velocity head, given by % where V is the velocity of flow and g is the accelation due to gravity, is added to the hydraulic grade line at each point along the pipe to give the total head. This represents the total energy of water at a given point. Water in the pipe loses energy as it flows between points. The energy loss between points 1 and 2 is represented by hy. ‘The energy grade line is the line connecting the elevation of the total head at points 1 and 2. ‘The diagram on the right of Figure 1 shows a simplified case of open-channel low in which the slope of the channel is small and the flow is parallel with a uniform velocity distribution. Under these tions, the water surface, whose height above the streambed jis given by y; and yo, represents the hydraulic grade line. As in pipe flow, the energy grade line is given by the elevation of the total heads‘at points 1 and 2. If the flow depicted above were curvilinear (not parallel) or in a stream with a large slope, the piezometric height would be appreciably different from the depth of flow, but for most practical problems, we can assume that flow is parallel and we often work on streams with a small slope (Chow, 1959). Although there ate similarities between pipe and open-channel flow, it is more difficult. to solve open-channel flow problems than pipe flow problems. In open channel flow, the position of the water surface (free surface) can change with time and space. Also, the depth of flow, discharge, and slopes of the channel and free surface are interdependent. In addition, reliable experimental data on ‘open-channel flow is difficult to obtain, the physcical condition and geometry of open channels vary greatly. Classification of Open-Channel Flow Open channel flow is classified by the manner in which the flow depth varies with respect to time and space. Steady and Unsteady Flow: ‘The terms steady and unsteady flow are used to describe how the depth of flow varies in time. Flow in ‘an open channel the time interval being considered. The flow is unsteady if the depth of flow changes with time. steady if the flow depth does not change or can be assumed to be constant during Uniform and Nonuniform Flow: Similarly, the terms uniform and nonuniform flow describe how the depth of flow changes in space (along the reach of the channel). In uniform flow, the flow depth is constant along the reach under consideration. In a nonuniform flow, the flow depth changes along the reach of the channel. Nonuniform flow is also referred to as spatially varied flow. Varied flow is also broken into classifications. Flow is rapidly varied if the depth of flow changes over a very short reach of the channel. Rapidly varied flow is a local phenomena. Any other type of nonuniform flow is referred to 1s gradually varied flow. ‘The types of varied flow are depicted in the figure below. —_ [P| oe Figure 2. Varied flow iN‘As you might guess, we can have any combination of steady or unsteady flows and uniform and nonuniform flows. Unsteady uniform flow is very rare so we generally refer to unsteady nonuniform flow as varied flow and uniform flow generally refers to steady uniform flow. The classification of open-channel flow can be summarized as follows: 2, Nonuniform (Varied) Flow 1. Gradually Varied Flow b. Rapidly Vatied Flow Unsteady Flow: 1, Unsteady Uniform Flow (very rare) 2. Unsteady Varied Flow (Unsteady Flow) a. Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow b. Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow State of Flow As in pipe flow, three states of flow are possible, laminar, turbulent and transitional. ‘The effects of viscosity relative to inertial forces of the flow determine the state of flow. ‘The relative effects of velocity to inertia can be represented by the Reynolds number which is @ dimensionless number derived through dimensional analysis of the flow. The Reynold’s number for open channel flow is given by: Ra = a) Here, V is the mean flow velocity, L is a characteristic length ( the characteristic length for open channel flow is the hydraulic radius which is discussed later) and v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. At some critical value of the Reynold’s number, flow begins to change from laminar flow in which streamlines are parallel to turbulent flow in which the magnitude and direction of velocity varies throughout the flow. The state of flow between laminar and fully turbulent flow is transitional flow. Based on data taken on the flow of water in pipes, the critical Reynold’s number ranges between 500 and may be as high as 12,500 (Chow, 1959). ‘The dimensionless number which indicates the relative effects of gravity and inertial forces on the state of flow is the Froude number. It is also derived through dimensional analysis and is definedFr a? (2) Again, V is the average flow velocity, and L is a characteristic length. In open-channel flow L is the hydraulic depth, D, which is the cross-sectional area normal to the flow divided by the width of the free surface. The Froude number defines three regimes of flow in open channels: critical, subcritical, and supercritical flow. When Fr is equal to unity, we have: V=[ep)” @) ‘and the flow is called critical flow and the quantity [gD]'/“is the critical velocity. The depth of flow for critical flow is called the critical depth, de. If the Froude number is less than 1, the flow is subcritical (the flow velocity is less than the critical velocity). In flows in which the Froude number is ‘greater than 1, the flow is supercritical and has a flow velocity greater than the critical velocity. ‘The critical velocity is called the celerity, which is the speed of gravity wave propagation in the body of water. The flow regime corresponding to a given Froude number is: Fr Critical Flow Fy <1 Suberitical Flow @ Fy >1 Supercritical Flow ‘The depth of flow for subcritical and supercritical flow relative to the critical flow depth can be confusing. It is important to remember that the terms subcritical and supercritical refer to the magnitude of the velocity of flow relative to the critical velocity. ‘The flow in an open channel is given by: Q=va 6) ‘where Q is the total discharge, V is the average velocity A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow and is defined by the geometry of the channel and depth of flow. If we have a given discharge, Q ‘and have determined the critical velocity, then for critical flow the discharge equals the critical velocity times the area defined by the critical depth. If for the same discharge we have a subcritical flow regime, the velocity is less than the critical velocity, 60 in order to maintain the discharge Q, the eross- sectional area must increase, which requires of subcritical flow depth which is greater than the critical depth. cross-section area to convey the discharge Q, so the supercritical flow depth is less than the critical imialarly, the supercritical velocity is greater than the critical velocity, requiring a smaller depth. You can also deduct this by looking at the definition of the Froude number above.Basic Relationships for Open-Channel Flow We must deal with three basic relationships when we are working open-channel flow problems. ‘These are the continuity equation, the energy equation, and the momentum equation. We solve open- channel flow problems by satisfying these three relationships. Continuity ‘The continuity equation is simply a statement of conservation of mass in the system we are dealing with. Consider the following channel reach and cross-sect Figure 3. Channel reach and cross-section for continuity For the channel reach between points 1 and 2 above, the continuity equation can be written as: 1-0= aS (6) since we are working with an incompressible fluid we can work with fluid volumes for convenience, rather than fluid mass. In Equation (6): 1 = The volume of flow across Section 1 for a given time interval. © = The volume of flow across Section 2 for the same time interval. ‘AS = The change in the volume of storage in the channel between Sections 1 and 2 during the time interval. Equation (6) can also be written in terms of flow rates rather than flow volumes:dI_dO_ dS ae = at @ . : «0, ton 2. $3 whore i the rate of flow aro Section 1 and SO isthe sate of flow across Section 2. 4 i the rate ‘of change of storage in the channel between Sections 1 and 2. The continuity equation must be satisfied for any flow situation. ‘The Energy Equation Recall from basic fluid mechanics that the energy equation can be considered in the form of Bernoulli's equation. Since the free water surface in open channel flow is exposed to atmospheric pressure, Bernoulli’s equation takes on the following form for open-channel flow: Hevtneyetr tm thy ® ‘The terms in this equation are depicted in Figure 1 above, If we have a channel reach with no energy loss, (hy = 0) we can write: 2 Ye ty +2 constant 0) Now if we take the channel bottom as our datum, the specific energy, B, is defined as: yt Yq + = constant = E (a0) If we have a wide rectangular channel with a depth y across the cross-section, the flow rate on a unit width basis (q) is: a=W ay and q has the units efs/ft or ft?/s (or m?/s in S.J. units). ‘Then the specific energy can be written in terms of q as: +y5E (ay ‘We can plot y versus E for a constant q as shown below in Figure 4. Figure 4 is called a specific energy diagram. Note that for a given specific energy, E, there are ‘two possible flow depths y, and y, which are called alternate depths. Also notice that there is a definite minimum value of E for a given q. We can find the value of y for which E is a minimum by is ich dE determining the y at which ig the y aeAE ig given by: F is given by: = = es +1 (a3) and solve for y: a raat “9 Recall that q = Vy, so we can write: Wya1 (as) (sy) Since we are dealing with a rectangular channel, the hydraulic depth, D, is equal to the flow depth y ‘and from our definition of the Froude number above, we find that the flow depth corresponding to the ‘minimum specific energy is equal to the critical depth, ye. ‘The Momentum Equation Figure 5 helps us visualize the principle of momentum in open-channel flow when we consider the following basic relationship from mechanics: EF, = A[mv,] (18) which states that the sum of the forces in the s direction is equal to the change in momentum in the 5 direction. Here F, represents the forces in the s direction, m is mass and V, is the component of velocity in the s direction.Figure 5. Sketch of momentum principle. If we have a constant mass and work on a force and momentum per unit channel width basis, we can write AlmV.] = pofV2 - Vi] an ‘The forces in the s direction are: EF, =P, + Wsind - Py -Ry (18) Where P, and P, are the pressure forces per unit width (P = y?/2), Ry is a frictional resistance, and Wsind is the component of the weight of the water in the s direction, Combining the above terms for the change in momentum and sum of forees in the s direction, we have: i Bt Ba, weind - Ry = pal Vs - Vi] (19) If we consider a short section on @ small slope such that Ry and sin@ are negligibly small, we can write: TF + pa = BF + pave (20) BM, V2 constant =m en and M is the specific force plus momentum. A specific force plus momentum curve is shown in Figure6 below. Again, notice that two flow depths are poseible for a given value of M and that # minimum value of M exists for a given q. Now the two different depths y, and yp for a given M are called ° fe depth of pat Soh Figure 6, Specific force plus momentum curve. sequent depths. The specific force plus momentum curve is especially useful in the analysis of hydraulic jumps. Energy is dissipated or lost in the reach of the jump, however momentum is conserved 80 the specific force plus momentum curve is used to determine the depth of flow downstream of the jump. Uniform Flow Computations By definition, yy and yg and V, and Vz are equal in the depiction of open-channel flow in Figure 1. Equation (19) then reduces to Weind = (22) which tells us that the frictional forces are just equal to the downstream component of the weight of water flowing in the channel, In other words, the frictional forces and gravitational forces are in equilibrium in uniform flow. We can express the frictional force in terms of the shear, r, per unit area times the area of the channel bed and banks that are resisting flow. Ry can then be written as (23) where P is the wetted perimeter of the channel cross-section and L is the length of the reach in question. ‘The weight of water in a section of the channel is given by: W=7AL (24) For small channel slopes, the slope angle, 0, can be approximated by the slope of the channel, S, (in {t/ft, m/m, ete.) and Equation (22) becomesTPL = 7ALS (25) Solving for the shear, we have: r= rps (26) ‘The term A/P is defined as the hydraulic radius, R, and is the ratio of the cross-sectional area of flow below the water surface to the length of the wetted perimeter which is the cross-sectional length of the channel bed and banks that are wetted by water in contact with the channel walls. Equation (26) can also be expressed as r= RS (7) Here, 7 represents the average shear around the periphery of the flow. At some points the shear will be greater than + while itis less than 7 at others. Experiments on the flow of water in pipes have shown that 7 is proportional to the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f, and the square of the velocity. or fov7/8 (8) Combining Equations (27) and (28) gives: V=[Br/te) IRs!” (29) Now let C = [87/f]””, and we have Checy’s equation for open-channel flow: vecr'?s7 (30) and Cis factor related to the roughness of the channel. Manning found that the equation Vv=KR™*s/? (31) fits experimental data well. This equation is known as Manning’s equation and differs from the Chery jon only by the exponent on R. Mannings equation is usually written in S.1. units as v= hrs? (2) ‘0 that the factor related to channel roughness (n) would increase as channel roughness increased. The 1 term is referred to as Manning's n. In english units, Manning’s equation takes the form: va lyopagi? (33)Relationships for the hydraulic properties of some typical channel cross-sections are given in Figure 6. weere |yosevetry| nese TEMG | chee Figure 6. Properties of typical channel crose-sections Values of n for some typical channel covers and materials are given in the attached tables.“spaunos snossuinu wos} pOI22195y comes DPazqueaye “wom nos si00 pea “OM WaROIA e100 uo £198 (wossnostp uanbasqns 296) x00 9100 ee sszoo sto L100 $100 of soo szz0%0 aan Burput, 0200 S010 S200 sz L100 azojun pUE ENS ovo SE sz0'0 sto0 00 oF SEO #100 100 of0°0 S200 6000 Se00 oro sruper onnespA o'¢ ion se00 srupes omnespAy O'F-57 sho oo Srupes MUNDAY §Z> (8) oso sp are 0800 sev e000 on uo “gous shoo slo e100 100 (Gauiny) pauerdun ‘pon, 3100 z100 soo ‘seuny) pouerd “poo sso L009 ‘stout ‘So8e1s somo (0) se BUNS) FID x oso seo ‘sous 9200 200 ue ood awos ‘Surpum (9) $100 owe 200 8100 sto €€00 sion) #100 Saag a SIMPUOD IO ea a Simpuoy 70 SSR1IEA T vuonduosaq ple aK, sHAAT wonduaseq pe 2441 ‘us ummuey 40} SmReA ROMEAL 1-E AGEL Source: Barfield, Warner, and Haan (1981)‘Tavux 5-5. Vaves ron mux Courorarion or tim Rovauness Consvicieyt ay Ba. (6-12) Channel conditions Value Earth 0.020 Ree Rock eut , 0.025 involved | Fine gravel 0.024 Coarse gravel 0.028, ‘Smooth 0.000 Degree of | Minor . 0.005 ‘nvegularity [seoderate 0.010 | Severe 0.020 Gradual 0.000) Variations of —_—_|} channel cross| Alternating occasionally | ny 0.008 section ee Alternating frequently 0.010-0.015, Negligible 0.000) Relative Minor 0.010-0.015 effet of |__|, |——____ obstructions | Appreciable 0.020-0.030 Severe 0.040-0.060 Low 0.005-0.010 Medium 0.010-0.025 Vegetation |__| ,, | High | 0.025-0.050 Very high (0.050-0.100 | Minor 4.000 Degree of meandering | ApPrecsble ™ 150 Severe 1.300 Source: Chow (1959)‘Tanwe $6, VALUES of Tux Rovauwess Corn Boldface figures are values generally recommended in design) Mininum | Normal] Maximum 0.009 | 0.010 | 0.013, 1 Tockber aad welded 0.10 | 0.012 | 0.0% 2 Rveted end pial | oor | o.oie | o.orr 1 Coste | 0.010 | 0.018 | 0.018 2 Varied oon | oo | on 4. Wirt ron 1 Black oz | oo} 0.015 2, Galvanized oo | coe | on . Corogated etl 1 Subdrsin o.or7 | 0.010 | 0.02 2, Storm drain oat | .0%4 | 0.000 A Nonmetall Late 0.008 | 0.00 | 0.010 6. Gia 0.009 | e.oi0 | 5.013 Nest uae o.oo | oon | 0.01 2 Mortar dom | 0.012 | O08 4. Gonerete 1, Culvert, stright and free of debria | 0.010 | 0.011 | 0.013 2% Culvert” with bends, connections, 0.011 | 0.018 | 0.014 and some debris 8, Finished o.o1 | 0.012 | 0.018 4 Sewer with manholes, inlot, ete,| 0.013 | 0.015 | 0.017 straight 65. Unfinished, steol form 0.012 | 0.013 | 0.018 6. Unfinished, smooth wood form | 0,012 | 0.014 | 0.016 7. Unfinished, rough wood form 0.018 | 0.017 | 0.020 4, Wood 1. Stave o.o10 | 0.012 | 0.014 2, Laminated, treated 0.015 | 0.017 | 0.020 f Chay 1, Common drsinage tile o.o1 | 0.018 | 0.017 2, Vitrified sewer o.o1 | 0.014 | 0.017 3, Vitrified sewer with manboles,intet,| 0.013 | 0.015 | 0.017 ete. 4, Vitrified eubdrain with open joint | 0.014 | 0.016 | 0.018 9. Brickwork 1. Glazed oo | 0.013 | 0.015 2, Lined with cement mortar 0.012 | 0.015 | 0.017 ‘a Sanitary sewers coated with sewage] 0.012 | 0.013 | 0.016 slimes, with beads and connection & Paved invert, sewer, amooth bottom | 0.016 j, Rubble masonry, cemented 0.08 0.020 0.030 Source: Chow (1959)‘Tamux 5-6, VaLuss o 1mm Rovaness Conpsicianr 1 (continued) B. Ling on Bal, Metal 4, Smooth steel surface a 2 . Corrugated B-2, Nonmetal a. Cement 1 2. 2b. Wood. prpppepropeepr 4, Conerete bottom fost finished with sides of 1 2 3 4 5 ¢, Gravel bottom with sides of 1 2 3. J. Brick L 2 3 2 1, Dressed ashlar Asphalt 1 2. 4. Vegetal lining ronerete Masonry Bomaur Cuaxwee ‘Unpainted | Painted, ‘Neat, surface Mortar Planed, untreated Planed, ercosoted Unplaned Plan with battens Lined with roofing paper ‘Trowel fish Float finish Finished, with gravel on bottom Unfinished Gunite, good section Gite, wavy section On good excavated rock On irregular excavated rock ‘Dressed stone in mortar TRandom stone in mortar ‘Cement rubble masoary, plastered ‘Cement rubble masonry Dry rubble or riprap Formed concrete Random atone in mortar Dry rubble or riprap Glazed To ecment mortar Cemented rubble Dry rubble ‘Smooth Rough Source: Chow (1959) oo 0.012 o-021 0.010 0.011 0.010 o.o1t oot 0.012 0.010 o.o1 0.013 0.015 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.017 0.022 0.015, 0.017 0.018 0.020 0.020 0.017 0.020 0.023 0.011 0.012 0.017 0.023, 0.018 0.013, 0.018 0.030 0.012 | 0.014 0.013 | 0.017 0.025 | 0.030 oon | 0.018 0.013 | 0.05, 0.012 | 0.018 0.012 | 0.015 0.013 | 0.015 0.015 | 0.018 0.014 | 0.017 o.o1s | 0.015, 0.05 | 0.018 0.017 | ‘0.020, 0.017 | 0-020 0.019 | 0.023, 0.022 | 0.025 0.020 0.027 0.017 | 0.020 0.020 | 0-024 0.020 | 0.024 0.025 | 0.030 0.030 | 0.035, 0.020 | 0.025 0.023 | 0.026, 0.033 | 0.036 o.os | 0.015 0.06 | 0.018 0.025 | 0.080 0.032 | 0.035, 0.015 | 0.017 0.013, 0.018 0.800Tanur &6. Vauves or tux Rovanwess Conrricinr n (continued) ‘Type of channel and description Minimum | Normal | Maximum ©. Excavarzn on Drrpore 4. Earth, straight and uniform 1, Clean, recently completed 0.016 | 0.018 | 0.020 2, Clean, after weathering, 0.018 | 0.022 | 0.025 3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 | 0-025 | 0.030 44. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 | 0.027 | 0.033, 0, Harth, winding and sluggish 1. No vegetation 0.023 | 0,025 | 0.030 2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 | 0.030 | 0.033 3. Dense weeds or aquatic plants in| 0.090 | 0.035 | 0.040 deep channels 4, Barth bottom and rubble sides 0.028 | 0.030 | 0.035, 5, Stony bottom and weedy banks | 0.025 | 0.035 | 0.040 6. Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 | 0.0%0 | 0.050 6. Dragline-excavated or dredged 1. No vegetation 0.025 | 0.028 | 0.033 2 Light brush oa banks 0.035 | 0.050 | 0.060 4, Rack euta 1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 | 0.035 | 0.010 2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 | 0.010 | 0.050 ¢ Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut 1. Dense weeds, high as fow depth | 0.050 | 0.080 | 0.120, 2. Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.010 | 0.050 | 0.080 48. Same, highest stage of flow 0.015 | 0.070 | 0.110 4, Dense brush, high stage 0.08 | 0-100 | 0.140 D. Navunat, Seavane D-l. Minor streams (top width at flood stage <100 1) | 4 Streams on plain 1. Clean, straight, ful age, no iftsor| 0.028 | 0.080 | 0,033, deep pools 2, Same as above, but more stones and] 0.030 | 0.03 | 0.040 weeds 3. Clean, winding, some pools and| 0.033 | 0.010 | 0.045 shoals 4. Same as above, but some weeds and! 0.035 | 0.085 | 0.050 stones 5, Same as above, lower stages, more! 0,040 | 0.048 | 0.055 ineffective slopes and sections 3. Same as 4, but more stones 0.015 | 0.050 | 0.060 Slugaish reaches, weedy, deep pools | 0.050 | 0.070 | ¢ Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or| 0.078 | 0.100 | 0.150 oodways with heavy stand of tim ber and underbrush Source: Chow (1959)ba. ‘Tanux $6, Vauues or sux Rovonsess Courricrest n (continued) ‘Type of channel and description 2%. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees and brush along banks submerged at high stages 1. Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulder 2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders Flood plains 4, Pasture, no brush 1. Short grass 2. High grasa 0, Cultivated areas 1. No crop 2. Mature row crops 3. Mature Geld crepe . Brush 1, Scattered brush, heavy weeds 2. Light brush and trees, in wintor 8, Light brush and trees in summer 44 Medium to dense brush, in winter 5. Medium to denge brush, in gummer 4. Trees 1. Dense willows, summer, straight 2 Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 3. Same as above, but with heavy row of sprouts 4 Heavy stand of timber, a few down ‘recs, little undergrowth, Hood stage below branches 5, Same as above, but with flood stage reaching branches Major streams (top width at flood stage 100 ft). ‘The m value ia lees than that for minor streams of similar description, because banks offer lea effective resistance 4. Regular section with no boulders or brush 5, Trrogular and rough section Minimum | Normal | Maximum 0.030 | 0.010 | 0.050 0.010 | 0.050 | 0.070 0.025 | 0.090 | 0.035 0-030 | 0.035 | 0.050 0.020 | 0.030 | 0.040 0.025 | 0.038 | 0.045 0.030 | 0.0%0 | 0.050 0.035 | 0.050 | 0.070 0-035 | 0.050 | 0.060 0.010 | 0.060 | 0.080 0.085 | 0.070 | 0.110 8.070 | 0:10 | 0.160 0.110 | 0.150 | 0.200 0.030 | 0.040 | 0.050 0.050 | 0.000 | 0.080 0.080 | 0.100 | 0.120 0.100 | 0.120 | 0.100 0.025 0.060 0.035 0.100 eee ee eee Source: Chow (1959)References Barfield, B.J., R.C. Warner, and C.T, Haan. 1981. Applied Hydrology and Sedimentology for Disturbed Areas. Oklahoma Technical Press. Stillwater, Oklahoma. Chow, V-T. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill. New York. Chow, V.T. (ed.) 1964. Handbook of Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill. New York.