Grid Connection of Wind Farms MPoller PDF

Grid Connection of Wind Farms
Markus Pöller and Oscar Amaya/DIgSILENT GmbH
GTZ-TERNA Expert Workshop 2009: Grid and System Integration of Wind Energy, 10.11.2009-12.11.2009, Berlin/Germany
Grid Connection
• Impact on thermal loading of lines/transformers

• Impact on voltage during normal operation
• Short circuit currents
• Power Quality Aspects
– Voltage dips because of WTG switching
– Voltage dips because of transformer inrush
– Continuous Flicker
– Harmonics
• Behaviour during grid faults/Fault ride through requirements
Impact on Thermal Loading
Options for network connection
HV
A Distributed/Embedded
B MV Substation
C
C HV Substation
MV
B
A
Impact on Thermal Loading of Lines/Transformers
• Additionally required transmission lines must be planned based on

well defined scenarios, considering size and location of planned wind
farms.
• Load flow studies required for combinations of:

– Load level (High-/Low-load)
– Wind speed level (High-/Medium-/Low wind)
• For avoiding investments in new transmission lines which are only

required for a few hours per year, probabilities should be assigned to
the studied cases.
• Assessment of potential of dynamic line rating recommended because

of the good correlation of transmission line capacity and wind speed.
Impact on Thermal Limits – Example
lod_70892..
lod_72882_1
lod_70892_1
lod_70962_1
lod_72802_1
BANTAM BAVIANSK GEELBEK KOUP ANTJIESK
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
QUARY1_2 PIETM1_2 BANTM2_2 WHITH1_2 BAVIN1_2 GEELB1_2 RUITK1_2 KOUP1_2 GEMSB1_2 ANTJK1_2 BOTES_2 WELTV1_2
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
2,07
2,63
2,08
3,87
BOSKLOOF 2
0,51
2181WOLF
74,80 LEEUG1_2
2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF
22,49 11,41 11,17 9,96 12,93 11,05 13,16 9,64 14,20 24,09 21,81
Continued on lod_72852_1 lod_70682_1
Bacchus 132kV diagram

lod_72962_1 lod_72932_1 lod_70922_1 lod_70842_1 lod_70762_1 lod_70732_1
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
12,41
21,81
2181WOLF
74,80 LEEUG1_1
2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF
trf_70682..
22,49 11,41 11,17 9,96 12,93 11,05 13,16 9,64 14,20 24,09
BOSKLOOF 1
2181WOLF
12,40
QUARY1_1 PIETM1_1 BANTM1_1 WHITH1_1 BAVIN1_1 ANTJK1_1 BOTES_1 WELTV1_1
GEELB1_1 RUITK1_1 KOUP1_1 GEMSB1_1
To DROERIVIER
2181WOLF
11,45
LEEUG22
2181WOLF
11,45
2181WOLF
9,40
2181WOLF
lod_70686_1
9,40
LAIN132B1
LAIN132B2
LAIN132 WF
LAINGSBURG
LAIN WF Tr 1
WP51WOLF
2161WOLF
14,45
150 MW
14,45
WP51WOLF 2161WOLF M1311CH
6,00 6,12 28,11
LAIN33 WF
Wind Park SWART1 BUFPT1 LADIS13

LAIN WF Tr 2
trf_73002..
trf_74002..
LAIN0.69 WF Ladismith
SWART22 BUFPT22
Voltage Levels
Laingsburg WF
400, kV
lod_73006_1 lod_74006_1
220, kV
132, kV
66, kV
33, kV
Impact on Thermal Limits – Example
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
QUARY1_2 PIETM1_2 BANTM2_2 WHITH1_2 BAVIN1_2
2181WOLF
GEELB1_2 RUITK1_2 KOUP1_2 GEMSB1_2 ANTJK1_2 BOTES_2
2181WOLF
2,07 km
2,63 km
2,08 km
3,36 %
6,05 %
0,95 %
2181WOLF
3,87 km
1,37 %
0,51 km
0,39 %
BOSKLOOF 2
2181WOLF
74,80 km
0,00 %
22,49 km 11,41 km 11,17 km 9,96 km 12,93 km 11,05 km 13,16 km 9,64 km 14,20 km 24,09 km
0,00 % 0,00 % 0,00 % 0,00 % 20,17 % 19,67 % 18,27 % 17,76 % 17,12 % 16,59 %
Continued on lod_72852_1

lod_72962_1 lod_72932_1 lod_70922_1 lod_70842_1
2181WOLF
12,41 km
0,00 %
2181WOLF
74,80 km
110,86 %
22,49 km 11,41 km 11,17 km 9,96 km 12,93 km 11,05 km 13,16 km 9,64 km 14,20 km 24,09 km
111,37 % 112,44 % 115,48 % 115,69 % 22,62 % 20,68 % 20,32 % 17,88 % 17,53 % 16,33 %
BOSKLOOF 1
2181WOLF
120,99 %
12,40 km
QUARY1_1 PIETM1_1 BANTM1_1 WHITH1_1 BAVIN1_1 BOTES_1
GEELB1_1 RUITK1_1 KOUP1_1 GEMSB1_1 ANTJK1_1
To DROERIVIER
2181WOLF
11,45 km
20,83 %
off
2181WOLF
11,45 km
• 120% overload
22,97 %
2181WOLF
9,40 km
31,04 %
2181WOLF
31,04 %
9,40 km
LAIN132B1
LAIN132B2
LAIN132 W F
LAINGSBURG
180,00 MVA
86,01 %
WP51WOLF
km
15,72%%
2161WOLF
14,45km
150 MW
15,97
14,45
6,00 km 6,12 km 28,11 km
14,48 % 14,59 % 7,06 %
LAIN33 WF

2,50 MVA
81,36 %
10,00 MVA
10,00 MVA
14,00 %
60,68 %
SWART22 BUFPT22
Impact on Thermal Limits - Example
General mitigation options if thermal limits are exceeded:
• Build a new line

• Limit wind farm output to 80% during all times (80% of
rated output)
• Limit wind farm output in case of actual line failure (manual
or automatic inter-trip).
• Consider dynamic line rating systems.
Violation of Thermal Limits – Cap Wind Farm Output
DIgSILENT
12,50
10,00
7,50
5,00
2,50
0,000
-2,50
0,500 1,500 2,500 3,500 4,500 5,500 6,500 7,500 8,500 9,500 10,50 11,50 12,50 13,50 14,50 15,50 16,50 17,50 18,50 19,50 20,50
x-Axis: Windpark Analysis: Wind Speed in m/s
Windpark Analysis: Probability in %
160,00
120,00
16.624 % 1454 h/year Y =120,000 MW
80,00
40,00
0,00
-40,00
0,03 20,03 40,03 60,03 80,03 100,03
x-Axis: Windpark Analysis: Cummulative Probability in %
Windpark Analysis: Generated Power in MW
High Load Plots Date: 7/23/2009

DIGSILENT Voltage at Laingsburg Wind Farm Connection Point PV-Curve Annex: 1 /3
Violation of Thermal Limits – Cap Wind Farm Output
Not Delivered Energy depends on:

• Wind conditions (average wind speed)
• Site-specific aspects
• Power curve of turbines
Rough cost estimates (example):

• vw=7m/s:
– Energy not delivered around 5% of potential energy
– 150 MW wind-farm: 19 000MWh not delivered -> 23 750 000 R/year
• vw=8m/s:
– Energy not delivered around 7,5% of potential energy
– 150 MW wind-farm: 37 000 MWh not delivered -> 46 250 000 R/year
• Must be compared to annualized costs of required line upgrade
Violation of Thermal Limits – Cap Wind Farm Output under
Contingency Situations
More cost effective solution:
• Limitation of wind farm output only in situations in which one circuit is

available (planned outage, unplanned outage)
• In case of minor overloads (below emergency rating):

– Manual action of system operator
• In case of major overloads (above emergency rating):

– Automatic inter-trip scheme
Dynamic Line Rating - Potential
• Thermal loading of overhead lines depends on:

– Ambient temperature
– Wind speed -> correlation with wind generation
• Wind-generators:
– cut-in wind-speed: 2.5...4m/s, rated: 12...16m/s
– But: height, environment etc. must be considered too!
Ambient Line Rating expressed in MVA at 66 kV*

Temperature
Wind Speed = 0.5 m/s Wind Speed = 3.0 m/s Wind Speed = 5.0 m/s
30 ºC 22.6 39.9 49.5
35 ºC 16.5 32.9 41.5
Impact on Voltage Variations
Voltage Variations
• Distribution Grids: Considerable voltage variations for varying MW

because of low X/R ratios (large R)
• Transmission Grids: Substantially less voltage variations for varying

MW becaus of high X/R ratios (low R). Contingency cases are more
relevant.
• Mitigation Options:
– Q(P)-Characteristic (open-loop voltage compensation)
– Voltage control (voltage feed-back)
Voltage Variations - Procedure
• Step 1 - System Operator: Identify required reactive power range at

connection point
• Step 2 – Wind farm planner: Design the reactive power capability for
complying with reactive capability requirements.
- Step 1 might be defined by a general Grid Code requirement -
Example 1: Connection to Distribution/Subtransmission Grid
lod_70892..
lod_72882_1
lod_70892_1
lod_70962_1
lod_72802_1
BANTAM BAVIANSK GEELBEK KOUP ANTJIESK
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
QUARY1_2 PIETM1_2 BANTM2_2 WHITH1_2 BAVIN1_2 GEELB1_2 RUITK1_2 KOUP1_2 GEMSB1_2 ANTJK1_2 BOTES_2 WELTV1_2
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
2,07
2,63
2,08
3,87
BOSKLOOF 2
0,51
2181WOLF
74,80 LEEUG1_2
2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF 2181WOLF
22,49 11,41 11,17 9,96 12,93 11,05 13,16 9,64 14,20 24,09 21,81
Continued on lod_72852_1 lod_70682_1

lod_72962_1 lod_72932_1 lod_70922_1 lod_70842_1 lod_70762_1 lod_70732_1
2181WOLF
2181WOLF
12,41
21,81
2181WOLF
74,80 LEEUG1_1
trf_70682..
22,49 11,41 11,17 9,96 12,93 11,05 13,16 9,64 14,20 24,09
BOSKLOOF 1
2181WOLF
12,40
QUARY1_1 PIETM1_1 BANTM1_1 WHITH1_1 BAVIN1_1 ANTJK1_1 BOTES_1 WELTV1_1
GEELB1_1 RUITK1_1 KOUP1_1 GEMSB1_1
To DROERIVIER
2181WOLF
11,45
LEEUG22
2181WOLF
11,45
2181WOLF
9,40
2181WOLF
lod_70686_1
9,40
LAIN132B1
LAIN132B2
LAIN132 WF
LAINGSBURG
LAIN WF Tr 1
WP51WOLF
2161WOLF
14,45
150 MW
14,45
6,00 6,12 28,11
LAIN33 WF

LAIN WF Tr 2
trf_73002..
trf_74002..
SWART22 BUFPT22
Voltage Levels
Laingsburg WF
400, kV
lod_73006_1 lod_74006_1
220, kV
132, kV
66, kV
33, kV
Voltage Variations/Step 1 – Example 1: cosphi constant (=1)
DIgSILENT
X =150,000 MW
1,08
136.500 MW 1.074 p.u.
1.074 p.u. 1.070 p.u.
1.065 p.u.
58.375 MW
47.697 MW 66.198 MW 1.050 p.u. Y = 1,050 p.u.
1,05
1,02
0,99
0,96
0,93
7,50 47,50 87,50 127,50 167,50 207,50
x-Axis: Laingsburg WF: Active Power in MW
LAIN132 WF: Voltage in p.u. - Base Case
LAIN132 WF: Voltage in p.u. - Lain132kV_Laingsburg_Off
LAIN132 WF: Voltage in p.u. - Laingsburg_Boskloof_Off
LAIN132 WF: Voltage in p.u. - Laingsburg_Droerivier_Off
High Load Voltage Date: 7/24/2009

DIGSILENT Voltage at Laingsburg Wind Farm Connection Point PV-Curve Annex: 1 /2
Voltage Variations/Step 1 – Example 1:
cosphi(P)-characteristic
DIgSILENT
X =150,000 MW
1,075
1.050 p.u. Y = 1,050 p.u.

1,050
1.044 p.u.
1.038 p.u.
1.037 p.u.
1,025
1,000
0,975
0,950
0,00 40,00 80,00 120,00 160,00 200,00
x-Axis: Laingsburg WF: Active Power in MW
LAIN132 WF: Voltage in p.u. - Base Case
LAIN132 WF: Voltage in p.u. - Lain132kV_Laingsburg_Off
LAIN132 WF: Voltage in p.u. - Laingsburg_Boskloof_Off
LAIN132 WF: Voltage in p.u. - Laingsburg_Droerivier_Off
High Load Voltage Date: 7/24/2009

DIGSILENT Voltage at Laingsburg Wind Farm Connection Point PV-Curve - cosphi(P)-characteristic Annex: 1 /2
Voltage Variations- Example 1: Summary
• High voltages in case of cos(phi)=1
• Small voltage variations if cos(phi) adjusted to actually generated

power (absorbing vars for compensating increasing voltage)
• Voltage control (with voltage feed-back) at wind farm connection point

is possible but not required in this particular case because:
– Only small voltage steps in case of contingencies
– Only small voltage variations in case of different operational scenarios
(high/low load)
– No voltage stability issue
Example 2: Large Wind Farms at Transmission Level
Voltage vs. Reactive Power – Voltage Stability
Voltage Variations- Example 2: Summary
• Small Voltage Variations in function of active power variations (large

X/R ratios)
• High Voltage Variations in case of critical contingencies
• Voltage control (with voltage feed-back) at wind farm connection point

is required for maintaining voltage stability
• Required reactive power range can be determined by analyzing QV-

curves
Voltage Variations/Step 2 – Wind Farm Design
• Wind farm design must consider reactive power requirements.
• Reactive power capability at grid connection point is limited by:

– Reactive power capability of wind turbine generators (WTGs)
– Thermal ratings of cables in the wind farm collector system.
– Voltage variations at the LV-nodes (voltage range of operation of WTGs)
• Requirement for additional reactive power compensation devices

(STATCOM, switched shunts) must be taken based on:
– Required reactive power capability
– Required dynamic performance of voltage/reactive power control.
Reactive Power – Voltage Control
cos(phi)=0,95 cos(phi)=0,95
p
power factor limit
const var limit (recommended)
Voltage Variations - Wind Farm Design
• Wind farm design must consider grid requirements
• Reactive power capability at grid connection point is limited by:

– Reactive power capability of wind turbine generators (WTGs)
– Thermal ratings of cables in the wind farm collector system.
– Voltage variations at the LV-nodes (voltage range of operation of WTGs)
• Requirement for additional reactive power compensation devices

(STATCOM, switched shunts) must be taken based on:
– Required reactive power capability
– Required dynamic performance of voltage/reactive power control.
Voltage Variations – Wind Farm Planning Studies
PV
Uset=1,12
Windfarm Red Sunset Project: Example
DIgSILENT
DIGSILENT
CFE/GTZ/DIgSILENT Graphic: Red Sunset
Date: 7/27/2009
PowerFactory 14.0.513 Annex:
/115 kV
Trafo-Typ
0
Tr
/20 kV
NA2XS(F)2Y 1x185RM 12/20kV ir

3
2,50 km
S5
2,00 km
Shunt/Filter
S1
S8 S7 S6 max. no.: 3 S2 S3 S4
NA2XS(F)2Y 1x185RM 12/20kVNA2XS(F)2Y
ir 1x185RM 12/20kV
NA2XS(F)2Y
ir 1x185RM 12/20kV ir NA2XS(F)2Y
act. no.: 3 1x185RM 12/20kV
NA2XS(F)2Y
ir 1x185RM 12/20kV
NA2XS(F)2Y
ir 1x185RM 12/20kV ir
0,80 km 0,80 km 0,80 km 7,00 Mvar 1,00 km 1,00 km 1,00 km

LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
Tr8
Tr7
Tr6
Tr5
Tr1
Tr2
Tr3
Tr4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0,80 km
S13
N2XS2Y 1x..
N2XS2Y 1x..
1,00 km
0,80 km
Line(3)
Line(4)
WTG 8 WTG 7 WTG 6 WTG 5 WTG 1 WTG 2 WTG 3 WTG 4
S16 S15 S14 S9 S11 S12

NA2XS(F)2Y 1x185RM 12/20kVNA2XS(F)2Y
ir 1x185RM 12/20kV
NA2XS(F)2Y
ir 1x185RM 12/20kV ir NA2XS(F)2Y 1x185RM 12/20kV ir NA2XS(F)2Y 1x185RM 12/20kV
NA2XS(F)2Y
ir 1x185RM 12/20kV ir
0,80 km 0,80 km 0,80 km 1,60 km 0,80 km 0,80 km
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
LV-Trf
Tr16
Tr15
Tr14
Tr13
Tr10
Tr11
Tr12
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Windpark Analysis
WTG 16 WTG 15 WTG 14 WTG 13 WTG 10 WTG 11 WTG 12
Voltage Variations – Wind Farm Design Studies
P [MW]
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 Q [Mvar] 30
-5
Short Circuit Contribution
Short Circuit Contribution of Wind Farms
• Calculation of max. short circuit currents:
– Impact on short circuit ratings of existing components (substations,

CB-ratings, cable-/line ratings, transformers etc.)
– Impact on new components, inside the wind farm
• Calculation of min. short circuit currents:
– Verification of protection settings
Short Circuit Contribution of Wind Farms
DIgSILENT
0,30
ip Fault Cleared
0,20
0,10
0,00
-0,10
-0,20
-0,30
-0,10 0,00 0,10 0,20 [s] 0,30
Tr2: Phase Current A/HV-Side in p.u.
Tr2: Phase Current B/HV-Side in p.u.
Tr2: Phase Current C/HV-Side in p.u.
Fault Current of DFIG with Crow-bar protection

Short Circuit Contribution - Modelling
• DFIG and WTGs with fully rated converter are devices with controlled
currents.
• DFIG is usually equipped with protection mechanisms (Crow-bar,

Chopper), which make short circuit behavior highly non-linear.
• Difficult to model for steady state short circuit analysis, which is

typically based on Thevenin-equivalents.
• No special consideration of WTGs given in IEC 60909.
• Proposed approach:
– „Equivalent Synchronous generator“ approach: Characterizing WTG short
circuit currents by subtransient and transient parameters.
– Approach suitable for planning studies but not for highly accurate studies.
Power Quality
Power Quality
• Impact on Flicker
– Continuous flicker
– Flicker following switching actions (WTGs, Inrush)
• Impact on Harmonics
– Harmonic injections
– Impact on harmonic impedance
Continuous Flicker
Caused by
• Turbulences
• “Rotational sampling”:
turbulence variation across the rotor
• Tower Shadow
• Torsional oscillation
Applicable Standards:
• IEC 61000-3-6, IEC 61400-21
Mexican Grid Code: Pst<0,35
Plt<0,25
Continuous Flicker - Example
DIgSILENT
4.00
2.00
-0.00
-2.00
-4.00
-6.00
-0.1000 14.041 28.182 42.323 56.465 [s] 70.606
Rotor-Turbulence: vt0
-3.20
-3.60
-4.00
-4.40
-4.80
-5.20
-0.1000 14.041 28.182 42.323 56.465 [s] 70.606
T3WT1: Total Active Power/HV-Side in MW
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.00 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 [Hz] 6.25
T3WT1: Total Active Power/HV-Side, Magnitude in MW
Turbulence, Electrical Power and Spectrum of a 5MW Variable Speed Turbine Plots(3) Date: 10/5/2003
DIgSILENT V0=13.6 m/s Annex: /1
Flicker due to Switching Actions
• WTGs automatically synchronize to the grid if vw>vcutin
• Variable speed WTGs: Very smooth synchronisation

• Fixed speed WTGs: Considerable voltage dip. Mitigation: soft cut-in
• Wind farm energization causes more considerable voltage dips:

– Switching of WTG step-up transformers
– Switching of main transformer
– > only during wind farm energization, not repeting events.
Switching of Fixed Speed Induction Generator
Typical start-up procedure
• Turbine pulls up the rotor to

ASM
0.9 ..1.1 nnominal
• Breaker is closed
Z’’n
IG’’ • Approximate Formula
V0 X’’ S rG
∆u = Z I = k i ' '
'' ''
n G
Sn
Switching
DIgSILENT
6000.00 1.025
4000.00 1.000
2000.00 0.975
0.00 0.950
-2000.00 0.925
-4000.00 0.900
-6000.00 0.875
-0.05 -0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 [s] 0.20 -0.05 -0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 [s] 0.20
WG 315kW: Phase Current A in A 415V Machines: Voltage Phasor, Magnitude in p.u.
WG 315kW: Phase Current B in A
WG 315kW: Phase Current C in A
1.003 0.90
0.60
1.000
0.30
0.997
-0.00
0.994
-0.30
0.991
-0.60
0.988 -0.90
-0.05 -0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 [s] 0.20 -0.05 -0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 [s] 0.20
WG 315kW: Speed 415V Machines: Line-Line Phase Voltage A in kV
415V Machines: Line-Line Phase Voltage B in kV
415V Machines: Line-Line Phase Voltage C in kV
Wind Power Integration Training WG Date: 10/5/2003

DIgSILENT Asm cut-In, directly on line EMT-simulation Annex: 1 /1
With Soft Cut-In
DIgSILENT
200.00 1.0250
0.995
100.00
0.965
0.00
0.935
-100.00
0.905
-200.00 0.875
0.05 0.09 0.13 0.17 [s] 0.21 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.17 [s] 0.21
Motor 315kW: Phase Current A in A 415V Machines: Voltage Phasor, Magnitude in p.u.
Motor 315kW: Phase Current B in A
Motor 315kW: Phase Current C in A
1.0100 0.90
0.60
1.0040
0.30
0.998
-0.00
0.992
-0.30
0.986
-0.60
0.980 -0.90
0.05 0.09 0.13 0.17 [s] 0.21 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.17 [s] 0.21
Motor 315kW: Speed 415V Machines: Line-Line Phase Voltage A in kV
415V Machines: Line-Line Phase Voltage B in kV
415V Machines: Line-Line Phase Voltage C in kV
Wind Power Integration Seminar Motor Date: 10/5/2003

DIgSILENT Soft cut-in Annex: 1 /1
Switching of Variable Wind Generators
SynM
DASM
Connection of Variable Speed WTG
DIgSILENT
1.025
1.000
0.975
0.950
0.925
0.900
-0.00 0.02 0.04 [s] 0.06
Point of Interconnection: Voltage Phasor, Magnitude in p.u.
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.00 0.02 0.04 [s] 0.06
PWM Grid Side: Current, d-Axis in p.u.
PWM Grid Side: d-Axis Current Reference in p.u.
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
-0.04
-0.00 0.02 0.04 [s] 0.06
2-Winding Transformer: Phase Current A/HV-Side in kA
2-Winding Transformer: Phase Current B/HV-Side in kA
2-Winding Transformer: Phase Current C/HV-Side in kA
Wind Power Training Plots Date: 10/5/2003

DIgSILENT Cut-In of Variable Converter driven synchronous machine Annex: 1 /3
Connection of Variable Speed WTG
DIgSILENT
1.025
1.000
0.975
0.950
0.925
0.900
-0.00 0.02 0.04 [s] 0.06
Point of Interconnection: Voltage Phasor, Magnitude in p.u.
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.00 0.02 0.04 [s] 0.06
PWM Grid Side: Current, d-Axis in p.u.
PWM Grid Side: d-Axis Current Reference in p.u.
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
-0.04
-0.00 0.02 0.04 [s] 0.06
2-Winding Transformer: Phase Current B/HV-Side in kA
2-Winding Transformer: Phase Current C/HV-Side in kA
Wind Power Training Plots Date: 10/5/2003

DIgSILENT Cut-In of Variable Converter driven synchronous machine Annex: 1 /3
Harmonic and Inter-Harmonic Injections
Harmonic injections caused by:

• Power electronics converters
• modern PWM converters produce high order harmonics
• Saturation effects (Generator, Transformer)
Inter-Harmonic injections caused by:
• PWM with switching frequency different from multiples of network
frequency
Effect
• Voltage distortion depending on network impedance
• Resonance problems
Standards: IEC 61000-3-7, IEC 61400-21
Self Commutated Converter
Udc Uac
U DC U AC
Self Commutated PWM Converter
DIgSILENT
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 [s] 0.08
0.15
0.12
0.09
1100.000 Hz
0.003 kA
0.06
1950.000 Hz 2050.000 Hz
0.004 kA 0.004 kA
900.000 Hz
0.004 kA
0.03
0.00
0.00 1280. 2560. 3840. 5120. [Hz] 6400.
2-Winding Transformer: Phase Current A/HV-Side, Magnitude in kA
Wind Power Training Currents Date: 10/5/2003

DIgSILENT PWM-converter Annex: 1 /4
Impact on Harmonic Impedance
• Voltage source converters:

– define a path via the coupling reactance to earth for high frequency
harmonics.
– At low frequency harmonics: Controller transfer function needs to be
considered too.
• Effect:
– Shift of resonance frequencies (towards higher order).
– Increased harmonic damping
• Cable capacitance of wind farm-internal cables.

• Effect:
– Shift of resonance frequencies (towards lower order)
– Amplification of harmonic background distortion.
Impact on Flicker and Harmonics - Summary
• Analysis of Flicker and Harmonics using IEC 61400-21 data sheet of a

typical variable-speed wind generator.
• Flicker generally low in case of large wind farms because Flicker-

relevant turbulences within a wind farm are only weekly correlated
• Harmonics of modern wind turbines (with IGBT-converters) very low.

Almost no harmonic current injections.
• WTGs can have a positive influence on harmonic impedance

characteristics (improved damping, increased resonance frequencies)
Behaviour During Grid Faults – FRT Requirements
Example: Converter Driven Synchronous Genenrator
DIgSILENT
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00 0.20 0.40 [s] 0.60
HV: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
MV BusBar: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
-20.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 [s] 0.60
Cub_1\PCC PQ: Active Power in p.u.
Cub_1\PCC PQ: Reactive Power in p.u.
1.15
1.10
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.00 0.20 0.40 [s] 0.60
Generator: speed
FRT Requirements: Summary
Basic FRT-Requirements:
• WTGs must not disconnect in case of voltage dips
• WTGs must deliver active power shortly after a voltage dip
Advanced FRT-Requirements:
• WTGs must inject reactive current during a fault (voltage support,

protection excitation)
• WTGs must not absorb reactive power during voltage recovery
Thank You
Markus Pöller Oscar Amay

mpoeller@digsilent.de o.amaya@digsilent.de
DIgSILENT GmbH
Heinrich-Hertz-Str. 9
72810 Gomaringen
www.digsilent.de

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Grid Connection of Wind Farms

Markus Pöller and Oscar Amaya/DIgSILENT GmbH

• Impact on thermal loading of lines/transformers

• Additionally required transmission lines must be planned based on

• Load flow studies required for combinations of:

• For avoiding investments in new transmission lines which are only

• Assessment of potential of dynamic line rating recommended because

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Bacchus 132kV diagram

Wind Park SWART1 BUFPT1 LADIS13

Bacchus 132kV diagram

Wind Park SWART1 BUFPT1 LADIS13

General mitigation options if thermal limits are exceeded:

• Build a new line

High Load Plots Date: 7/23/2009

Not Delivered Energy depends on:

Rough cost estimates (example):

• Must be compared to annualized costs of required line upgrade

More cost effective solution:

• Limitation of wind farm output only in situations in which one circuit is

• In case of minor overloads (below emergency rating):

• In case of major overloads (above emergency rating):

• Thermal loading of overhead lines depends on:

Ambient Line Rating expressed in MVA at 66 kV*

30 ºC 22.6 39.9 49.5

35 ºC 16.5 32.9 41.5

• Distribution Grids: Considerable voltage variations for varying MW

• Transmission Grids: Substantially less voltage variations for varying

• Step 1 - System Operator: Identify required reactive power range at

- Step 1 might be defined by a general Grid Code requirement -

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Bacchus 132kV diagram

Wind Park SWART1 BUFPT1 LADIS13

High Load Voltage Date: 7/24/2009

1.050 p.u. Y = 1,050 p.u.

High Load Voltage Date: 7/24/2009

• High voltages in case of cos(phi)=1

• Small voltage variations if cos(phi) adjusted to actually generated

• Voltage control (with voltage feed-back) at wind farm connection point

• Small Voltage Variations in function of active power variations (large

• High Voltage Variations in case of critical contingencies

• Voltage control (with voltage feed-back) at wind farm connection point

• Required reactive power range can be determined by analyzing QV-

• Wind farm design must consider reactive power requirements.

• Reactive power capability at grid connection point is limited by:

• Requirement for additional reactive power compensation devices

power factor limit

const var limit (recommended)

• Wind farm design must consider grid requirements

• Reactive power capability at grid connection point is limited by:

• Requirement for additional reactive power compensation devices

NA2XS(F)2Y 1x185RM 12/20kV ir

NA2XS(F)2Y 1x185RM 12/20kV ir

NA2XS(F)2Y 1x185RM 12/20kV ir

S16 S15 S14 S9 S11 S12

WTG 16 WTG 15 WTG 14 WTG 13 WTG 10 WTG 11 WTG 12

• Calculation of max. short circuit currents:

– Impact on short circuit ratings of existing components (substations,

• Calculation of min. short circuit currents:

– Verification of protection settings

Fault Current of DFIG with Crow-bar protection

• DFIG is usually equipped with protection mechanisms (Crow-bar,

• Difficult to model for steady state short circuit analysis, which is