Electronic Circuit Design (August 2019) PDF

EL224-ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DESIGN
LAB MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
FAST-NU, LAHORE
Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design
Created by: Mr. Omer Saleem Bhatti
Date: 16th January, 2014
Last Updated by: Ms. Sara Kiran
Date: August, 2019
Approved by the HoD:
Date:
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Table of Contents
Sr. No. Description Page No.
1 List of Equipment 4
2 Experiment 1: Operational Amplifier Basics 5
3 Experiment 2: Summing Amplifier 10
4 Experiment 3: Difference Amplifier 13
5 Experiment 4: Instrumentation Amplifier 18
6 Experiment 5: DC imperfections 22
7 Experiment 6: Integrators and Differentiators 23
8 Experiment 7: Wein Bridge (Sine-Wave) Osciallator 27
9 Experiment 8: Function Generator 31
10 Experiment 9: Astable Multivibrator using op-amp 35
11 Experiment 10: Monostable and Bistable Multivibrators 38
12 Experiment 11: Astable Multivibrator using 555 timer 44
Experiment 12: Design of Astable Multivibrator using 555 timer IC

13 49
(50% or lesser Duty cycle)
14 Experiment 13: Precision Rectifier 50
15 Experiment 14: Detectors and Clampers 52
16 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria 54
17 Appendix B: Safety Around Electricity 55
18 Appendix C: Guidelines for Preparing Lab Reports 57
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List of Equipment
Description Specifications Quantity

S.#
1000 V DC
1 Digital Multi-Meter 750 V AC 13
10 A
2 Function Generator 10 MHz 13
3 Oscilloscope 100 MHz 13
4 Laboratory DC Power Supply 30 V, 5 Amp 13
5 Prototyping Bread-Boards -- 13
6 Connecting Cables Supply 40
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EXPERIMENT 01
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASICS
Objectives
 To design the basic closed loop amplifiers.
 To understand the concept of negative feedback in op-amps.
 To implement the inverting and non-inverting voltage amplifiers using AC and DC source.
 To investigate the performance of a voltage follower (unity gain buffer).
Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
5. Digital Multimeter
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory
The primary use of the operational amplifier is as signal amplifier. By using feedback, operational
amplifiers can be designed to have a wide range of gains. The op amp draws very little current into its
input. This means that the input impedance looking into the inverting and the non-inverting input is
very large. The open-loop gain is also very large. Assuming the open-loop gain is infinity, we can
show that the voltages at the inverting and the non-inverting terminals should be approximately the
same (potential) at all the times. Because of this, we say that the two terminals “track” each other.
Inverting Amplifier
One of the most common operational amplifier designs is the inverting amplifier shown in Figure 1.1.
This amplifier can be analyzed by using the above procedure. Remember, no current flows into the
op-amp terminals.
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Figure 1.1: Inverting Amplifier

The gain of this amplifier is:
𝑣𝑜 𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = =−
𝑣𝐼 𝑅1
This means that the gain is completely determined by the external resistors as expected. The negative
gain implies that this is an inverting amplifier. This amplifier has an input resistance of approximately
R1.
Non-inverting Amplifier
Another common op-amp configuration is the non-inverting amplifier shown in Figure1.2. This
amplifier has very high input impedance and does not invert the signal like previous design.
Figure 1.2: Non-inverting Amplifier
The gain of this amplifier is:

𝑣𝑜 𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = =1+
𝑣𝐼 𝑅1
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Unity Gain Source Follower

A special case of the non-inverting amplifier is the source follower Shown in Figure 1.3. In this case,
we let the ratio of R2/R1 go to zero. This is done in practice by replacing R2 with a short circuit and
replacing R1 with an open circuit.
Figure 1.3: Source Follower
The gain of the amplifier is:

𝑣𝑜 𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = = 1+ =1
𝑣𝐼 𝑅1
This configuration has the properties of having very high input impedance, very low output resistance,
and the unity gain. It is used as a “buffer” to isolate a source from its load. It is a very useful amplifier
for the instrumentation circuits.
Procedure
1) Inverting Amp
a) Construct an inverting amplifier with R1 = 2 kΩ, R2 = 10 kΩ.
Calculate the numerical value of inverting amplifier gain = _________________
b) Power the op-amp with +15V and -15V using the DC power supply and apply a 40mVp-p,
1 kHz sinusoidal input signal to the amplifier using the signal generator. (Note: Use 20dB
attenuation button and min amplitude on the signal generator to achieve a signal this small)
c) Display Vin and Vout at the same time on the scope. Measure the input voltages Vin and Vout
(peak to peak values). From this, calculate the gain of the inverting amplifier. Is this value
close to what you have calculated in step (a)?
d) Capture the input, output waveforms for your lab report.
e) Gradually vary the input resistance (R1) in steps of 1 kΩ, to change the gain of the amplifier
and record your values in Table 1.
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f) For the last reading apply a DC+AC signal and observe the overall amplification. You can
apply a 1V DC signal using the signal generator by turning the DC offset ON or a 5V DC
using the 5V fixed power supply.
Compare the theoretical and practical values and find percentage error.
2) Non-Inverting Amp
Repeat the above procedure and record your values in Table 2.
3) Unity Gain Buffer

Repeat the above procedure and record your values in Table 3.
Table 1: Inverting amplifier observations
%𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 =
Av Vo Vo
R1 |𝑽𝟎(𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐) −𝑽𝟎(𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒄) |
(V/V) (theoretical) (practical) ×
S.# 𝑽𝟎(𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒄)
(Ω)
(theoretical) (p-p) (p-p)
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
1 1k
2 2k
3 3k
4 4k
5 5k
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Table 2: Non-inverting amplifier observations

Av Vo Vo
R1 |𝑽𝟎(𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐) −𝑽𝟎(𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒄) |
S.# (V/V) (theoretical) (practical) ×
𝑽𝟎(𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒄)
(Ω)
(theoretical) (p-p) (p-p)
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
1 1k
2 2k
3 3k
4 4k
5 5k
Table 3: Voltage source follower observations

Vo Vo
|𝑽𝟎(𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐) −𝑽𝟎(𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒄) |
S.# (theoretical) (practical) ×
𝑽𝟎(𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒄)
(p-p) (p-p)
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
1 40mV
2 80mV
3 120mV
4 1V
5 2V
Post Lab
1. Using only one op-amp, design a circuit that yields:
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟐𝑽𝟏 + 𝟓𝑽𝟐 Hint: Use principle of superposition.
2. The input resistance of non-inverting and buffer amplifier is infinity for ideal op-amp and for
real op-amps this value is very high. State why this is true.
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EXPERIMENT 02
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Objectives
 To design and implement a weighted summer voltage amplifier.
 To implement different applications of summing amplifiers.
Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory
The simple summing amplifier shown in the Figure 2.1 below is capable of summing as many signals
as desired with a proportionality determined by the ratio of feedback resistance to input resistance.
The inputs can be any combination of AC and DC signals; however, as with op-amp circuits previously
investigated, such limitations as frequency response, slew rate, offset voltage and output voltage range
must be considered when predicting the output signal.
Figure 2.1: Summing Amplifier
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Procedure:
1. Making the usual op-amp assumptions concerning input impedance, output impedance, and
open-loop voltage gain, derive an expression for Vo in terms of Rf , R1, R2, ... Rn, and V1, V2,
…Vn.
2. Using only two inputs, one to apply a 200 mV peak-to-peak sinusoidal signal and the other to
apply +5 V DC, determine suitable values for Rf, R1 and R2, that will result in a sinusoidal
output voltage that swings from a minimum of -9 V to a maximum of -1 V. Show and
implement the schematic diagram for this circuit.
3. Design a 3 bit D/A converter using an op-amp summing amplifier shown in Figure 2.2. Input
voltages of 0 V and 5 V will be used to provide logic low and high inputs, respectively. V1 will
be the least significant bit, V2 the next most significant bit, etc. Select the values of R1 through
R6 to provide an output that will vary as the digital input varies from 000 to 111. Design and
implement the schematic diagram for this circuit. Record the output voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 in Table 1.
(𝑉1 + 2𝑉2 + 4𝑉3 )

𝑉𝑜 = +
12
Figure 2.2: D/A Converter
R1 = ______________________ R2 = ______________________
R3 = ______________________ R4 = _________ _____
R5 = ______________________ R5 = ______________________
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Table 1: D/A converter observations

Vo Vo
S.# Digital Input %age Error
(theoretical) (practical)
1 001
2 010
3 100
4 101
5 110
4. Assume that the diode in the circuit of Figure 2.3 is a silicon diode with a voltage that varies
inversely with temperature at the rate of 2.5 mV/ ºC, and has a knee voltage of 0.7 V @ 25 ºC.
Use Rf = 10 kΩ, R1 = 1.5 kΩ, R2 = 3.9 kΩ and Vref = 2.5V. This will cause the output voltage
to vary as the temperature varies. Circuits such as this are used in temperature sensing
applications. You may use any diode of the series 1N4001 – 1N4007. Implement the circuit
and observe the behavior.
Rff
R1
Figure 2.3: Temperature Sensor
Post-Lab
1) Explain the working and functionality of D/A convertor and temperature sensor, qualitatively
and quantitatively.
2) Design and implement the schematic diagram for this circuit using summing amplifier
configuration having following mathematical function.
𝑉𝑜 = 8𝑉1 + 6𝑉2 − 3𝑉3 − 4𝑉4

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EXPERIMENT 03
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Objectives
 To design and implement a voltage amplifier that amplifies the difference between the two
voltage inputs, using a single op-amp.
 To study the effect of resistances on gain and CMRR.
 To compare the performance of differential amplification using a single op-amp and a two op-
amp configuration.
Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory
In an earlier experiment you studied the inverting and non-inverting operational amplifier circuits. It
is natural to ask if the two circuit types could be combined to perform subtraction or to find the
difference between two voltages. The differential amplifier is designed to amplify the difference
between the two input signals. A simple differential amplifier is shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Differential Amplifier

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If the four resistors satisfy the relationship, R2/R1 = R4/R3, then the gain of this amplifier is given by:
𝑉𝑜 𝑅2
𝐴𝐷 = =
(𝑉𝐼2 − 𝑉𝐼1 ) 𝑅1
Because the amplifier only amplifies the difference between the two input signals, it rejects common
mode signals (signals which are common to the two inputs). Therefore, if common noise appears at
both inputs, it will be rejected. For this reason, the differential amplifier is used in very noisy
environments to reject noise. If the same input signal is applied to both inputs, the voltage gain of that
signal (which should be very small) is denoted as ACM. One can define what is known as common
mode rejection ratio (CMRR) as:
𝐴𝐷
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |
𝐴𝐶𝑀
For a good difference amplifier, this number will be very large (80-100 dB).
Procedure:
1. Using LM741, build the difference amplifier. Take R2 = R4 = 10 kΩ and R1 = R3 = 2 kΩ. Then,
bias the amplifier with +15V and 0V. Fix VI1 = 5V and vary the voltages at the input VI2 (VI2
> VI1) and record the result in the Table 1 below.
Table 1: Differential amplifier observations

VI1 VI2 Vo (V) Vo (V)
%age error
S.no. (V) (V) (theoretical) (practical)
1 5
2 5
3 5
4 5
5 5
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2. Take R2 = R4 = 10 kΩ and R1 = R3 = 2 kΩ. Then, bias the amplifier shown in Figure 3.2 with
+15V and -15V. By applying a 1Vp-p, (frequency mentioned in the table below) sinusoid
signal between two inputs, measure the differential gain (AD) of this circuit. Record the values
in Table 2.
Figure 3.2: Differential Amplifier (Differential gain AD)
3. Apply a common mode signal to the amplifier shown in Figure 3.3 (this is done by connecting
the function generator simultaneously to both non-inverting and inverting inputs of the op-
amp). Measure the common mode gain (ACM) of this amplifier. Record the values in the Table
2.
Figure 3.3: Differential Amplifier (Common-mode gain ACM)
4. From steps above calculate the CMRR for 1 kHz. Show your working.
5. Plot a graph of the CMRR vs. signal frequency of the circuit on a semi log graph paper. Take
frequency values on the log scale and CMRR on the linear scale.
6. What Conclusion do you draw from the signal frequency vs. CMRR of the circuit graph plot?
Explain your justification.
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Table 2: Differential amplifier CMRR observations

Frequency AD ACM CMRR
S.no.
(kHz) (V/V) (mV/V) (dB)
1 0.1
2 1.0
3 10.0
4 20.0
5 30.0
6 40.0
7 50.0
8 60.0
9 70.0
10 80.0
11 90.0
12 100.0
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Post Lab
Figure 3.4
The circuit given in Figure 3.4 above is also a difference amplifier.
1. Derive the Differential Gain formula. Provide the assumptions taken, if any.
2. Explain the functioning and the benefit of using this circuit over the one implemented in the
lab.
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EXPERIMENT 04
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
Objectives
 To implement an instrumentation voltage amplifier, using three op-amps.
 To study the effect of resistances on gain and CMRR.
Equipment
1. LM324 Op Amp
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory
Instrumentation amplifier is a kind of difference amplifier with additional input buffer stages. The
addition of input buffer stages makes it easy to match (impedance matching) the amplifier with the
preceding stage. Instrumentation amplifier is commonly used in industrial test and measurement
application, due to its low offset voltage, high CMRR (Common mode rejection ratio), high input
resistance, high gain etc. The circuit diagram of a typical instrumentation amplifier using op-amp is
shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Instrumentation Amplifier

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In the circuit diagram, op-amps having the input V1 and V2 are the input buffers. The gain of these
buffer stages are not unity because of the presence of R1 and Rg. The op-amp at the output stage is
wired as a standard difference amplifier. R3 connected from the output to its non inverting input is the
feedback resistor. R2 is the input resistor. The voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier can be
expressed by using the equation below.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2𝑅1 𝑅4
= (1 + )( )
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑅2 𝑅3
If need a setup for varying the gain, replace Rg with a suitable potentiometer. Instrumentation
amplifiers are generally used in situations where high sensitivity, accuracy and stability are required.
For Figure 4.2, R1 = R5 and R3 = R4 = R6 = R7 are to be same.
Procedure
Task 1
1. Refer to pin configuration of LM324 given in Figure 4.3.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the Figure 4.2. Give + 12V DC and GND using the power
supply.
3. R2 must also be a fixed 100 KΩ resistor.
4. Provide difference signal V1 & V2 at the input (V2 > V1), using a separate power supply.
5. Calculate Vout theoretically using the formula.
6. Switch on the power supply and measure Vout.
7. Record your observations in Table 1.
8. Compute the percentage error between the calculated and measured Vout.
9. Make sure that all the ground connections are common with each other. That is, the GND
connection of Vcc to LM324, V1 and V2, the 100kΩ resistor, and Vout are to be common.
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Figure 4.2: Instrumentation Amplifier using LM324
Table 1: Instrumentation amplifier observations
V1 V2 Vout (V) Vout (V)

%age error
S. No. (V) (V) (theoretical) (practical)
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Task 2
1. Bias the amplifier with +15V and -15V. By applying a 1Vp-p, 100 Hz sinusoid signal at V I2
and GND at VI1, measure the differential gain of this circuit.
2. Apply a common mode signal to the amplifier (this is done by connecting the function
generator simultaneously to both non-inverting and inverting inputs of the op-amp). Measure
the common mode gain of this amplifier.
3. From steps above calculate the Common Mode Rejection Ratio CMRR
Figure 4.3: LM324 Pin Configuration

Post-Lab
The Figure 4.4 shows an instrumentation amplifier driven by a bridge. Find the gain Vo / Vi of the
amplifier.
Figure 4.4: Bridge driven instrumentation amplifier
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EXPERIMENT 05
DC IMPERFECTIONS
Problem Statement
Devise an experiment and use it to investigate the characteristics of DC imperfection in the
operation amplifier IC given to you. You will be evaluated based upon the rubrics of PLO-4.
 Draw the complete circuit to examine the DC imperfections SLO 4.1
 Find the unknowns in the circuit: SLO 4.2
o Input supply voltage
o Value of the resistors required
 Implement the circuit SLO-4.3
 Measure the offset voltage, offset current and bias current.
SLO-4.4
 Compare the measured values with theoretical values and find the % error.
SLO-4.5
 Find and discuss the limitations of the design Circuit SLO-4.6
 Devise a method to reduce the DC imperfections.
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EXPERIMENT 06
INTEGRATORS AND DIFFERNTIATORS
Objectives
 To design and implement an inverting integrator.
 To design and implement an inverting differentiator.
Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory
Op-amp circuits are often designed and implemented for signal differentiation and integration. Until
recently (before computer-based control), control algorithms (such as PID) containing differentials
and integrals were implemented in discrete circuit components. Differentiation is also useful for
obtaining velocity measurements from a signal representing a position or determining a signal's
frequency. In this lab, practically realizable differentiators and integrators will be built.
Figure 6.1: Integrators & Differentiators
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1. The Integrator
Op-amps allow you to make nearly perfect integrators such as the practical integrator shown in Figure
6.1. The circuit incorporates a large resistor in parallel with the feedback capacitor. This is necessary
because real op-amps have a small current flowing at their input terminals called the "bias current".
This current is typically a few nano-amps, and is neglected in many circuits where the currents of
interest are in the micro-amp to milliamp range. However, if you apply a nano-amp current to a 0.1mF
capacitor, it won't take long until it charges and becomes effectively an open circuit not allowing any
current to flow! The feedback resistor gives a path for the bias current to flow. The effect of the resistor
on the response is negligible at all but the lowest frequencies.
Figure 6.2: Op-Amp Integrator
Task 1:
 Wire up the practical op-amp integrator shown in Figure 6.2.

 Drive the input (via vin(t)) with a 500Hz square wave of 2 V p-p amplitude. Sketch the
input and output waveforms.
 Has the input been integrated?
 Repeat using a sine wave and a triangle wave.
 Calculate the expected output waveform for sine wave via integration formula using the
circuit component values and compare to the experimental waveform.
 Does the amplitude of the output waveform agree with what it should be from the circuit
values?
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2. The Differentiator
The ideal differentiator is inherently unstable in practice due to the presence of some high frequency
noise in every electronic system. An ideal differentiator would amplify this small noise. For instance,
if vnoise = Asin(wt) is differentiated, the output would be vout = Awcos(wt). Even if A = 1mV, when w =
2π(10MHz) vout would have an amplitude of 63V! To circumvent this problem, it is traditional to
include a series resistor at the input and a parallel capacitor across the feedback resistor, converting
the differentiator to an integrator at high frequencies for filtering.
Figure 6.3: Op-Amp Differentiator
Task 3:
 Wire up the practical op-amp differentiator shown in Figure 6.3 using your op-amp.
 Drive it (via vin(t)) with a 1 VP-P, 0.5 kHz sine wave, a 0.5 kHz square wave, and a 0.5 kHz
triangle wave. For each input signal, sketch the input and output waveforms.
 Are the output waveforms and their amplitudes what you would expect, i.e., does the circuit
differentiate the input signal?
 Calculate the expected output waveform for sine wave via differentiation formula using
the circuit component values and compare to the experimental waveform.
 Does the amplitude of the output waveform agree with what it should be from the circuit
values?
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Post-Lab
1. Analog-to-Digital Convertors are known to have an integrator as one of the essential
components in their construction. They are commonly known as ‘Integrating ADC’.
a. Describe the functionality of an integrating ADC
b. Design the circuit of a 2-bit integrating ADC.
2. Integrators find their application in Instrumentation circuits such as Digital Voltmeter.
Describe its working in detail and draw its bock diagram.
3. List two applications of differentiator circuit and describe them in detail.
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EXPERIMENT 07
SINE-WAVE GENERATOR
Objectives
 To understand the function of Wein-Bridge Oscillator.
 To design and implement a sine wave generator of desired frequency.
 To compare the output frequency with the theoretical value.
 To stabilize the amplitude using a limiter circuit.
Equipment
1. 1N4148 Schottky Diodes
2. LM741op-amp
4. Oscilloscope
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory
Generation of sine wave can be accomplished by employing a positive-feedback loop. It consists of

an amplifier and RC or LC frequency selective network. All oscillators are non-linear circuits. A
positive-feedback loop that could generate sine wave is shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: The basic structure of a sinusoidal oscillator
Here, a positive feedback loop is formed by an amplifier with gain A and a frequency-selective
network with gain β. In this figure an input signal of xs is shown but in actual oscillator no signal input
Page | 27
is present. The amplifier, however, needs a DC supply for proper operation. The loop gain of this
circuit in Figure 7.1 is given by –A(s)β(s).
For a sustained stable oscillation, the loop gain should be one; i.e. 1=A(s)β(s) = A(jω 0)β(jω0). At the
frequency ω0 the phase of the loop gain should be zero and the magnitude of the loop gain should be
unity. This is known as Barkhausen criterion. The frequency ω0 should be unique otherwise we
wouldn’t have a pure sine wave.
One such example of a sine-wave oscillator that works according to the above principle is Wien-Bridge
oscillator. This uses an Op-Amp and several R, C elements. The basic schematic is shown in Fig. 7.2.
Figure 7.2: A Wien –Bridge oscillator without amplitude stabilization
The loop gain is given by
𝑅
𝑅2 𝑍𝑝 1 + 𝑅2 ⁄𝑅1 1 + 𝑅2
1
𝐿(𝑗𝜔) = [1 + ] [ ]= =
𝑅1 𝑍𝑝 + 𝑍𝑠 1 + 𝑍𝑠 𝑌𝑝 1
3 + 𝑗 (𝜔𝐶𝑅 − 𝜔𝐶𝑅 )
𝑅
The first term in L(jω) is the non-inverting amplifier gain A = [1 + 𝑅2 ]. The second term involving Z
1
is the feedback gain β.
When the phase of L is zero, the loop gain (L) is a real number. This condition is satisfied at ω0=1/CR.
The frequency of oscillation of the Wien bridge oscillator is given by
1
f=
2πRC
Page | 28
To obtain a sustained oscillation at this frequency, one should set the magnitude of the loop-gain to
unity. This can be achieved by selecting:
R2
≈ 2.1
R1
Figure 7.3: A Wien bridge oscillator with Amplitude Control
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit is as shown in the Figure 7.3.

2. Set R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 21 kΩ
3. Use different values of R and C to generate sinusoids of different frequencies.
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4. Apply +15V and -15V. Switch on the power.

5. Find the theoretical frequency using, f = 1/2πRC.
6. Observe the output on the oscilloscope.
7. Adjust the voltage sensitivity band switch and time-base band switch such that at least two or
more complete sine waves are observed on the screen of Oscilloscope.
8. Measure the practical frequency of the output sinusoid and record it in Table 1.
9. Compare the two frequencies.
10. Draw the waveform of the sinusoids for reading (3) in the Table 1.
11. What is concluded from this experiment? What can be done to stabilize the output?
Table 1: Wein Bridge oscillator observation
Theoretical Frequency Measured Frequency Percentage

S.no. R (kΩ) C (nF)
(Hz) (Hz) Error (%)
1 10 16
2 0.22 33
3 0.56 33
4 1.0 10
5 470 20
Post Lab
1. Consider the circuit in Figure 7.3, it is the same as the circuit discussed in Figure 7.2, however
it has an additional feature of amplitude control. The limiter circuit serves to stabilize the output
voltage. Submit a detailed lab-report that explains this phenomenon in detail.
2. Using the values in Figure 7.3, calculate the values of Va and Vb for different readings.
3. Design an Oscillator with a Frequency of 10 kHz?
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EXPERIMENT 08
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Objectives
 To understand the function of Waveform Generator
 To design and implement a square/triangular wave of desired frequency.
 To compare the output frequency with the theoretical value.
Equipment
1. LM741op-amp
3. Oscilloscope
5. DC Supply
6. Breadboard
Theory
This circuit shown in Figure 8.1 uses two operational amplifiers. The first op-amp from the left-hand
side (A1) functions as a comparator (Schmitt trigger with positive feedback). The second op-amp (A2)
acts as an integrator. The comparator compares the voltage at point P continuously with respect to the
voltage at the inverting input, which is grounded potential. When the voltage at P goes slightly below
zero, the output of A1 will switch to negative saturation.
Figure 8.1: Wave-Form Generator
When the output of A1 is at positive saturation +VSAT, this voltage is the input of the integrator, the
output of A2 will be a negative going ramp. Thus one end of the voltage divider R1-R2 is at +VSAT
Page | 31
and other at the negative going ramp. At time t = t1; when the negative going ramp attains value of –
VRamp, the effective voltage at point P becomes slightly less than 0 V. This produces output of A1 from
positive saturation to negative saturation level -VSAT.
Figure 8.2: Output Waveforms
During the time when the output of A1 is at -VSAT, the output of A2 increases in positive direction. At
the time t = t2 the voltage at point P becomes just above 0 V, there by switching the output of A1 from
-VSAT to +VSAT. The cycle repeats and generates a triangular waveform. The frequency of triangular
wave is
𝑹𝟏
𝒇=
𝟒𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit is as shown in the Figure 8.3.

2. Apply +4.5V at the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp in the 2nd stage.
3. Apply +9V and GND. Switch on the power.
4. Find the theoretical frequency using, f = R1/4R2R3C.
5. Observe the square/triangular wave output on the oscilloscope.
6. Measure the practical frequency of the output sinusoid and record it in Table 1. Compare
the theoretical frequencies with the measured frequencies.
Page | 32
Figure 8.3: Function Generator
Table 1: Function generator observations
Theoretical Measured
Percentage
R1 (Ω) R3 (Ω) Frequency Frequency
S. no. Error (%)
(Hz) (Hz)
1 100k 100k
2 100k 47k
3 470k 100k
4 1M 100k
5 2M 100k
7. Draw the Triangular Waveform Output.

8. Draw the Square Waveform Output.
9. What happens to the waveforms if, the +4.5V signal is varied?
Page | 33
10. What happens if the 100 kΩ resistor (between pin 3 and pin 6 of input op-amp) is un-plugged?
Comment on the reason for the specific shape of the waveform under such circumstances.
11. What is concluded from this experiment?
Post Lab
1. Design a Function generator that outputs a square wave and triangular wave generator having
a frequency of 50Hz and amplitude of 8 Vp-p. Consult Figure 8.1 and use GND as Vref.
Calculate all resistance values and draw the complete circuit diagram.
2. Derive the relation of frequency of the triangular wave.
Page | 34
EXPERIMENT 09
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR using Op-amp
Objectives
 To design and implement an Astable Multivibrator using op-amp.
 To generate a square wave signal of a specific duty cycle and frequency.
Equipment
1. 741 op-amp
3. Oscilloscope
5. DC Supply
6. Breadboard
Theory
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such
as oscillators, timers and flip flops (e.g a clock signal). An astable multivibrator has two states, neither
one stable. The circuit therefore behaves as an oscillator with the time spent in each state controlled
by the charging or discharging of a capacitor through a resistor. The astable multivibrator may be
created directly with transistors or with the use of integrated circuits such as operational amplifiers
(op amps) or the 555 timer. Most operational amplifiers are powered by a positive and negative rail
voltage—the output is never able to exceed these rail voltages. An example circuit is shown in Figure
9.1.
Page | 35
Figure 9.1 Op-amp based Astable Multivibrator
Depending upon the inital conditions, the op amp’s output will be driven to either the positive or
negative rail. Upon this occurance, the capacitor will either charge or discharge through resistor R2
(its voltage slowly rising or falling). As soon as the voltage at the op amp’s inverting terminal is equal
to the voltage at the non-inverting terminal (the op amp’s output voltage divided between R1 and R2),
the output will be driven to the opposing rail. This process then repeats with the capacitor discharging
if it had previously charged and vice versa. Once the inverting terminal reaches the voltage of the non-
inverting terminal, the output again is driven to the opposing rail voltage and the cycle begins again.
Thus, the astable multivibrator creates a square wave with no inputs. The period of the astable
multivibrator displayed in Figure 9.1 is:
𝟏+𝜷
𝑻 = 𝟐𝑹𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝟏−𝜷
Fill in Table 1 and find the value for R3 in Table 2 with the appropriate values for the circuit in Figure
9.1 to produce a 250 Hz square wave.
Now design an astable multivibrator to generate square wave of 500 Hz and 1000 Hz and record your
readings in Table-1, Table-2 and Table-3.
Page | 36
Post Lab
1. What difference is noticed in the transient analysis when the initial condition of the capacitor is
modified slightly to a negative voltage? Why does this change occur?
2. What could have affected the initial condition of your experimental circuit, assuming that the
capacitor had no initial charge across it?
3. Using the knowledge from the second Op Amp lab, what could be added to Figure 9.1 to generate
a triangular waveform? Draw an appropriate schematic for the circuit to achieve this (you do not
need to give components specific values).
Page | 37
EXPERIMENT 10
MONOSTABLE AND BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
Objectives
 To understand the function of 555 Timer IC.
 To design and implement a Mono-Stable Multivibrator.
 To design and implement a Bi-Stable Multivibrator.
Equipment
1. 555 Timer IC
3. Oscilloscope
5. DC Supply
6. Breadboard
Theory
Now we consider a special integrated circuit designed specifically for timing and oscillator
applications: the 555 timer IC, originally invented in 1971 by engineers at Signetics (since absorbed
into NXP Semiconductors). The 555 timer is an example of a mixed signal or interface IC,
incorporating both analog and digital circuitry; we’ll consider such circuits in more detail in a later
experiment. Figure 10.1 shows the functional block diagram and the device pinout for the timer, which
at first glance seems very complicated.
An RS flip-flop inside the 555 timer controls the device’s two outputs: Output and Discharge. A flip-
flop is the generic term for a two-state digital circuit which changes its operating state only when some
particular sequence of its input signals is encountered; otherwise it remains in its current state — in
other words, a flip-flop is an elementary, 1-bit memory. In this case, the flip-flop has two primary
inputs: Reset (R) and Set (S). The inactive state for an input is Low (ground), whereas a High input
(near the V+ power supply voltage) commands the flip-flop to its corresponding operating state: Set
Page | 38
(Q = High; ^Q = Low) or Reset (Q = Low; ^Q = High). If both the R and S inputs are High concurrently,
then the 555 gives priority to the S input, driving the flip-flop to its Set state. The separate 555 Reset
terminal input overrides any other command to its internal flip-flop and clears the flip-flop: drives it
to the Reset state (the little circle on the wire from Clear input at the top of the flip-flop means that it
is active when Low).
The operating state of the RS flip-flop determines the condition of the 555 terminals Output and
Discharge. The Output terminal reflects the flip-flop’s Q output: nearly equal to V+ Power when the
flip-flop is Set, nearly equal to ground when the flip-flop is Reset. The Discharge terminal is connected
via an analog switch to the ground terminal: When the flip-flop is Set, the switch is open, so the
Discharge terminal is disconnected from ground; when the flip-flop is Reset, the switch closes, and
the Discharge terminal is shorted to ground.
Figure 10.1: 555 Timer Schematic
The flip-flop R and S inputs are supplied by two comparators monitoring analog voltages on the 555’s
Trigger and Threshold inputs; the comparator reference voltages for these inputs are 1/3 and 2/3 of
the power supply voltage applied to the V+ Power terminal. The following table itemizes the possible
input combinations and how they affect the 555 output terminals.
1. Monostable Multivibrator
A Monostable Circuit produces one pulse of a set length in response to a trigger input such as a push
button. The output of the circuit stays in the low state until there is a trigger input, hence the name
Page | 39
"monostable" meaning "one stable state". This type of circuit is ideal for use in a "push to operate"
system for a model displayed at exhibitions. A visitor can push a button to start a model's mechanism
moving, and the mechanism will automatically switch off after a set time.
10kΩ
Figure 10.2: Monostable Multivibrator using 555 Timer
When a negative ( 0V ) pulse is applied to the trigger input (pin 2) of the Monostable configured 555
timer oscillator, the internal comparator, (comparator 1) detects this input and "sets" the state of the
flip-flop, changing the output from a "LOW" state to a "HIGH" state. This action in turn turns "OFF"
the discharge transistor connected to pin 7, thereby removing the short circuit across the external
timing capacitor, C1. This action allows the timing capacitor to start to charge up through
resistor, R1 until the voltage across the capacitor reaches the threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc set
up by the internal voltage divider network. At this point the comparators output goes "HIGH" and
"resets" the flip-flop back to its original state which in turn turns "ON" the transistor and discharges
the capacitor to ground through pin 7. This causes the output to change its state back to the original
stable "LOW" value awaiting another trigger pulse to start the timing process over again. Then as
before, the Monostable Multivibrator has only "ONE" stable state. The monostable circuit triggers on
a negative-going pulse applied to pin 2 and this trigger pulse must be much shorter than the output
pulse width allowing time for the timing capacitor to charge and then discharge fully. Once triggered,
the 555 Monostable will remain in this "HIGH" unstable output state until the time period set up by
Page | 40
the R1 x C1 network has elapsed. The amount of time that the output voltage remains "HIGH" or at a
logic "1" level is given by the following time constant equation.
𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝑪𝟏 × 𝑹𝟏
We can manually calculate the values of R and C for the individual components required as we did in
the example above.
Procedure:
Task 1:
1. Design the monostable multivibrator circuit, given in Figure 10.2, using 555 timer IC for the
given pulse duration (t).
2. Fix a value of capacitance (C).
3. Calculate the value of resistance (R) for achieving the pulse duration (t), and vice versa.
4. Implement the circuit on breadboard.
5. Check the output on the oscilloscope (0.5sec/div). Measure the duration of pulse and record it
in Table 1.
Table 1: Monostable multivibrator observations
Capacitance Designed ‘t’ Practical ‘t’ %age

S.# Resistance (kΩ)
(µF) (sec) (sec) error
1 100 20
2 100 1.1
3 100 15
4 100 3
5 10 100
6 10 0.55
7 10 330
Page | 41
2. Bistable Multivibrator
A Bistable Multivibrator has two stable states, high and low. Taking the Trigger input low makes
the output of the circuit go into the high state. Taking the Reset input low makes the output of the
circuit go into the low state.
Trigger
Figure 10.3: Bistable Multivibrator using 555 Timer
The switching of the output waveform is achieved by controlling the trigger and reset inputs of the
555 timer which are held "HIGH" by the two pull-up resistors, R1 and R2. By taking the trigger input
(pin 2) "LOW", switch in set position, changes the output state into the "HIGH" state and by taking
the reset input (pin 4) "LOW", switch in reset position, changes the output into the "LOW" state. This
555 timer circuit will remain in either state indefinitely and is therefore bistable. Then the Bistable
555 timer is stable in both states, "HIGH" and "LOW". The threshold input (pin 6) is connected to
ground to ensure that it cannot reset the bistable circuit as it would in a normal timing application.
This ability of the 555 timer to both "Sink" (absorb) and "Source" (supply) current means that the
output device can be connected between the output terminal of the 555 timer and the supply to sink
the load current or between the output terminal and ground to source the load current.
Page | 42
Figure 10.4: Sink and Source current for LED’s

Task 2:
1. Design the bistable multivibrator circuit, given in Figure 10.3, using 555 timer IC.
2. Fix the value of resistance (R1 & R2) to 10 kΩ.
3. Attach two LED’s with a resistor R (as shown in Figure 10.4), at the output of the bistable
multivibrator, to sink and source the current.
4. Fix the value of resistance (R) to 220 Ω.
6. Check the output on the oscilloscope
Post Lab
Design a mono-stable multivibrator that can provide four different values of time-period (4 sec, 10
sec, 16 sec and 25 sec). The capacitor should be kept fixed as shown in the Figure 10.5 below. The
resistor must be switched with the aid of a jumper-wire.
Figure 10.5
Page | 43
EXPERIMENT 11
Astable Multivibrators using 555 Timer
Objectives
 To design and implement an Astable Multivibrator.
 To generate a square wave signal of a specific duty cycle and frequency.
Equipment
1. 555 Timer IC
3. Oscilloscope
5. DC Supply
6. Breadboard
Theory
We can also connect the 555 timer IC in an Astable mode to produce a very stable 555
Oscillator circuit for generating highly accurate free running waveforms whose output frequency can
be adjusted by means of an externally connected RC tank circuit consisting of just two resistors and a
capacitor. The 555 Oscillator is another type of relaxation oscillator for generating stabilized square
wave output waveforms of either a fixed frequency of up to 500 kHz or of varying duty cycles from
50 to 100%. In order to get the 555 Oscillator to operate as an astable multivibrator, it is necessary to
continuously re-trigger the 555 IC after each and every timing cycle.
This re-triggering is basically achieved by connecting the trigger input (pin 2) and the threshold input
(pin 6) together, thereby allowing the device to act as an astable oscillator. Then the 555 Oscillator
has no stable states as it continuously switches from one state to the other. Also the single timing
resistor of the previous monostable multivibrator circuit has been split into two separate
resistors, R1 and R2 with their junction connected to the discharge input (pin 7) as shown below.
Page | 44
Figure 11.1: (a) Astable Multivibrator using 555 Timer (b)Voltage waveform
at capacitor and output pin
In the 555 Oscillator above, pin 2 and pin 6 are connected together allowing the circuit to re-trigger
itself on each and every cycle allowing it to operate as a free running oscillator. During each cycle
capacitor, C, charges up through both timing resistors, R1 and R2 but discharges itself only through
resistor, R2 as the other side of R2 is connected to the discharge terminal, pin 7. Then the capacitor
charges up to 2/3Vcc (the upper comparator limit) which is determined by the
0.693×(R1+R2)×C combination and discharges itself down to 1/3Vcc (the lower comparator limit)
determined by the 0.693(R2×C) combination. This results in an output waveform whose voltage level
is approximately equal to Vcc - 1.5V and whose output "ON" and "OFF" time periods are determined
by the capacitor and resistors combinations.
Page | 45
The individual times required to complete one charge and discharge cycle of the output is therefore
given as:
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑪
𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 (𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑪
Where, R is in Ω's and C in Farads.
When connected as an astable multivibrator, the output from the 555 Oscillator will continue
indefinitely charging and discharging between 2/3Vcc and 1/3Vcc until the power supply is removed.
As with the monostable multivibrator these charge and discharge times and therefore the frequency
are independent on the supply voltage. The duration of one full cycle is therefore equal to the sum of
the two individual times that the capacitor charges and discharges added together and is given as:
𝑻 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝟐𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑪
The output frequency of oscillations can be found by inverting the equation above for the total cycle
time giving a final equation for the output frequency of an Astable 555 Oscillator as:
𝟏 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒
𝒇= =
𝑻 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝟐𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑪
By altering the time constant of just one of the RC combinations, the Duty Cycle better known as the
"Mark-to-Space" ratio of the output waveform can be accurately set and is given as the ratio of resistor
R2 to resistor R1. The Duty Cycle for the 555 Oscillator, which is the ratio of the "ON" time divided
by the "OFF" time, is given by
𝑻𝑶𝑵 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑫𝒖𝒕𝒚 𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = = %
𝑻𝑶𝑵 + 𝑻𝑶𝑭𝑭 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝟐𝑹𝟐 )
The duty cycle has no units as it is a ratio but can be expressed as a percentage ( % ). If both timing
resistors, R1 and R2 are equal the output duty cycle will be given as 2:1 or 33%.
Page | 46
As the timing capacitor, C charges through resistors R1 and R2 but only discharges through resistor R2
the output duty cycle can be varied between 50 and 100% by changing the value of resistor R2. By
decreasing the value of R2 the duty cycle increases towards 100% and by increasing R2 the duty cycle
reduces towards 50%. If resistor, R2 is very large relative to resistor R1 the output frequency of the
555 astable circuit will determined by R2 x C only. The problem with this basic astable 555 oscillator
configuration is that the duty cycle, the "mark-to-space" ratio will never go below 50% as the presence
of resistor R2 prevents this. In other words we cannot make the outputs "ON" time shorter than the
"OFF" time, as (R1 + R2)×C will always be greater than the value of R1 x C. One way to overcome this
problem is to connect a signal bypassing diode in parallel with resistor R2 .
Procedure:
1. Design the astable multivibrator circuit given in Figure 11.1 using 555 timer IC for the given
duty cycle and frequency.
2. Calculate a value of capacitance (C), resistance (R1 & R2) required to achieve the given duty
cycle and frequency.
4. Check the output on the oscilloscope and record the results in Table 1.
Table 1: Astable Multivibrator observations
Resistance, R1 Resistance, R2
S.# Duty cycle (%) Frequency (Hz) Capacitance (F)
(Ω) (Ω)
1 90 500 30n
2 80 2000 47n
3 70 2000 30n
4 60 500 47n
Page | 47
Post Lab
1. Design a square wave generator (50% duty cycle) at a frequency of 4 MHz

2. It is required that the duty cycle of the wave in part 1 must stay the same. However the
frequency should vary between 100 kHz – 4 MHz. Which component would have to be
replaced and why? Hence the design the range of values of the replaced component.
Page | 48
EXPERIMENT 12
Design of Astable Multivibrator using 555 timer IC
(50% or lesser Duty cycle)
Problem Statement
Design an Astable multivibrator using 555 timer IC and 47nF capacitor to generate a square
wave of 50% duty cycle and a rectangular wave of 30% duty cycle, each having a frequency
of 1000 Hz.
 Draw the complete circuit of Astable multivibrator. SLO 4.1
 Find the unknowns in the circuit: SLO 4.2
o Input supply voltage
o Value of the resistors required
 Implement the circuit SLO-4.3
 Measure the frequency and duty cycle.
SLO-4.4
 Compare the measured values with theoretical values and find the % error.
SLO-4.5
 Find and discuss the limitations of the design Circuit SLO-4.6
 Minimum and maximum safe supply voltage
 Minimum duty cycle of the generated waveform
 Maximum output current
Page | 49
EXPERIMENT 13
PRECISION RECTIFIER
Objectives
 To understand the function of Super-Diode.
 To design and implement an op-amp based half-wave precision rectifier.
Equipment
1. LM741 op-amp
4. Oscilloscope
5. Function Generator
7. DC Supply
8. Breadboard
Theory
The precision rectifier, also known as a super diode, is a configuration obtained with an operational
amplifier in order to have a circuit behave like an ideal diode and rectifier. It is useful for high-
precision signal processing. When a diode is used in the feedback loop of an op-amp then it behaves
as nearly an ideal diode.
Procedure
Task 1
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 13.1. Apply ±12V as power to the op-amp.
2. Note the input and output waveform.
3. Increase the input frequency and see the distortion in the output.
4. Reverse the polarity of diode and see the output waveform.
5. Remove the operational amplifier and note the output waveform of the passive version of half
wave rectifier.
6. Try the passive version for different amplitude levels.
Page | 50
Figure 13.1: Super-Diode
Task 2
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 13.2.
2. Apply a 1 kHz 1 V amplitude sine wave.
3. Measure both the input and output of the rectifier with an oscilloscope.
4. Sketch (accurately) the result of the oscilloscope.
5. Write down the gain equation (V0/Vi) of the circuit and calculate the peak value of output
waveform. Compare the theoretical and practical waveforms.
6. Explain the change in the output waveform if the diodes are reversed.
Figure 13.2: Precision Rectifier

Post Lab
Design a Full-Wave Precision Rectifier for a 50 Hz Sine Wave. Explain the changes to be made in the
circuit for a full wave rectification and derive the full wave rectifier formula. Submit a detailed report,
showing experimental results.
Page | 51
EXPERIMENT 14
PEAK DETECTORS AND CLAMPERS
Objectives
 To implement a peak detector circuit for AC applications.
 To analyze the working of a Clamper (DC restorer)
Equipment
1. LM741 op-amp
4. Oscilloscope
5. Function Generator
7. DC Supply
8. Breadboard
Active Peak Detector

When the diode is reverse biased then the voltage across the capacitor is retained. Capacitor discharges
through the resistor when the diode is reverse biased. Operational amplifier acts as a voltage follower
when the diode is forward biased and charges the capacitor to the peak value.
Task 1
3. Change the amplitude of the input sine and notice the change in output.
5. Observe the waveform by removing 10 kΩ load .Then connect it back and connect a 10micro
Farad capacitor.
6. Remove the operational amplifier and note the output waveform of the passive version of peak
detector for low input voltage level.
Page | 52
Figure 14.1: Peak Detector
Active Clamper
The circuit in Figure14.2 is an active clamper. The first negative half cycle produces a positive op amp
output that turns on the diode. This allows the capacitor to charge to the peak value of input voltage.
Just beyond the negative peak, the diode turns off, the loop opens, and the virtual ground is lost. Since
VP adds to a sinusoidal input voltage, the final output waveform is shifted positively through VP volts.
Task 2
4. Remove the operational amplifier and note the output waveform of the passive version of
clamper for low input voltage level.
Figure 14.2: Active Clamper
Post Lab
Design a circuit for an active Zero-Crossing detector. The input sine wave signal has a frequency of
500Hz and amplitude of 4.5 V. Submit a detailed report.
Page | 53
Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria
Labs with projects

1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 15%
3. Final evaluation 35-%
a. Project Implementation 60%
b. Project report and quiz 40%
Labs without projects

1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 20%
3. Final Evaluation 30%
i. Experiment. 60%
ii. Lab report, pre and post
experiment quiz 40%
Notice:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of copying
may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be reported to DC. This may
result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.
Page | 54
Appendix B: Safety around Electricity

In all the Electrical Engineering (EE) labs, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen accidents during
conduct of lab experiments, following preventive measures and safe practices shall be adopted:
 Remember that the voltage of the electricity and the available electrical current in EE labs has
enough power to cause death/injury by electrocution. It is around 50V/10 mA that the “cannot
let go” level is reached. “The key to survival is to decrease our exposure to energized circuits.”
 If a person touches an energized bare wire or faulty equipment while grounded, electricity will
instantly pass through the body to the ground, causing a harmful, potentially fatal, shock.
 Each circuit must be protected by a fuse or circuit breaker that will blow or “trip” when its safe
carrying capacity is surpassed. If a fuse blows or circuit breaker trips repeatedly while in
normal use (not overloaded), check for shorts and other faults in the line or devices. Do not
resume use until the trouble is fixed.
 It is hazardous to overload electrical circuits by using extension cords and multi-plug outlets.
Use extension cords only when necessary and make sure they are heavy enough for the job.
Avoid creating an “octopus” by inserting several plugs into a multi-plug outlet connected to a
single wall outlet. Extension cords should ONLY be used on a temporary basis in situations
where fixed wiring is not feasible.
 Dimmed lights, reduced output from heaters and poor monitor pictures are all symptoms of an
overloaded circuit. Keep the total load at any one time safely below maximum capacity.
 If wires are exposed, they may cause a shock to a person who comes into contact with them.
Cords should not be hung on nails, run over or wrapped around objects, knotted or twisted.
This may break the wire or insulation. Short circuits are usually caused by bare wires touching
due to breakdown of insulation. Electrical tape or any other kind of tape is not adequate for
insulation!
 Electrical cords should be examined visually before use for external defects such as: Fraying
(worn out) and exposed wiring, loose parts, deformed or missing parts, damage to outer jacket
or insulation, evidence of internal damage such as pinched or crushed outer jacket. If any
defects are found the electric cords should be removed from service immediately.
 Pull the plug not the cord. Pulling the cord could break a wire, causing a short circuit.
 Plug your heavy current consuming or any other large appliances into an outlet that is not
shared with other appliances. Do not tamper with fuses as this is a potential fire hazard. Do not
overload circuits as this may cause the wires to heat and ignite insulation or other combustibles.
 Keep lab equipment properly cleaned and maintained.
 Ensure lamps are free from contact with flammable material. Always use lights bulbs with the
recommended wattage for your lamp and equipment.
 Be aware of the odor of burning plastic or wire.
 ALWAYS follow the manufacturer recommendations when using or installing new lab
equipment. Wiring installations should always be made by a licensed electrician or other
qualified person. All electrical lab equipment should have the label of a testing laboratory.
 Be aware of missing ground prong and outlet cover, pinched wires, damaged casings on
electrical outlets.
Page | 55
 Inform Lab engineer / Lab assistant of any failure of safety preventive measures and safe
practices as soon you notice it. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory.
 Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the EE Labs.
 Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a direction or
part of a procedure, ASK YOUR LAB ENGINEER / LAB ASSISTANT BEFORE
PROCEEDING WITH THE ACTIVITY.
 Never work alone in the laboratory. No student may work in EE Labs without the presence of
the Lab engineer / Lab assistant.
 Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Carefully follow all instructions,
both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed.
 Be prepared for your work in the EE Labs. Read all procedures thoroughly before entering the
laboratory. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay, practical jokes, and pranks are
dangerous and prohibited.
 Always work in a well-ventilated area.
 Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy at all times.
 Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. Do not wander around the room,
distract other students, startle other students or interfere with the laboratory experiments of
others.
 Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy
clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must be tied back, and dangling jewelry and
baggy clothing must be secured. Shoes must completely cover the foot.
 Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including fire
extinguisher. Know what to do if there is a fire during a lab period; “Turn off equipment, if
possible and exit EE lab immediately.”
Page | 56
Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports

Each student will maintain a lab notebook for each lab course. He will write a report for each experiment he
performs in his notebook. A format has been developed for writing these lab reports.
Hardware Lab Report Format

For hardware based labs, the format of the report will include:
1. Introduction: Introduce area explored in the experiment.

2. Objective: What are the learning goals of the experiment?
3. Measurements: In your own words write how the experiment is performed (Do not copy/paste the
procedure).
a. Issues: Which technical issues were faced during the performance of the experiment and how
they were resolved?
b. Graphs, if any
4. Conclusions: What conclusions can be drawn from the measurements?
5. Applications: Suggest a real world application where this experiment may apply.
6. Answers to post lab questions (if any).
Sample Lab Report: Hardware Experiments
Introduction
An RC circuit is a first order circuit that utilizes a capacitor as an energy storage element whereas a resistor as
an energy wastage element. RC circuits are building blocks of electronic devices and their thorough
understanding is important in comprehending advance engineering systems such as transistors and transmission
lines.
An RC circuit can be operated with both DC and AC sources. In this lab we study transient response of RC
circuits with a square wave as a DC source. During the DC operation of an RC circuit the voltage across the
capacitor or the resistor show energy storing (capacitor charging) and dissipating (capacitor discharging via
resistor) mechanisms of the circuit. The capacitor charging or discharging curves then lead to determine time
constant of the circuit where the time constant signifies time required by the RC circuit to store or waste energy.
Objective:
To study transient response of a series RC circuit.
Measurements:
The circuit used for the experiment is shown in Fig. 1. Both input (a square wave) and output (voltage across
capacitor) waveforms are monitored on an oscilloscope. The capacitor charging is observed during "on" part of
the square waveform whereas the capacitor discharging is observed during "off" part of the square waveform
(Fig. 2). We measure the time constant from the capacitor charging or discharging curve. While keeping the
capacitor value constant, we also measure time constants with various resistor values (Table 1).
Page | 57
Fig.1. The circuit used in the experiment
Issues:
Mention any issue(s) you encountered during the experiment and how they were resolved.
Conclusions:
From the measurements following conclusions can be drawn:
a) The capacitor charging and discharging curves are exponential.
b) The time constant is directly proportional to the resistor value.
Both of the above conclusions are also easily verifiable by solving differential equation for the RC circuit.
Applications:
An RC circuit can be employed for a camera flash. The capacitor discharges through the flash light during a
picture taking event.
INPUT VOLTAGE VOLTAGE ACROSS A CAPACITOR
Fig. 2. Input and Output waveforms
Page | 58
TABLE I. Time constant as a function of the resistor values
Resistance
270 Ω 330 Ω 470 Ω 1 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 3.3 kΩ
(Nominal)
Resistance
(Measured)
Time constant
(Calculated)
Time constant
(Measured)
Capacitance
(Measured)
Page | 59

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EL224-ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DESIGN

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

Created by: Mr. Omer Saleem Bhatti

Date: 16th January, 2014

Last Updated by: Ms. Sara Kiran

Date: August, 2019

Approved by the HoD:

Sr. No. Description Page No.

2 Experiment 1: Operational Amplifier Basics 5

3 Experiment 2: Summing Amplifier 10

4 Experiment 3: Difference Amplifier 13

5 Experiment 4: Instrumentation Amplifier 18

7 Experiment 6: Integrators and Differentiators 23

8 Experiment 7: Wein Bridge (Sine-Wave) Osciallator 27

9 Experiment 8: Function Generator 31

10 Experiment 9: Astable Multivibrator using op-amp 35

11 Experiment 10: Monostable and Bistable Multivibrators 38

12 Experiment 11: Astable Multivibrator using 555 timer 44

Experiment 12: Design of Astable Multivibrator using 555 timer IC

14 Experiment 13: Precision Rectifier 50

15 Experiment 14: Detectors and Clampers 52

16 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria 54

17 Appendix B: Safety Around Electricity 55

18 Appendix C: Guidelines for Preparing Lab Reports 57

Description Specifications Quantity

Figure 1.1: Inverting Amplifier

Figure 1.2: Non-inverting Amplifier

The gain of this amplifier is:

Unity Gain Source Follower

Figure 1.3: Source Follower

The gain of the amplifier is:

3) Unity Gain Buffer

Table 1: Inverting amplifier observations

Table 2: Non-inverting amplifier observations

Table 3: Voltage source follower observations

Figure 2.1: Summing Amplifier

(𝑉1 + 2𝑉2 + 4𝑉3 )

Figure 2.2: D/A Converter

R3 = ______________________ R4 = _________ _____

Table 1: D/A converter observations

Figure 2.3: Temperature Sensor

𝑉𝑜 = 8𝑉1 + 6𝑉2 − 3𝑉3 − 4𝑉4

Figure 3.1: Differential Amplifier

Table 1: Differential amplifier observations

Figure 3.2: Differential Amplifier (Differential gain AD)

Figure 3.3: Differential Amplifier (Common-mode gain ACM)

Table 2: Differential amplifier CMRR observations

The circuit given in Figure 3.4 above is also a difference amplifier.

Figure 4.1: Instrumentation Amplifier

Figure 4.2: Instrumentation Amplifier using LM324

Table 1: Instrumentation amplifier observations

V1 V2 Vout (V) Vout (V)

Figure 4.3: LM324 Pin Configuration

Figure 4.4: Bridge driven instrumentation amplifier

Figure 6.1: Integrators & Differentiators

Figure 6.2: Op-Amp Integrator

 Wire up the practical op-amp integrator shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.3: Op-Amp Differentiator

Generation of sine wave can be accomplished by employing a positive-feedback loop. It consists of

Figure 7.1: The basic structure of a sinusoidal oscillator

Figure 7.2: A Wien –Bridge oscillator without amplitude stabilization

The loop gain is given by

is the feedback gain β.

R3 = __________________ R4 = _ _