Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science & Technology

COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

Total Marks: 04

Obtained Marks:

Introduction to Computing

Assignment # 02
Last date of Submission: 14th October, 2019

Student Name: Mubarak Hussain

______________________________________________________________________________

Reg. Number: 1980119

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Submitted to: Ms. Maryam Sajjad

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Introduction to Computing BSSE/1(A) SZABIST-ISB

Question # 01:
Describe the inner working details of CPU and memory, their types and
organizations.

Inner working of CPU:

A central process unit (CPU), conjointly called a CPU or main processor, is electronic electronic
equipment inside a pc that performs basic arithmetic, logic, control, and input / output (I
/) directions to a worm. Completes. O) Operations such by directions. The pc trade has a
minimum of used the term "central process unit" since the first Sixties. Historically, the term
"CPU" refers to a processor, specifically its process unit and management unit (CU), separating
these core parts of a pc from core parts like main memory and that I / O electronic equipment. .
The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have modified over the course of their
history, however their basic operation is nearly unchanged. The most important parts of
a C.P.U. embody associate degree arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic
operations, a processor register that provides operands to ALU and stores the results of ALU
operations, and an impact unit that fetuses. (From memory) and orchestrates execution. Follow
the directions by directional the coordinated operation of ALU, registers and different parts. Most
recent CPUs area unit microprocessors, wherever the C.P.U. is contained on one metal-oxide-
semiconductor (MOS) microcircuit (IC) chip. Associate degree IC that contains
a C.P.U. may contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and different parts of the computer; such
integrated devices area unit known as varied forms of microcontrollers or systems on chip (SoC).
Some computers use a multi-core processor, that could be a single chip consisting
of 2 or additional CPUs known as "cores"; in this context, one will speak of single chips as
"sockets".
Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no
unit thought-about central. The construct of virtual CPUs conjointly exists that area unit associate
degree intangible a part of dynamic mass process resources.

The fundamental operation of most CPUs, no matter the physical type they take, is to execute a
sequence of keep directions that's known as a program. The directions to be dead area
unit unbroken in some reasonably memory device. Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decipher and
execute steps in their operation, that area unit conjointly called the instruction cycle. After the
execution of AN instruction, the complete method repeats, with consequent instruction
cycle usually attractive the next-in-sequence instruction thanks to the incremented worth within
the program counter. If a jump instruction was dead, the program counter are going to
be changed to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution
continues usually. In additional advanced CPUs, multiple directions are often fetched, decoded
and dead at the same time.

This section describes what's typically remarked because

the "classic architecture pipeline", that is kind of common among the
straightforward CPUs utilized in several electronic devices (often known as microcontroller).
It mostly ignores the vital role of electronic equipment cache, and thus the access stage of the
pipeline.
Some directions manipulate the program counter instead
of manufacturing result information directly; such directions area unit typically known
as "jumps" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the
utilization of a conditional jump), and existence of functions. In some
processors, another directions modification the state of bits during a "flags" register. These
flags are often accustomed influence however a program behaves, since they usually indicate the
result of varied operations. as an example, in such processors a "compare" instruction
evaluates 2 values and sets or clears bits within the flags register to point that one is
bigger or whether or not they area unit equal; one in every of these flags may then be employed
by a later jump instruction to work out program flow.

Fetch:
The first step, fetch, involves retrieving AN instruction (which is drawn by variety or sequence of
numbers) from program memory. The instruction's location (address) in program memory is set by
a program counter (PC) that stores variety that identifies the address of consequent instruction to
be fetched. When AN instruction is fetched, the laptop is incremented by the length of the
instruction so it'll contain the address of consequent instruction within the sequence. Often, the
instruction to be fetched should be retrieved from comparatively slow
memory, inflicting the electronic equipment to stall whereas looking ahead to the instruction to
be came. This issue is basically addressed in fashionable processors by caches and pipeline
architectures (see below).

Decode:
The instruction that the electronic equipment fetches from memory determines what the electronic
equipment can do. Within the decipher step, performed by the electronic equipment called the
instruction decoder, the instruction is reborn into signals that management alternative elements of
the electronic equipment. The method during which the instruction is understood is outlined by
the CPU's instruction set design (ISA). Often, one cluster of bits (that is, a "field") among the
instruction, known as the opcode, indicates that operation is to be performed, whereas the
remaining fields typically give supplemental data needed for the operation, like the operands.
Those operands could also be nominal as a continuing worth (called an on the spot value),
or because the location of a worth that will be a processor register or a memory address, as
determined by some addressing mode. In some electronic equipment styles the instruction decoder
is enforced as a hardwired, carved in stone circuit. In others, a micro program is employed to
translate directions into sets of electronic equipment configuration signals that area
unit applied consecutive over multiple clock pulses. In some cases the memory that stores the
micro program is rewritable, creating it attainable to alter the method during which the electronic
equipment decodes directions.

Execute:
After the fetch and decipher steps, the execute step is performed. Looking on the electronic
equipment design, this could include one action or a sequence of
actions. Throughout every action, numerous elements of the electronic equipment area
unit electrically connected in order that they will perform all or a part of the
required operation so the action is completed, generally in response to a clock pulse. Fairly
often the results area unit written to an interior electronic equipment register for fast access
by later directions. In alternative cases results could also be written to slower, however less
costly and better capability main memory.
For example, if AN addition instruction is to be dead, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) inputs area
unit connected to a try of quantity sources (numbers to be summed), the ALU is designed to
perform AN addition operation so the add of its quantity inputs can seem at its output, and also
the ALU output is connected to storage (e.g., a register or memory) that may receive
the add. Once the clock pulse happens, the add are going to be transferred to storage and, if
the ensuing add is simply too giant (i.e., it's larger than the ALU's output word
size), AN arithmetic overflow flag are going to be set.

Control unit:

The management unit (CU) may be an element of the computer hardware that directs the
operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit and input and
output devices a way to answer the directions that are sent to the processor. It directs the operation
of the opposite units by providing temporal order and management signals.
Most laptop resources are managed by the metallic element. It directs the flow of
knowledge between the computer hardware and therefore the alternative devices.

Arithmetic logic unit:

Symbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) may be a digital circuit inside the processor that performs number
arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the information words to be
operated on (called operands), standing info from previous operations, and a code from the
management unit indicating that operation to perform. Counting on the instruction being dead, the
operands could come back from internal central processing unit registers or external memory, or
they will be constants generated by the ALU itself.

When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU electronic equipment, the
results of the performed operation seems at the ALU's outputs. The result consists of each an
information word, which can be hold on in an exceedingly register or memory, and standing info
that's generally hold on in an exceedingly special, internal central processing unit register reserved
for this purpose.

Cache:
A process unit CPU central processor mainframe electronic equipment hardware computer
hardware cache may be a hardware cache utilized by the central processing unit (CPU) of a pc to
scale back the typical value (time or energy) to access information from the most memory. A cache
may be a smaller, quicker memory, nearer to a processor core, that stores copies of the information
from oftentimes used main memory locations. Most CPUs have completely different freelance
caches, together with instruction and information caches, wherever the information cache is
sometimes organized as a hierarchy of additional cache levels (L1, L2, L3, L4, etc.).

All trendy (fast) central processing units (with few specialized exceptions) have multiple levels of
CPU caches. the primary CPUs that used a cache had one} level of cache; in contrast to later level
1 caches, it had been not split into L1d (for data) and L1i (for instructions). Most current CPUs
with caches have a split L1 cache. They even have L2 caches and, for larger processors, L3 caches
likewise. The L2 cache is sometimes not split and acts as a standard repository for the already split
L1 cache. Each core of a multi-core processor incorporates a dedicated L2 cache and is sometimes
not shared between the cores. The L3 cache, and higher-level caches, are shared between the cores
and aren't split. Associate L4 cache is presently uncommon, and is mostly on dynamic random-
access memory (DRAM), instead of on static random-access memory (SRAM), on a separate die
or chip. That was conjointly the case traditionally with L1, whereas larger chips have allowed
integration of it and usually all cache levels, with the attainable exception of the last level. Every
further level of cache tends to be larger and be optimized otherwise.

Other kinds of caches exist (that aren't counted towards the "cache size" of the foremost necessary
caches mentioned above), like the interpretation look aside buffer (TLB) that's a part of the
memory management unit (MMU) that almost all CPUs have.

Caches are usually sized in powers of two: four, 8, and 16 etc. KiB or MiB (for larger non-L1)
sizes, though the IBM z13 incorporates a ninety six KiB L1 instruction cache.

The computers, gift within the time period of pc history, had accumulator primarily based CPUs.
During this variety of hardware organization, the register is employed implicitly for process all
directions of a program and store the results into the accumulator. The instruction format that's
employed by this hardware Organization is one address field. Thanks to this the hardware is
thought united Address Machine.
Data transfer operation:
In this variety of operation, the info is transferred from a supply to a destination.
Here LOAD is memory scan operation that's information is transfer from memory to accumulator
and STORE is memory write operation that's information is transfer from accumulator to memory.
ALU operation:
During this variety of operation, arithmetic operations area unit performed on the info.
Where X is that the address of the quantity. The MULT instruction during this example performs
the operation, AC is that the Accumulator and M[X] is that the memory word set at location X.
this kind of central processing unit CPU central processor mainframe electronic equipment
hardware computer hardware} organization is initial employed in PDP-8 processor and is
employed for process management and laboratory applications. It’s been all replaced by the
introduction of the new general register primarily based hardware.

Inner working of Memory:

Computers do not bear in mind or forget things the method that human brains do. Computers add
binary. There square measure 2 kinds of memory RAM and memory.

RAM:
The chips that frame a computer's internal memory are available 2 broad flavors called RAM
(random access memory) and memory (read-only memory). RAM chips bear in mind things solely
whereas a pc is powered on, therefore they are used for storing no matter a pc is functioning on
within the terribly short term. ROM chips, on the opposite hand, bear in mind things whether or
not or not the facility is on. They are preprogrammed with info within the plant and accustomed
store things just {like the} computer's BIOS (the basic input/output system that operates basic
things like the computer's screen and keyboard). RAM and memory aren't the foremost useful
names within the world, as we'll shortly conclude, therefore don't be concerned if they sound
problematic. Simply bear in mind this key point: the most memory within a pc is predicated on 2
varieties of chip: a brief, volatile kind that remembers solely whereas the facility is on (RAM) and
a permanent, nonvolatile kind that remembers whether or not the facility is on or off (ROM).

RAM comes in 2 main varieties referred to as DRAM (dynamic RAM) and SRAM (static RAM).
DRAM is that the less costly of the 2 and features a higher density (packs additional knowledge
into a smaller space) than SRAM, therefore it's used for many of the interior memory you discover
in PCs, games consoles, and so on. SRAM is quicker and uses less power than DRAM and, given
its larger price and lower density, is additional possible to be utilized in the smaller, temporary,
"working reminiscences" (caches) that kind a part of a computer's internal or external memories.
It is also wide utilized in transportable gadgets like cellphones, wherever minimizing power
consumption (and increasing battery life) is very vital.
The variations between DRAM and SRAM arise from the method they are designed out of basic
electronic elements. Each kinds of RAM square measure volatile, however DRAM is additionally
dynamic (it wants power to be zapped through it often to stay its memory fresh) wherever SRAM
is static (it does not want "refreshing" within the same way). DRAM is additional dense (stores
additional info in less space) as a result of it uses only one electrical device and one semiconductor
unit to store every bit (binary digit) of data, wherever SRAM wants many transistors for every bit.

ROM:
Like RAM, memory conjointly comes in several varieties and, simply to confuse matters, not all
of its strictly read-only. The flash-memory you discover in USB memory sticks and camera
memory cards is really a form of memory that retains info virtually indefinitely, even once the
facility is off (much like standard ROM) however will still be reprogrammed comparatively simply
whenever necessary (more like standard RAM). Technically speaking, nonvolatile storage could
be a kind of EEPROM (electrically eradicable programmable ROM), which implies info will be
keep or tired comparatively simply by passing an electrical current through the memory. Hmmm,
you may be thinking, does not all memory work that method... by passing electricity through it?
Yes! However the name is actually a historic relevance the actual fact that eradicable and
reprogrammable memory accustomed work a distinct method. Back within the Seventies, the
foremost common style of eradicable and rewritable memory was read-only storage (erasable
programmable ROM). Read-only storage chips had to be erased by the comparatively heavy and
inconvenient methodology of 1st removing them from their circuit then blasting them with
powerful ultraviolet radiation. Imagine if you had to travel through that longwinded method when
you wished to store a replacement set of photos on your camera memory card.
Gadgets like cellphones, modems, and wireless routers typically store their software system not
on memory (as you may expect) however on nonvolatile storage. Which means you'll simply
update them with new computer code (relatively permanent software system keep in ROM),
whenever associate degree upgrade comes on, by a method referred to as "flashing." As you will
have detected if you have ever traced massive amounts of data to a nonvolatile storage, or upgraded
your router's computer code, nonvolatile storage and reprogrammable memory works additional
slowly than standard RAM memory and takes longer to write down to than to browse.

A memory unit is the collection of storage units or devices together. The memory unit stores the
binary information in the form of bits. Generally, memory/storage is classified into 2 categories:

 Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off.
 Non-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not lose any data when power
is switched off.

QUESTION #2:

Perform the following base conversions.

1. ( 100000001 )2 ( 257 )10

2. ( 110001110 )2 ( 197 )10
3. ( 04231 )5 ( 566 )10
 4. ( 981 )10 ( 7411 )8

QUESTION #3:

How many types of software are there? Explain your answer by providing at
least five examples of each types.

There are two main types of software’s Application software and Systems software.

Application Software:
An application software system are some things that's meant to perform a task on a system or a
selected program. Counting on the amount of language used there are a unit differing types of
application software:

1) Data processing software:

This tool is employed to form letters, word sheets, sort papers etc.
E.g. MS Word, MS Works, AppleWorks

2) Publication Software:

This tool is employed to form illustrative worksheets, banners, newsletters, signs, gift cards etc.
E.g. MS Word, MS Publisher, and Adobe PageMaker

3) Communication software system:

Allows to connected computers to speak one another victimization audio, video or chat-based
medium.
E.g. MS internet Meeting, IRC, ICQ

4) Web Browsers:

This tools permits one to surf the net, scan their emails and conjointly produce sites.
E.g. browser Navigator, MS web someone

5) Email Programs:

This software system is principally accustomed send and receive emails.

E.g. MS Outlook, browser courier, Eudora, AOL Browser.
System Software:
System software package could be a variety of malicious program that's designed to run a hardware
and Application programs. The system software package is that the interface between the hardware
and user applications.

Systems software is classified beneath the following:

• Operating system:
Harnesses communication between hardware, system programs, and different applications.

• Device driver:
Enables device communication with the OS and different programs.

• Firmware:
Permits device management and identification.

• Translator:
Interprets high-level languages to low-level machine codes.

• Utility:
Ensures optimum practicality of devices and applications.

QUESTION #4:

Consider your school friends are planning a trip in order to have a nice reunion
after so many years. In order to make trip successful and memorable; you have
been assigned a task to look into the financial matters i.e. the management of
budget in an efficient manner.
How would you plan everything and communicate with other? Is there any
software that could assist you in this regards? Please elaborate your answer.
When I have to plan trip. I will look to our budget that how much amount of money we have to
plan a trip. Then on the basis of our budget I will search about the place for our trip which is
affordable for us. I will arrange the transport which is economical and comfortable. I will find a
restaurant which have a good and tasty food with a good price. And if we want to stay for there
then I will book the rooms in the hotel which is good, comfortable and affordable for us. For this
I will also use software which will help us to make a good trip and through which we will also
plan our trip budget in a better way.

One of the following application we can use for our trip budget planning:
Spent:
This app will assist you get obtained your budgeting efforts as you travel. Spent includes the
acquainted expense-tracking and budgeting tools – scanning of receipts, customizable budget
folders, automatic downloading of transactions from coupled credit and banking accounts – beside
some fast and simple interface tricks to assist you organize your expenses. Simply swipe left to
categorize AN expense as "Personal" and swipe right to categorize it as "Business." The app's main
draw could be a money back rewards program on purchases. You’ll link your credit cards to the
app and simply swipe your downloaded expense dealings to receive a money back bonus once you
gnaw at restaurants or support bound stores. There is an internet store related to with Spent that
gives extra money back rewards for purchases. Spent is free and obtainable for iOS and golem.