Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

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Using image logs to identify fluid types in tight carbonate reservoirs via T
apparent formation water resistivity spectrum
Xuqiang Fana,b, Guiwen Wanga,b,∗, Quanqi Daia,b, Yafeng Lic, Fengsheng Zhangd, Zhibo Hea,b,
Qingbo Lic
a
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing, 102249, China
b
College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing, 102249, China
c
Research Institute of Exploration & Development of Qinghai Oilfield Company, CNPC, Dunhuang, 736202, China
d
Oil Gas Evaluation Center, China Petroleum Logging CO. LTD, Xi'an, 710021, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Hydrocarbon-bearing zone identification of tight reservoirs plays a crucial role in hydrocarbon exploration and
Fluid identification development. However, tight carbonate reservoirs are generally characterized by complex lithology, low por-
Image logs osity, strong heterogeneity, and weak fluid logging responses, which present a major challenge to detect hy-
Apparent resistivity spectrum drocarbon-bearing zones using conventional methods. To address this challenge, this paper develops a new
Tight carbonate reservoirs
method defined as Rwa spectrum, taking advantage of the high vertical resolution and borehole coverage of the
image logs. The Rwa spectra can be derived from the histogram distribution of the apparent resistivity values of
formation water (Rwa) in a sliding window, combining the Simandoux equation and the triple-porosity model.
The results show that a very broad Rwa spectrum with long tails corresponds to hydrocarbon-bearing zones, and
the peak shape of it is flat. In contrast, the narrow Rwa spectrum corresponds to water-bearing zones, and the
peak shape of it is a sharp spike. Furthermore, two Rwa spectrum parameters, namely AVERAGE (reflects the size
of main peak values) and VARIANCE (reflects shape changes of the Rwa spectra) are defined to quantificationally
detect hydrocarbon-bearing zones. For oil zones in Yingxi field, the AVERAGE had a value higher than 10 and
the VARIANCE was higher than 10. And for water zones, the AVERAGE had a value lower than 4.5 and the
VARIANCE was lower than 5. The resistivity values decrease linearly with the increase in pyrite content of the
reservoirs of high pyrite content, which disturbs the response to resistivity values from different fluid types (oil,
gas or water). Hence, this method is suitable for the formation of no or little pyrite contents (lower than 0.2), and
the case where the salinity value of drilling mud is similar to that of formation water. Moreover, the method has
been validated by production test data, providing unusual perspectives on the identification of fluid types in
tight carbonate reservoirs.

1. Introduction Meanwhile, different logging techniques can provide various petro-

Conventional hydrocarbon resources have been exploited and de-
veloped for decades and gradually became depleted. Therefore, un-
conventional reservoirs, such as tight reservoirs and shale, show en-
ormous potential, which has been the subject of many recent studies
(Aplin and Macquaker, 2011; Lai et al., 2017; Zeng et al., 2013). Cor-
rectly reservoir fluid identification plays a crucial role in tight re-
servoirs characterization and hydrocarbon volume estimation. In gen-
eral, well log data has accurate and intuitive advantages in the
hydrocarbon detection and the potentials estimation of the hydro-
carbon-bearing formations (Bai et al., 2019; Shedid and Saad, 2017).
physical parameters, which constitute cross-plots that are a graphical
solution to differentiate between the different formations' fluids (oil,
gas, and water) using two (or three) log parameters (Abudeif et al.,
2016; Bateman, 1977). For example, the bulk density, sonic and neu-
tron porosity logs are commonly used in combination with resistivity
logs to detect fluid types, and the Hingle and Pickett cross-plots as two
typical cross-plots (porosity versus resistivity) have been widely used
(Hingle, 1959; Pickett, 1966). In addition, mathematical statistics
methods are used to detect hydrocarbon-bearing zones. Conventional
logging data are used as input dataset to train and construct neural
networks or decision tree, building predictive models by discriminant

∗
Corresponding author. China University of Petroleum-Beijing, 18 Fuxue Road, Changping, Beijing, 102249, China
E-mail address: wanggw@cup.edu.cn (G. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.04.006
Received 9 October 2018; Received in revised form 20 March 2019; Accepted 2 April 2019
Available online 09 April 2019
0920-4105/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
X. Fan, et al.
analysis to classify the fluid types (Elshafei and Hamada, 2009). The
rapid development of advanced logging technology such as image logs,
nuclear magnetic logging, and dipole shear sonic logging provides nu-
merous new methods to identify fluid types. Naides and Paris (2005)
found that the image logs will show a dark pattern in a very permeable
with high water saturation sandstone due to the diffusion phenomenon
in water if the mud and water formation resistivity were similar.
However, a disadvantage of this method is that the dark pattern is si-
milar to the pattern observed in shale or fine sandstone. Xiao et al.
(2015) calculated the Rwa values using image logs to identify fluid types
according to Archie's equation, but the effect of shale on the resistivity
was ignored. Moreover, the usual differential spectrum method (DSM)
and shift spectrum method (SSM) could be used to identify fluid types
by the one-dimensional NMR logging (1D NMR), due to the transverse
relaxation time (T2) distributions of various fluid types are different
(Sun, 2007; Wei et al., 2005). The transverse relaxation time (T2) and
diffusion coefficient (D) analysis of 2D NMR logging (known as (T2, D)
2D NMR) will greatly improve the accuracy of fluid identification (Sun
and Dunn, 2005; Tan et al., 2013). Furthermore, the elastic property
parameters (such as P-wave and S-wave velocity ratio, Poisson ratio,
and Lame coefficients) can be calculated using dipole shear sonic logs
data, which have a large difference between hydrocarbon and water
formation (Liu et al., 2016; Ramamoorthy and Murphy, 1998).
However, these above methods are limited in certain cases that the
necessary empirical of some parameters and formula for fluid identifi-
cation is unavailable or when the time is of the essence. Therefore, the
apparent resistivity values of formation water (Rwa) is proposed to
quickly detect hydrocarbon pay zones (Entyre, 1982; Tixier et al.,
1960). For clean formations, according to Archie's equation, Rwa is
defined as the ratio between the true formation resistivity and the
formation resistivity factor. Generally, Rwa is minimum in water-
bearing zones, roughly equal to Rw, whereas in hydrocarbon-bearing
zones it is much higher (Bai et al., 2019; Dennis and Lawrence, 1984).
However, tight carbonate reservoirs, comparing to sandstone and shale,
are described by complicated mineral compositions, strong hetero-
geneity, and show higher resistivity and density (Ehrenberg and
Nadeau, 2005; Lucia et al., 2003; Shedid and Almehaideb, 2001).
Therefore, the well log data is significantly affected by these factors,
and both the traditional cross-plots and Rwa are limited to detecting
hydrocarbon-bearing zones in such conditions. For instance, well log
responses indicate more matrix properties than fluid types, increasing
the difficulty in identifying fluid types. Thus, quick and effective hy-
drocarbon-bearing zone identification is a major challenge in carbonate
reservoirs.
To tackle this challenge, this study aims to develop a more effective
method to identify fluid types in tight carbonate reservoirs. The Rwa
spectrum, which is derived from the image logs, is proposed to detect
hydrocarbon-bearing zones, and the results were verified using pro-
duction test results. This method contributes to improve the identifi-
cation of fluid types in heterogeneous carbonate reservoirs using image
logs.
2. Data and methods
2.1. Well logs
Openhole wire-line logs used in the study area include dual lateral
resistivity logs (LLD and LLS), Fullbore Formation Microresistivity
Imager log (FMI), Litho Scanner log, gamma ray log (GR), density log
(DEN), compensated neutron log (CNL), and acoustic log (AC). In this
study, we regard LLD as the deep resistivity (RT). FMI logs were run in
12 wells which were drilled with water-based muds in the study area,
and core samples were collected from 5 of them. The studied carbonate
reservoirs are characterized by complex mineral composition, due to
the background of mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sediments. The mineral
components were calculated by Litho Scanner log, and then the
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947
accurate matrix density value of the mixed depositional formation can
be obtained. Therefore, the matrix porosity can be calculated using the
matrix density value under the constraint of the density log. The vuggy
porosity and fracture porosity were quantified using FMI images.
High-resolution electrical borehole imaging logs had made it pos-
sible to obtain an in-situ description (e.g. fractures and sedimentary
characterization) of the reservoir to better evaluate complex reservoirs
(Khoshbakht et al., 2009; Lai et al., 2017; Nian et al., 2017; Zeng et al.,
2013). The Schlumberger's FMI (Fullbore Formation Microresistivity
Imager) data were collected in this study, and the FMI logging tool can
provide images of borehole walls with 80% borehole coverage in 8-in.
boreholes (Folkestad et al., 2012; Moreau and Joubert, 2016). The FMI
imaging tool consists of a total of 192 numbers of sensors which are
equally shared between eight pads, and each pad contains 24 resistivity
sensors (Lagraba et al., 2010; Rajabi et al., 2010). Therefore, 192
channels of data are available in each well. 192 electrodes are possible
by placing an array of 24 circular sensors in 2 rows on each pad and
flap, with a vertical sampling rate of 0.1-in and a vertical resolution of
0.2-in (Folkestad et al., 2012; Schlumberger, 2004). The equipment is
elevated upward, different pads press against the borehole wall, and the
lower electrodes emit current, which is received by the circuit elec-
trodes. Thus, an electrical current proportional to the formation con-
ductivity subsequently flows through the formation and is measured by
each electrode in its immediate vicinity. Therefore, each electrode
makes a measurement proportional to the conductivity of the formation
directly facing it, and FMI data contain the high resolution information
about electrical characteristics of the formation, which could be used
for fluid type identification.
The dual laterolog (DLL) consists of deep and shallow reading (LLD,
LLS), which are done simultaneously at two different frequencies in
practice (Chemali et al., 1983). Meanwhile, these two measurements of
resistivity have different investigation depths. The LLD system uses
remote (surface) for returning the main and bucking currents; there-
fore, deep-reading LLD measures are closer to the resistivity of virgin
zones (Rt). In contrast, the LLS system uses the electrode pair which in
tools for returning the main and bucking currents, therefore, shallow-
reading LLS measures are closer to the resistivity of flushed zones (Rxo)
(Chemali et al., 1983). Due to the difference between LLD and LLS, fluid
types and water (and hence hydrocarbon) saturation of formations can
be calculated by the resistivity measures of the dual laterolog.
2.2. Calculation procedures of Rwa spectrum
As discussed above, the FMI tool has the high vertical resolution
(0.2 in, about 5 mm), while the effective detecting depths are only 2 in
(about 5 cm). Compared to the dual laterolog, the vertical resolution
and borehole coverage of FMI image logs are higher, but the in-
vestigation depth is shallower. Therefore, these micro resistivity curves
measured by the imaging tool could be calibrated by the resistivity of
the flushed zones (LLS) to reflect hydrocarbon information near the
wellbore and in the flushed zones. Due to the sampling interval of LLS is
0.125 m, the 0.125 m was selected as the sliding window. Thus, each
sliding window corresponds exactly to a sampling interval of LLS. The
calibration method is similar with that of Schlumber Company (Xiao
et al., 2015), but the ration of FMI and LLS is used as a calibration factor
to directly calibrate the FMI data to an absolute conductivity scale.
Firstly, conductivity data from all FMI pads and flaps over a sliding
window of 0.125 m can be used to obtain an average conductivity (C1).
ni nj nk
C1 = ∑ ∑ ∑ C (j, k, i)/(ni⋅nj⋅nk )
i=1 j=1 k=1 (1)
Where, C1 is the average conductivity of a sliding window
(0.125 m), S/m; ni is the number of vertical samples in the sliding
window (if the sliding window is 0.125 m, for FMI tool, ni = 50), nj is
the number of pads and flaps (for FMI tool, nj = 8), nk is the number of
X. Fan, et al.
electrodes in every pad (for FMI tool, nk = 24); C (j, k, i) is the corre-
sponding recorded electrical conductivity of each FMI electrode in FMI
tool, S/m.
The calibration factor f was defined as the ratio of the 1/LLS (LLS is
the shallow lateral log resistivity) to the average conductivity C1:
1 are proposed. One parameter is AVERAGE, which reflects the size of
f=
LLS⋅C1
Therefore, the electrical conductivity of each FMI electrode (Ci)
which has been calibrated by the resistivity of the flushed zones (LLS)
can be derived:
Ci (j, k , i) = f ⋅C (j, k , i)
Simandous (1963) proposed the Simandoux equation (Eq. (4)).
1 V ϕm⋅Swn
= sh ⋅Sw +
Rt Rsh a⋅Rw⋅(1 − Vsh)
Where, Rt is the true formation resistivity (Ω·m), Rw is the formation
water resistivity (Ω·m), Rsh is the shale resistivity (Ω·m), Vsh is the shale
volume content (fraction), Sw is the water saturation in fraction (frac-
tion), ϕ is the effective porosity (fraction), a is the tortuosity factor
(dimensionless), m is the porosity exponent (dimensionless), and n is
the saturation exponent (dimensionless).
For the pure water layer, the formation water resistivity Rw can be
determined from setting Sw to 1 (or 100%) in Eq. (4):
ϕm⋅Rt ⋅Rsh
Rw =
a⋅(1 − Vsh)⋅(Rsh − Rt ⋅Vsh)
As discussed above, Ci (the FMI image logs values which have been
calibrated by LLS) could reflect hydrocarbon information on the flushed
zones. Therefore, by applying the Simandoux's formula for flushed
zones, the apparent resistivity of formation water (Rwa) can be derived
by the following equation (Eq. (6)).
ϕm⋅Rxo⋅Rsh Rsh
Rwa = = ⋅ϕm / Ci
a⋅(1 − Vsh)⋅(Rsh − Rxo⋅Vsh) a⋅(1 − Vsh)⋅(Rsh − Vsh/ Ci )
where Rxo is the resistivity of flushed zones (Ω·m).
The pore system of tight carbonate reservoirs is generally compo-
site, which is composed of pores, fractures, and/or non-connected vugs.
In these cases, the triple-porosity model is more suitable to evaluate
reservoir petrophysical characteristics (Aguilera, 2004; Al-Ghamdi
et al., 2011). Therefore, the triple-porosity model (Eq. (7)) is used to
calculate the porosity exponent (m) in tight carbonate reservoirs of
composite pores system in this study.
(1 − ϕ ⋅ vnc )
−log ⎡ϕ⋅vnc + −mb
⎤ Yingxi field is characterized by typical sediment of salt lacustrine en-
ϕ ⋅ v + (1 − ϕ ⋅ v ) / ϕb
m= ⎣ ⎦
logϕ
Where, ϕ is the total porosity of the composite system (fraction); ϕb
is matrix porosity (fraction), which is equal to void space in the among
of bulk volume of the matrix system; vnc is the vuggy porosity ratio,
which is equal to the non-connected vuggy porosity among of total
porosity; v is the partitioning coefficient, which is equal to fracture
porosity divided by total porosity; mb is the porosity exponent (ce-
mentation factor) of the matrix block from unfractured plugs (or based
on lithology).
Fig. 1 can graphically represent the process of obtaining the ap-
parent resistivity of formation water (Rwa) spectrum from image logs
data. According to the calculation formula (Eq. (6)), the resistivity
values of FMI image logs could convert into Rwa values (each mea-
surement point corresponds to a Rwa value) (Fig. 1A). Therefore, for a
sliding window, a total of 192 Rwa values can be calculated by image
logs (Fig. 1B). Then the Rwa spectrum (Fig. 1C) can be obtained from the
distribution of the 192 Rwa values. In Fig. 1C, the horizontal axis is the
Rwa value, whereas the y-coordinate is the frequency, then a histogram
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947
of Rwa values distribution, i.e., the Rwa spectrum similar to the Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (NMR) T2 spectrum can be obtained. The left
peaks refer to the small Rwa values, whereas the right peaks correspond
to the high Rwa values. Meanwhile, in order to measure the Rwa spec-
trum shape and quantitatively identify fluid types, the two parameters
main peak values and can be calculated by the following formula:
(2)
n n
Rwa = ∑ Rwai PRwai/∑ Rwai
i=1 i=1 (8)
where PRwai is the frequency corresponding to Rwai.
(3) The other parameter is VARIANCE, which reflects shape changes of
the Rwa spectrum and can be calculated by the following formula:
n
∑i = 1 PRwai (Rwai − Rwai ) 2
σRwa = n
(4) ∑i = 1 PRwai (9)
Therefore, for water zones, Rwa values are low which show a narrow
left spectrum without tails (AVERAGE and VARIANCE are low).
Conversely, Rwa values of hydrocarbon zones are higher which are
characterized by a very broad right spectrum with long tails, and the
values of AVERAGE and VARIANCE of oil zones are higher than that of
water zones. Thus, fluid types could be identified by using the Rwa
spectrum analysis.
3. Geological setting
(5)
The Qaidam Basin has been in existence since the Jurassic period,
which is mainly covered by Mesozoic and Cenozoic terrestrial clastic
and carbonate deposits (Jian et al., 2013; Rieser et al., 2005). Topo-
graphically, the basin is a rhomb-shaped intermontane basin bounded
by the Altyn Tagh to the northwest, the Qilian Shan to the northeast,
and the East Kunlun Shan to the south (Fig. 2). During the Palaeogene
period, the basin enters a stage of subsidence and continuous lake de-
position began, and the lake sediments are subdivided into near-shore
and deep-water sediments with many thin layers of carbonates (Liu
(6)
et al., 2017; Ma et al., 2017; Ye et al., 2016). The studied Yingxi field
lies in the northwestern of the Yingxiongling structure belts, south-
western Qaidam Basin (Fig. 2).
The stratigraphy of the Qaidam basin is divided into three main
tectonic units, which are metamorphic basement, late Palaeozoic-
Mesozoic sediments, and Cenozoic sediments (Xia et al., 2001; Xie
et al., 2018). The Cenozoic strata of the Yingxi field can be divided into
eight stratigraphic units (Fig. 3), each of which has been dated precisely
based on paleontology and magnetostratigraphy studies (Cheng et al.,
2017; Ma et al., 2017). The Upper Xiagancaigou Formation (E32) of the
vironments and mainly consists of carbonate, siliciclastic rocks, gray
(7)
mudstone, and trace evaporates (gypsum and halite) formed during
regressive phases of lake development. The main pore type is inter-
crystal pores of dolomite and micro-fractures, and dissolution pores are
secondly. Oliocene multiple gypsum formations were deposited over
the E32 Formation and acts as a perfect top seal. The E32 Formation
shows the coexistence of reservoir and source rock characterized by low
organic matter abundance, with total organic carbon (TOC) ranging in
0.38%–1.98% (Li et al., 2008). The organic matter represents Type Ⅱ
and low maturity level. However, the organic matter is highly con-
verted into hydrocarbon (Li et al., 2008). Therefore, the above geolo-
gical factors directly determine the high productivity of drilling well of
the E32 Formation in Yingxi area.
4. Results
4.1. Petrophysical properties
The mineral compositions of 18 samples from 5 wells are shown in
939
X. Fan, et al.
Fig. 1. Calculation process of the Rwa spectrum using the borehole images. (A) Borehole images from FMI tools. (B) Sketch map of Rwa curves. (C) The Rwa spectrum.
Fig. 3A. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) results reveal significant differ-
ences in mineral compositions of the samples (Fig. 4). Overall, clay
mineral content ranges from 9.3% to 41.6% with an average of 25%.
Quartz content averages at about 11% and ranges between 1.0% and
18.4%. Albite content ranges from 1.0% to 11.6% with an average of
7%. Carbonate minerals in the studied area mainly consist of calcite and
dolomite, with the calcite content ranging from 5.2% to 48.1% (average
19%) and dolomite content is correspondingly high ranging from 4.5%
to 76.2% (average 28%). Anhydrite content ranges from 0% to 15.4%
with an average of 5%. Other minerals such as pyrite, halite, and K-
feldspar are also identified, but their contents are less (Fig. 4B). Con-
ventional plug analysis results show that most samples have apparently
low porosity and permeability (Fig. 5). The porosity ranges from 0.09%
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947
to 12.31%, with an average of 3.87%. The data exhibits a unimodal
distribution with a peak value of 0%–6% (Fig. 5A). Meanwhile, hor-
izontal permeability ranges from 0.02 mD to 35.14 mD, with most of
the permeability measurements giving values of < 1 mD (Fig. 5B).
4.2. Calculation results
Base on the production test results, the zone types can be subdivided
into oil zones, water zones and oil-water zones according to fluid types
in zones. Shape characteristics of the Rwa spectrum from different fluid
type zones are summarized by processing various well intervals. A very
broad peaks distribution of Rwa spectrum with long tails corresponds to
hydrocarbon-bearing zones, and the peak shapes are relatively flat. In
Fig. 2. (A) Location of the Qaidam Basin; (B)
Digtal Elevation Map (DEM) of the Qaidam
Basin and surrounding orogenic belts; (C) DEM
of the NW Qaidam Basin and the location of the
Yingxi area (marking a red rectangle). (For in-
terpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)
X. Fan, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947

Fig. 3. Cenozoic stratigraphy, thickness and representative lithological of the NW Qaidam Basin. In the geologic time scale: E-early; M-middle; L-late.

contrast, the narrow Rwa spectrum corresponds to water-bearing zones,

Fig. 4. Mineral composition of the E32 Formation in Yingxi area. (A) The X-ray
diffraction (XRD) results of all 22 samples from 5 wells; (B) Average values of
various mineral contents.
with only a single peak showing, and the peak shapes are a sharp spike.
In order to make clear the evaluation capability of this method and
contrast the shape characteristics of Rwa spectrum and parameters re-
sults from different fluid type zones, three cases conducted with the
image logs data derived from two wells are designed and discussed in
the following verifications.
Oil zones: the processing results of Rwa spectra and parameters from
the S254 well at the depth of 4509–4521 m are shown in Fig. 6. Caliper
shows good well bore condition in the interval, with the shale content
ranging from 11.1% to 49.0% (average 29.2%). The computed porosity
ranges from 0.77% to 6.16% with an average of 2.73%. Meanwhile,
distinct dark vugs (dissolution pores) can be detected from image logs
in high porosity intervals (porosity > 4%, intervals within
4512–4513 m & 4518–4519 m), and the porosity of these intervals is
similar to that of the intervals in Fig. 7. The Rwa spectra are at its widest
distribution at intervals of 4511.1–4513 m, 4514.5–4516.6 m and
4517.8–4520 m (Fig. 6 a, b, c), which show broad peaks of a relatively
flat shape with a “long tail”. Such a spectrum shape indicates that the
fluid type of this interval is oil. The maximum value of the AVERAGE is
17.9, and the maximum value of the VARIANCE is 11.6. Well test
showed an oil-production rate of 5.36 m3/d and a water-production rate
of 0.8 m3/d with a 6-mm chore by 26.2-MPa oil pressure in the test
interval of 4511.5–4520 m. The test results also verify that the fluid
type is oil in this interval.
Water zones: the processing results of Rwa spectra and parameters
from the S254 well at the depth of 3953–3965 m are shown in Fig. 7.
Shale content averages at about 35.6% and ranges between 24.2% and
48.9%. The computed porosity ranges from 2.5% to 7.0% with an
average of 4.4%. Meanwhile, distinct dark vugs (dissolution pores) and
the dark continuous sinusoidal waves (fractures) can be detected from
image logs in high porosity intervals (porosity > 4%, intervals within
3956–3958 m & 3962–3964 m). The Rwa spectra are relatively narrow,
with only a single peak showing, and the peak shapes are a sharp spike
(Fig. 7 a, b, c). Such a spectrum shape indicates that the fluid type of
this interval is water. The maximum value of the AVERAGE is 4.5, and

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X. Fan, et al.
Fig. 5. Histogram of porosity and permeability of the E32 Formation in Yingxi area: (A) Porosity distribution; (B) Permeability distribution.
the maximum value of the VARIANCE is 3.2. Well test showed an oil-
production rate of 0 m3/d and a water-production rate of 11.2 m3/d
with a 4-mm chore by 25.3-MPa pressure in the test interval of
3955–3695 m. The test results verify that the fluid type is water in this
interval.
Oil-water zones: the processing results of Rwa spectra and para-
meters from the S160 well at the depth of 4218–4230 m are shown in
Fig. 8. Shale content averages at about 34.1% and ranges between
12.4% and 52.2%. The computed porosity ranges from 1.4% to 6.9%
with an average of 3.6%. Meanwhile, distinct dark continuous or dis-
continuous sinusoidal waves (fractures) and dark vugs (dissolution
pores) can be detected from image logs. The Rwa spectra are relatively
widest at the intervals of 4221–4228 m, and the shapes of its peaks are
wider than spectrum peaks in the intervals of 3955–3695 m (S254 well)
and narrower than spectrum peaks in the intervals of 4514.5–4516.6 m
(S254 well) (Fig. 8 a, b, c). Such a spectrum shape indicates that the
main fluid type of this interval is oil, and water is secondary. The
maximum value of the AVERAGE is 10.7, and the maximum value of
the VARIANCE is 8.9. Well test showed an oil-production rate of
2.13 m3/d and a water-production rate of 1.2 m3/d with a 6-mm chore
by 21.2-MPa oil pressure in the test interval of 4220.5–4228 m. The test
results verify that the main fluid type is oil in this interval.
On the basis of the method of calculating the Rwa spectrum
Fig. 6. Calculation results of the Rwa spectrum at the depth of 4509–4521 m in the S254 well.
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947
parameters, image logs data of 12 wells in the study area was processed,
and parameters (AVERAGE and VARIANCE) in 18 test sections from 12
wells were calculated. The cross plot of these two parameters is illu-
strated in Fig. 9, and the table lists the test results of some of the data
points in Fig. 9. The y-axis is the AVERAGE, and the x-axis is the
VARIANCE. Fluid types could be determined by the test results, and the
oil, water and oil-water zones are marked by red dots, blue triangles
and pink diamonds, respectively. Most of the data points of water zones
are inside the small rectangular area, so an AVERAGE of 4.5 and a
VARIANCE of 5 are defined as the boundaries between water zones and
oil-water zones. Whereas most of the data points of oil zones are outside
the large rectangular area, so an AVERAGE of 10 and a VARIANCE of 10
are defined as the boundaries between oil zones and oil-water zones.
Therefore, the value 4.5 of AVERAGE and the value 5 of VARIANCE can
be considered the lower limit of hydrocarbon-bearing zones. Table 1
summarizes the characteristics of the theoretical (simple schematic
diagrams without scales) and practical Rwa spectrum and its parameters
for formations with different fluid types in tight carbonate reservoirs of
Yingxi field.
X. Fan, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947

Fig. 7. Calculation results of the Rwa spectrum at the depth of 3953–3965 m in the S254 well.

Fig. 8. Calculation results of the Rwa spectrum at the depth of 4218–4230 m in the S160 well.

5. Discussion zone resistivity is different between the hydrocarbon-bearing and

5.1. Significance of Rwa spectrum
The flushed zone is the part of the formation, in the immediate vi-
cinity of the borehole, which is caused by mud filtrate invasion
(Merchant et al., 2006; Raymer and Salisch, 1970). The process of in-
vasion has moved some hydrocarbons and/or formation water and,
consequently, that the formation contains mud filtrate and irreducible
hydrocarbon or water (Jiao and Sharma, 1992). Therefore, the flushed
water-bearing zones, and this difference is helpful in recognizing the
presence of hydrocarbons (Raymer and Salisch, 1970; Salazar and
Torres-Verdín, 2008). Carbonate reservoirs heterogeneity is sig-
nificantly affected by the presence of fractures and solution pores,
which increases the randomness of mud invasion process (Miranda
et al., 2009). By virtue of the high vertical resolution and borehole
coverage of image logs, the statistical distribution of the resistivity
values within a sliding window can effectively offset the impact of mud
invasion randomness. This statistical distribution can be plotted as a

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X. Fan, et al.
Fig. 9. The cross plot of Rwa spectrum parameters in Yingxi area.
continuous Rwa spectrum to visually display the hydrocarbon informa-
tion near the borehole. Moreover, there are great differences between
the Rwa spectrum of water-bearing and hydrocarbon-bearing zones.
In water-bearing zones, the main fluids within pores are mud filtrate
and bound water in flushed zones without movable hydrocarbons.
Therefore, Rwa values are low and stable, and the Rwa distribution shows
a relatively left narrow spectrum with only a single peak, and the peak
shape is a sharp spike (AVERAGE and VARIANCE are low) (Fig. 10A).
For hydrocarbon-bearing zones, movable hydrocarbons are displaced
by mud filtrate, but the residual hydrocarbon is still randomly dis-
tributed around the well bore. Therefore, Rwa values and its range of
hydrocarbon-bearing zones are higher than them of water zones. The
Rwa distribution is characterized with a very broad right spectrum,
which shows a relatively flat shape peak with long tails (Fig. 10B). The
AVERAGE (reflects the size of main peak values) and VARIANCE
Table 1
The shape characteristics and parameters values of the Rwa spectrum for zones with different fluid types of the E32 Formation in Yingxi area.
Zone types Flushed zone model Theoretical Rwa spectrum
Water zones
Oil-water
zones
Oil zones
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947
(reflects shape changes of the Rwa spectrum) of oil zones are higher than
that of water zones. Thus, fluid types could be identified by analyzing
the Rwa spectrum.
5.2. Effects of shale and porosity on fluid identification
The brine is usually the only conductor present in the clean for-
mation (Winsauer, 1952). However, this is not the case in a shaly for-
mation, where the clay produces an additional conductive path beside
the formation water (Hill and Milburn, 1956; Winsauer and McCardell,
1953). Hence, the presence of conductive clays considerably compli-
cates the interpretation of resistivity data of partially saturated for-
mations (De Witte, 1955; Poupon et al., 1954). Generally, the presence
of clay or shale in formation lowers the formation resistivity (Hill and
Milburn, 1956; Serra and Sulpice, 1975), causing the Rwa spectrum peak
to move to left and the two parameters (AVERAGE and VARIANCE)
decrease. If not corrected, the formation water saturation (Sw) will be
overestimated, i.e., the zone is wrongly interpreted as a water-bearing
zone (that is actually an oil-bearing). The Simandoux equation takes
into account clay conductivity and makes a modification of Archie's
equation. Therefore, it is used to construct Rwa calculation formula (Eq.
(6)) for E32 Formation in Yingxi field, which considers the effects of
shale on formation conductivity.
The well log data is the comprehensive responses to formation
characteristics within the instrument detection range (Serra, 1984).
Therefore, well logging indicates more responses from matrix proper-
ties and complicated mineral compositions than fluid type in tight
carbonate reservoirs (Sharma and Prasad, 2009). The larger the for-
mation porosity, the more fluid it contains, and the higher proportion of
responses from fluid in total well log response. Thus, the electrical
characteristics of fluid within formation pores could be well shown on
the resistivity logging. Meanwhile, there will be bigger differences be-
tween oil and water zones in the Rwa spectrum and parameters, which
are beneficial to the identification of fluid types.
As shown the cross plot of resistivity versus porosity in Fig. 11, and
the resistivity of water zones is low (about 45 Ω m) on the whole, while
the resistivity of some oil zones is also very low, so there are no obvious
boundaries among the oil zones, water zones, and oil-water zones.
Therefore, due to the effects of high shale content and low porosity, the
Practical Rwa spectrum Rwa spectrum shape Rwa spectrum parameters
characteristics
AVERAGE VARIANCE
left narrow peak < 4.5 <5
a sharp spike
the shape characteristics 4.5–10 5–10
between water zones and oil
zones
broad peak with long tails > 10 > 10
flat peak shape
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X. Fan, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 178 (2019) 937–947

Fig. 10. Theoretical characteristics of the Rwa spectrum and formation models for zones with different fluid types. (A) Water zones; (B) Hydrocarbon zones.

Fig. 11. The cross plot of formation resistivity (Rt) versus porosity of the E32
Formation in Yingxi area.

conventional cross plot of resistivity versus porosity cannot be effec-

tively applied to identify the fluid types for tight carbonate reservoirs in
Yingxi field.

5.3. Analysis of method application scopes

Pyrite is one kind of conductive minerals in the rock matrix

(Clennell et al., 2010). Generally, the pyrite within the rock matrix
lowers the true formation resistivity (Rt), interfering the resistivity
logging response from hydrocarbons (Clavier et al., 1976; Han et al.,
2015). Fig. 12 is the cross plot of Rt and pyrite content, and the pyrite
contents and Rt are the results from Litho Scanner logging and deep
laterolog (LLD), respectively. As shown in the legend, both colors and
symbols represent different fluid type zones. Fig. 12A shows Rt has Fig. 12. The cross plot of formation resistivity (Rt) versus pyrite content of the
E32 Formation in Yingxi area. (A) Cross plot of the formation with high pyrite
negative correlations with the pyrite content when the pyrite contents
content (> 0.02); (B) Cross plot of the formation with low pyrite content
are higher than 0.02, with correlation coefficients of 0.76. The data
(< 0.02).
points are from different fluid type zones, indicating the effect of pyrite
on resistivity is greater than that of fluid within pores. However, Rt
shows no obvious relationship to pyrite content when the pyrite con- high pyrite content (> 0.02) intervals is limited due to the effect of
tents are lower than 0.02 (Fig. 12B). The result indicates that the effects pyrite content on resistivity. However, the effect can be ignored when
of pyrite content on resistivity cannot be ignored in the formation with the pyrite contents are lower than 0.02 (Fig. 12B). Therefore, this
high pyrite content (> 0.02). Unfortunately, the Rwa spectrum method method can be used in the formation with low pyrite content (< 0.02).
developed in this study is not perfect for eliminating the effect of pyrite The pyrite contents are lower than 0.02 for most zones of E32 Formation
content on resistivity. Therefore, the effectiveness of this method in in the study area according to the results from X-ray diffraction (XRD)

945
X. Fan, et al.
and Litho Scanner logging, so this method can be used in most zones in
this area.
Moreover, this method is suitable for the case where the salinity
value of drilling mud is similar to that of formation water. If the salinity
value of the drilling mud is significantly higher than the one of the
formation water, although there is residual oil or gas near the well bore
in the hydrocarbon zones after mud filtrate invasion, the Rwa may be
similar to that of the water zones due to the better conductivity of high
salinity of the mud filtrate (Naides and Paris, 2005; Semmelbeck and
Holditch, 1988). On the contrary, if the salinity value of the drilling
mud is significantly lower than the one of the formation water, the Rwa
of the flushed zone from water zones will increase after mud filtrate
invasion (Semmelbeck and Holditch, 1988), causing confusion in the
fluid identification.
6. Conclusions
(1) The Rwa spectrum is derived from the histogram distribution of Rwa
values in a sliding window, and the Rwa calculation formula com-
bines Simandoux equation, image logs and the triple-porosity
model instead of the simple Archie's equation and Rt. Two Rwa
spectrum parameters, namely AVERAGE (reflects the size of main
peak values) and VARIANCE (reflects shape changes of Rwa spec-
trum) are defined to quantitatively detect hydrocarbon-bearing
zones.
(2) Qualitatively a very broad Rwa spectrum with long tails corresponds
to hydrocarbon-bearing zones, and the peak shape is relatively flat.
In contrast, the narrow Rwa spectrum corresponds to water-bearing
zones, and the peak shape is a sharp spike. Quantitatively both
values of AVERAGE and VARIANCE are higher than 10 for oil zones
in Yingxi field, whereas for water zones, the values of AVERAGE
and VARIANCE are lower than 4.5 and 5, respectively.
(3) The formation resistivity decreases linearly with the increase in
pyrite content in the formation with high pyrite content, hence, the
pyrite interferes the resistivity logging response from hydrocarbons.
The method is suitable for the formation of no or little pyrite con-
tent (lower than 0.2), and the case where the salinity value of
drilling mud is similar to that of formation water.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge PetroChina Qinghai Oilfield Company for
providing data and data access for permission to publish this work. We
are also grateful to the six anonymous reviewers for their suggestive
and kindly comments on this article, and we really learn a lot from
these suggestions. This study was supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 41872133) and the PetroChina
Science and Technology Major Project (2016E-0108GF).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.04.006.
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