Electrodynamics-I

Part-A
Topics

Physical Quantities (Scalar and Vector

Quantities

Fields (Scalar Field and Vector Field

Gradient, Divergence and Curl

 Cont…..

Fundamental theorem of Calculus

Fundamental theorem of Gradient

Fundamental theorem of Divergence
Or
Gauss Divergence Theorem

Fundamental theorem of Curl
Or
Stokes’ Theorem

Continuity Equation
Physical Quantities

Physical Quantities: A physical quantity is a physical
property of a body, or substance, that can be quantified by
measurement. or
Property of a body, or substance, where the property has a
magnitude that can be expressed as a number and a reference.
Hence the value of a physical quantity A can be expressed as the
product of a numerical value ‘a’ and a unit of measurement ‘u’
i.e. A = a u
For Example: If the temperature T of a body is quantified as 300
Kelvin (in which T is the quantity symbol, 300 the value, and K is
the unit), this is written T = 300 X K = 300K
 Scalar Quantities

A scalar is a quantity that has a magnitude but has no

direction associated with it. Examples include: length,
temperature, mass, electric charge, work, density,
pressure, speed, etc. Once units have been specified
these quantities are characterised by single real
numbers.

Examples are temperature, mass, length, electric potential,

density etc.

e.g. The temperature is 21 °C, the density is 1000 kg/m3.
Vector Quantities

A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude and a
direction associated with it. Examples include:
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force.

Examples: Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Impulse,

Electric Field Intensity, Magnetic field
Intensity
To represent a vector, we introduce the concept of a
directed line segment, drawn in the relevant direction and
with a length corresponding to the magnitude of the
quantity.
Field

Definition: If a physical quantities (scalar or vector) varies
from point to point in a space, it can be expressed as a
continuous function of the position of a point in the
region of space. Such a continuous function is called the
function of position. The region in which this function
specifies the physical quantity is called field

Scalar field corresponding to scalar quantities

Vector field corresponding to vector quantities
Analogy of Field with Human
Aura
Field Aura

Aura Colors: The aura is the energy field

Electric potential around a charge
that surrounds our body.
Scalar and Vector fields

Imagine a cooling system of a reactor which is using fluid
as the cooler medium

vb
va

Fluid

Tc
Td

At any point P, we can measure the temperature T.

The temperature will depend upon point in the reactor

where we take the measurement. Of course, the
temperature will be higher close to the radiator than
the surroundings.

Clearly the temperature T is a function of the position

of the point. If we label the point by its Cartesian
coordinates ( x, y, z ) , then T will be a function of x, y
and z, i.e. T = T ( x, y, z )

This is an example of a scalar field since temperature

is a scalar.

Meanwhile, at each point, the fluid will be moving
with a certain speed in a certain direction

That is, each small fluid element has a particular

velocity and direction, depending upon its location in
the fluid.

This is an example of a vector field since velocity is a

vector. The velocity can be expressed as a vector
function, i.e.
r
v = v1 ( x, y, z )ˆi + v2 ( x, y, z )ˆj + v3 ( x, y, z )kˆ
where v1 , v2 and v3 will each be scalar functions.
Physical examples of scalar fields:

Temperature near a heated wall

(The darker region representing higher values )

 Physical examples of vector fields:

+ −

Electric field surrounding a Magnetic field lines shown by bar

positive and a negative charge. magnet

Hurricane
Gradient of Scalar Fields

The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field,

which points in the direction of the greatest
rate of increase of the scalar field, and whose
magnitude is the greatest rate of change.
In the above two images, the scalar field is in black
and white, black representing higher values, and its
corresponding gradient is represented by blue arrows.

Thus, the gradient of a scalar function f is equal to
∂φ ˆ ∂φ ˆ ∂φ
grad φ = i
ˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z

Even though f is a scalar, the gradient of f is a vector.

The expression of grad f can be written as

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ  ∂ ∂ ∂  r
grad φ = ˆi + ˆj + kˆ =  ˆi + ˆj + kˆ φ = ∇φ
∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z 

where the operator ∇ r ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂

≡ i + j +k
ˆ
is called del or nabla. ∂x ∂y ∂z
Question
r
If φ(x,y,z) = 3x2y– y2z2, find grad φ and ∇φ at the point
(1,2,−1).
 Solution
r ∂φ ˆ ∂φ ˆ ∂φ
grad φ = ∇φ = i ˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 6 xyi + (3 x − 2 yz ) j + (−2 y z )kˆ
ˆ 2 2 ˆ 2

At the point (1,2,−1),

r
∇φ = 6(1)(2)i + [3(1) − 2(2)(−1) ]j − 2(2) (−1)kˆ
ˆ 2 2 ˆ 2

= 12ˆi − ˆj + 8kˆ
r
∴ ∇φ = 12ˆi − ˆj + 8kˆ = 12 2 + (−1) 2 + 82 = 209
(1, 2 , −1)
Question-2
Find φ ( x, y ), if

r
∇φ = y cos x ˆi + (sin x + e y )ˆj
Given
φ (0,0) = 0.
Solution
Since ∇φ = y cos x i + (sin x + e y ) j, we have
∂φ ∂φ
= y cos x .....(1) = sin x + e .....(2)
y

∂x ∂y
Integrating (1) and (2) w.r.t. x and y
respectively, we obtain
φ = ∫ y cos xdx = y sin x + f ( y ) .....(3)
φ = ∫ (sin x + e y )dy = y sin x + e y + g ( x) .....(4)
Comparing (3) and (4), we can conclude
that
f ( y ) = e y + C and g ( x) = C
where C is an arbitrary constant of integration
Hence, φ ( x , y ) = y sin x + e y
+C
To find constant C, use φ (0,0) = 0.
φ (0,0) = 0 sin 0 + e 0 + C = 0
1+ C = 0
∴ C = −1
Therefore, φ ( x, y ) = y sin x + e y − 1 ♣
Divergence of Vector Fields

The divergence is an operator that measures the
magnitude of a vector field's source or sink at a given
point.

The divergence of a vector field is a scalar and at a
point it is defined as the amount of flux diverging from
a unit volume element per second around that point.

It is a scalar product of del operator with a vector
field function.

The divergence of a vector field
r
F ( x, y, z ) = F1 ( x, y, z )ˆi + F2 ( x, y, z )ˆj + F3 ( x, y, z )kˆ

is defined as
r r r
div F = ∇ ⋅ F
ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ 
=  i + j + k  ⋅ ( F1ˆi + F2 ˆj + F3kˆ )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Geometrical Interpretation.
r r
The name divergence is well chosen, for is∇a ⋅measure
F
of how much the vector F spreads out (diverges) from the
point in question.

The vector function has a (positive) divergence at the point

P; it is spreading out. (If the arrows pointed in, it would be
a negative divergence.)

NOTE: P=electric field due to charge (+ ve or – ve)

Examples of Positive Divergence
Examples of Negative Divergence
On the other hand, the function has zero divergence at P; it is
not spreading out at all.

*Divergence-Application: used in Gauss law

Question

Q. Calculate the divergence of the following vector
functions?

r
(a ) v1 = x i + 3 xz j − 2 xzkˆ
2ˆ 2ˆ

r
(b) v2 = xyiˆ + 2 yzˆj + 3 zxkˆ
Curl of Vector Fields

Measures the vector field’s tendency to rotate around a
point

Curl is a vector operator that shows a vector field's rate of
rotation, i.e. the direction of the axis of rotation and the
magnitude of the rotation.

It is a vector product of del operator with a vector field
funcion.
Geometrical representation of
Curl:

*Curl-application: used in Ampere’s circuital

law.
Example

Whirlpool

The curl of a vector field
r
F ( x, y, z ) = F1 ( x, y, z )ˆi + F2 ( x, y, z )ˆj + F3 ( x, y, z )kˆ

is defined as
ˆi ˆj kˆ
r r r ∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = ∇ × F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
F1 F2 F3
Some important points:
A vector field function is said to be irrotational if curl of the
function is zero.
→ →
curl F=0 or ∇× F = 0

A vector field function is said to be solenoidal in a region if its

flux across any closed surface in that region is zero.

→ →
div F=0 ∇. F = 0
Question-4:
Find both div F and curl F at the point (2,0,3) if

r
F(x, y, z) = ze i + 2xzcosyˆj + (x + 2y)kˆ
2xyˆ
Solution
r r r ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
div F = ∇ ⋅ F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= ( ze ) + (2 xz cos y ) + ( x + 2 y )
2 xy

∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2 yze 2 xy
− 2 xz sin y
[Notice that div F is a scalar!]
At the point (2,0,3),
r r
∇ ⋅ F = 2(0)(3)e 2 ( 2 )( 0) − 2(2)(3) sin 0 = 0
 ˆi ˆj kˆ
r r r ∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = ∇ × F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
ze 2 xy 2 xz cos y x + 2y
∂ ∂ 
= i  ( x + 2 y ) − (2 xz cos y )
ˆ
 ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ 2 xy 
− j ( x + 2 y ) − ( ze )
ˆ
 ∂x ∂z 
∂ ∂ 2 xy 
+ k  (2 xz cos y ) − ( ze )
ˆ
 ∂x ∂y 
= (2 − 2 x cos y )ˆi − (1 − e 2 xy )ˆj + (2 z cos y − 2 xze 2 xy )kˆ
[Notice that curl F is also a vector]

At the point (2,0,3),

r r
∇ × F = [2 − 2(2) cos 0]ˆi − [1 − e 2 ( 0 )(3) ]ˆj
+ [2(3) cos 0 − 2(2)(3)e 2 ( 2)( 0 ) ]kˆ
= −2ˆi − 6kˆ
Q 5. Show that the vector field
r
F = (x + 3y)î + (y - 3z)ĵ + (x - 2z)k̂ is solenoidal.
→ →
Hint: ∇. F = 0

Q 6. Show that the vector field

( ) ( )
r
F = x 2 + xy 2 iˆ + y 2 + x 2 y ˆj is irrotational.

Hint: → →
∇× F = 0
Question-7:
Find the value of the constant ‘c’ for which the vector
r
A = (x + 3y)î + (y - 2z)ĵ + (x + cz)k̂ is solenoidal.
Hint: For a solenoidal vector field A,
div A=0
Laplacian Operator:
When we examine the divergence of a vector field,
we obtain a new operation on the scalar called the
Laplacian.
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
2 2 2
∇⋅ (∇φ ) = ∇ φ ≡ 2 + 2 + 2
2

∂x ∂y ∂z
The Laplacian, a scalar operation, is defined generally
as
∂ ∂ 2
∂ 2 2
∇ ≡ 2+ 2+ 2
2

∂x ∂y ∂z
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
b
df
∫ dx = f ( b ) − f ( a )
f(x)

a
dx
f(b)

f(a)
Two way to determine the total
change in the function :
either
a b X
1. Subtract the values at the ends dx
2. Go step-by-step adding up all small
increments as you go.

Statement: The integral of a derivative over an interval is given by

the value of the function at the end points (boundaries).
The Fundamental Theorem for
Divergence

Statement: The integral of a derivative (here the divergence)
over a region (here the volume) is equal to the value of the
function at the boundaries (here the surface).

∫( )
r r r r
v
∇ ⋅ F dV = ∫ F ⋅ ds
S

Use: To convert volume integral into surface intergral

3D 2D
The Fundamental Theorem for Curl
or
Stokes’ Theorem

Statement: The integral of a derivative (here curl) over a
region (here, a patch of surface) is equal to the value of the
function at the boundary (here perimeter of the patch)

( )
r r r r r
∫∫
S
∇ × F ⋅ ds = ∫ F ⋅ dl
C

2D 1D
Geometrical
Interpretation
Geometrical Interpretation
 Equation of Continuity
Or
Conservation of Charge
Statement: The total current flowing out of some
volume must be equal to the rate of decrease of the
charge within that volume, if the charge is neither being
created nor lost.
Since current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, the current
through the conducting cylinder is

ρ
dq d
I =
dt
=
dt ∫ ρ dv .......(
v
1)
 Cont…

Also, in terms of current density (defined as the amount of
charge which crosses a unit area normal to the surface in unit
time)

r r dq
I = ∫ J ⋅ ds = ........( 2)
S
dt

From Equations (1) & (2)

r r d dq
∫S J ⋅ ds = − dt ∫v ρdv = − dt ........(3)

The minus sign indicates the decrease of charge in volume V
 Cont…..

From Divergence Theorem [apply on L.H.S of Eq. (3)]

( )
r r r r
∫ J ⋅ ds = ∫ ∇ ⋅ J dv ........( 4)
S V

From equations (3) and (4)

∫( )
r r d dρ
∇ ⋅ J dv = − ∫ ρdv = − ∫ dv........(5)
V
dt v v
dt
r r r dρ
divJ = ∇ ⋅ J = − ........( 6)
dt

Eq. (6) Is known as equation of continuity and represents the
physical fact of conservation of charge.
 Cont……

For the steady state current (where charge density remain
constant or if the value of current density remains
unchanged with time) i.e.
∂ ρ
= 0
∂ t
So that
r r
∇⋅ J = 0