CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Mendel’s Law
Mendel's Law I: alel gene separation, in English called segregation of allelic genes,
this allele separation event is seen when making individual gametes that have heterozygous
genotypes, so that each gamete contains one of the alleles. Mendel's Second Law: (The law of
grouping genes freely or asortation). In the formation of sex cells (gametes), alleles enter into
combinations freely so that the characteristics that appear in their offspring vary. This law
applies to crosses with two different characteristics (dihybrid) or more (polyhibrid) (Suryono,
2017).
Mendel considered a meteorologist, his most significant contribution is his study of
plant hybrids. This single work puts Mendel on a par with Darwin’s evolutionary theory and
establishes him firmly in the frame of today’s biology. To introduce the personality of Gregor
Johann Mendel, focussing not just on his scientific work, but also on his background and
what or who influenced him. To understand Mendel’s use of quantification and mathematical
analysis of obtained results (Schwarzbach, 2014).
Morgan then crossed members of teh F1 generation with one another (GgLI x GgLl)
to produce an F2 generation. The flies in the F2 generation occurred in a phenotypic ratio of
three gray, longwinged flies to one black, short-winged fly. If the alleles of the two genes and
been located on different chromosomes, they would have assorted independently and
produced an F2 generation with a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 as in Mendel’s peas. Morgan
called pairs of genes that tend to be inherited together linked genes, and he called a set of
linked genes a linkage group (Postlethwait and Janet, 2006).
The discovery of the law of heredity by Mendel (1866) on development affected
important branches of science and concepts in biology such as evolution, the development of
the embryo of living things and even molecular biology in the social field. The hottest
discussion on heredity in the social field occurred in the 1970s to 1980s on the topics of IQ
and race. One branch of Biology that had a major influence after the discovery of Mendel's
law was Darwin's theory of evolution (Meilinda, 2017).
From the fact that there are characteristics that win over others, J.G. Mendel
concluded that in individuals (or in heterozygot features, one allele is dominant while the
other is recessive). From the fact that the characteristics of the parent reappear in the pea
plant derived from heterozygote seeds, J.G. Mendel concluded that the two factors for the
two characteristics did not merge (do not mix) in any way the two factors remained
independent during their individual lives and separated at the time of the formation of
gametes. In this connection half the gamete is in charge of one factor, while the other half is
in charge of the other factor. This last conclusion is known as the Mendelian separation law
from the all hyotesis (Firdauzi, 2014).

B. Pseudo Deviation of Mendel's Law

1. Complementary
Complementary genes play a role together in the same biochemistry or development
pathway. The function of one gene is needed for the expression of another gene. The two
recessive homozygous genotypes produce identical phenotypes, the ratio being 9: 7. The aaB-
, A-bb and aabb genotypes produce one phenotype. The two dominant alleles, when they are
together complement each other and produce different phenotypes (Sarini, et al, 2016).
The origin of organismal complexity is generally thought to be tightly coupled to the
evolution of new gene functions arising subsequent to gene duplication. Under the classical
model for the evolution of duplicate genes, one member of the duplicated pair usually
degenerates within a few million years by accumulating deleterious mutations, while the
other duplicate retains the original function. This model further predicts that on rare
occasions, one duplicate may acquire a new adaptive function, resulting in the preservation of
both members of the pair, one with the new function and the other retaining the old.
However, empirical data suggest that a much greater proportion of gene duplicates is
preserved than predicted by the classical model. Here we present a new conceptual
framework for understanding the evolution of duplicate genes that may help explain this
conundrum (Force, et al, 1999).
Focusing on the regulatory complexity of eukaryotic genes, we show how
complementary degenerative mutations in different regulatory elements of duplicated genes
can facilitate the preservation of both duplicates, thereby increasing long-term opportunities
for the evolution of new gene functions. The duplication-degeneration-complementation
(DDC) model predicts that (1) degenerative mutations in regulatory elements can increase
rather than reduce the probability of duplicate gene preservation and (2) the usual mechanism
of duplicate gene preservation is the partitioning of ancestral functions rather than the
evolution of new functions. We present several examples (including analysis of a new
engrailed gene in zebrafish) that appear to be consistent with the DDC model, and we suggest
several analytical and experimental approaches for determining whether the complementary
loss of gene subfunctions or the acquisition of novel functions are likely to be the primary
mechanisms for the preservation of gene duplicates (Force, et al, 1999).

2. Atavism
Gene interactions can cause differences. Charles Darwin called the event that arose
again to be a trait that had been lost for several generations of atavism. Atavism is often
found in pigeons (Columba livia). Indian blood birds have fan-like open tails which are
agreed to be mated to each other for generations, sometimes producing straight children like
lying pigeons. Related to that atavism is one of Darwin's arguments to conclude (Suryono,
2017).
The term “atavisme” seems to have been coined by Duchesnehe was educated by his
father andintroduced by him to botany, horticulture, and to the renownedBernard de Jussieu,
the royal botanist. A In 1832 incor-porated the term and concept, alluded to by Lyell in a
letter to Darwin stating: “Nevertheless if it be true thatdogs have the same [gestational]
period as the wolf, I shd[should]infer that they all came from that wild species if we are to
derivethem from some one wild species of the canine genus rather thanfrom another or from
foxes or Jackalls or any other species differingin period of gestation. If some varieties of dog
approach the fox,others the wolf this may have to do with ‘atavism,’ calls it, or inheritance
from their common ancestor ascendingbeyond any of the living wild species (Zanni and John,
2013).
Atavism or interacting forms on the chicken wattle was first revealed by W. Bateson
and R.C. Punnet. The comb character is not only regulated by one gene, but by two supported
genes. In some types of chickens, the comb genes for the form of ros, P genes for the
phenotype of beans, R genes and P genes when they meet form walnut phenotypes, while
genes r and p genes meet to form a single phenotype. Based on the results of the crossing, a
phenotype ratio of 9: 3: 3: 1 is obtained (Ferdinand P and Moekti, 2007). In contrast to the
crossing carried out by Mendel with his peas, the nature of the two forms of comb in one
chicken is very odd. With the interaction between the two dominant genes and the recessive
gene all will produce new phenotypic variations, namely ros and pea. The dominant R gene
that interacts with the recessive P gene will produce the form of a pea comb. The difference
in the shape of the chicken's comb is called atavism (Ferdinand P and Moekti, 2007).

C. Cryptomery
 One deviation from Mendel's law is the presence of cryptomery, which is a gene with
a dominant trait that will only appear if it is present together with other dominant genes. This
event was first observed by Correns when he first got the results of a comparison of the
crossing of Linaria maroccana flowers from their natural lines, namely red and white. The
results of F1 from the crossing turned out to produce purple flowers entirely. From the
crossing between the purple F1 generation between the Linaria maroccana generation, the
overall F2 ratio between the purple: red: white flower is 9: 3: 4 (Ferdinand P and Moekti,
2007). After doing research, the color of red flowers is caused by anthocyanin, which is a
pigment that is in the flower. Red flowers are identified as flowers that do not have
anthocyanin. From further research, it turns out the red color is caused by anthocyanins that
are present in acidic cell conditions and if present in alkaline conditions will remain white if
present in both acidic and basic conditions. This red flower is dominant towards white
flowers that are not associated with it (Ferdinand P and Moekti, 2007).
Cryptomery is the hidden nature of dominant genes, if the dominant genes stand
alone. however, if the dominant gene interacts with other dominant genes, the dominant gene
trait that was previously hidden will emerge. Examples of cryptomery can be seen in the
crossing of the red Linaria maroccana flower plant (AAbb) with white flowers (aaBB) which
will produce F1 100% purple. The results of the F1 F1 crossing will produce offspring F2
with a phenotype ratio of purple: red: white = 9:3:4 (Aryulina, et al, 2006). The above
example is cryptomery in the flowers of Linaria caroccana. The example of cryptomery in a
chicken's comb is cryptomery or the interaction of forms in the chicken's comb, which says
that the comb's character is not only regulated by one gene, but by two interacting genes. In
chicken, R genes regulate ros form combs, P genes for pea or seed phenotypes, R genes and P
genes when they meet to form walnut phenotypes, while r genes and p genes when they meet
give rise to single or blade phenotypes (Karmana, 2017).

D. Epistasis-Hipostasis
Epistasis-Hypostasis is a form of interaction between dominant genes that defeat other
dominant genes. Epistasis means covering and hypostasis means being covered. In epistasis,
genes that are epistatic will not cover the genes that are paired, but will cover other genes that
are not their partners. Epistasis events can be divided into dominant epistasis and recessive
epistasis. Dominant epistasis is the presence of one dominant gene that is epistasis (Karmana,
2017).
 Examples of dominant epistasis are wheat plants, the H gene controls black and the h
gene regulates the work of enzymes to produce colors. From the results of the crossing it is
known that the H gene is epistasis, the h gene gives color, K is hypostatic, and k gives color.
As a rule, the nature of dominant genes is epistasis as long as there is an H gene in a genotype
so that the genotype is determined by the H gene. The hhkk genotype does not form white
pigments and phenotypes. In the event of recessive epistasis, genes with recessive
homozygous alleles affect other genes (Karmana, 2017). An example is recessive epistasis in
rat hair color determined by genes with alleles A and a. A allele is dominant towards a and
will produce agouti gray hair color resulting in a ratio of 9: 3: 4 (Aryulina, et al, 2006).
In some cases of hybrid, trihibrid, or polyhibrid marriages, genes influence each other.
Genes that affect (inhibit) other genes are called epistasis, whereas genes that are affected
(blocked) are called hypostasis genes. As a result, marriages appear to deviate from the rules
or results that should be based on Mendel's principles. In the event of a dominant epistation,
genes with dominant alleles cover the work of other genes. An example is the dominant
epistasis in pumpkin. K dominant to k will produce a yellow color while the allele k in a
homozygous state will produce a green color. The work of these genes is influenced by other
genes, namely genes that determine the appearance of color in pumpkins that have P and p
alleles. P allele will cover the work alleles K and k so that it produces a colorless (white)
pumpkin. Yellow or green can only appear if the epistasis gene is in a state of recessive
homozygotes (pp) and if gene of phenotipe aa if a genotype of gena meets pp will produce a
recessive aapp genotype (Aryulina, et al, 2006).