J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
DOI 10.1007/s10964-008-9371-y
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
Positive Self-Beliefs as a Mediator of the Relationship Between
Adolescents’ Sports Participation and Health in Young Adulthood
Tonya Dodge Æ Sharon F. Lambert
Received: 6 January 2008 / Accepted: 10 November 2008 / Published online: 9 December 2008

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008
Abstract The present study examined the relationship
between participation in sports during adolescence and
physical activity and subjective health in young adulthood.
A sample of 8,152 (males = 50.8%, females = 49.2%)
adolescents from the National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health were used. Results of the study showed
that participating in an organized sport during adolescence
was associated with higher levels of physical activity and
better subjective health during young adulthood after
controlling for participation in general physical activities
(e.g., jogging, biking, skateboarding) during adolescence.
Participation in sports during adolescence was associated
with more positive self-beliefs 1 year later that, in turn,
were associated with higher levels of moderate to vigorous
physical activity and better subjective health 6 years later.
Results suggest that positive self-beliefs partially mediate
the relationship between adolescents’ participation in
sports and two health outcomes in young adulthood:
moderate to vigorous physical activity and subjective
health. Findings highlight the utility of youths’ participa-
tion in organized sports for promoting healthy outcomes.
Implications for policy and practice are discussed.
Keywords Adolescent sports participation

Physical activity
Subjective health
Self-beliefs
T. Dodge (&)
Department of Psychology, Skidmore College,
Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
e-mail: tdodge@skidmore.edu
S. F. Lambert
Department of Psychology, The George Washington University,
Washington, DC, USA
Introduction
Over the past decade, there has been considerable interest
in the effect of participation in sports on adolescent health
and development. This literature has shown that partici-
pation in sports during adolescence is associated with
beneficial outcomes, including higher educational aspira-
tions, educational attainment, and grade point averages
(Eccles and Barber 1999; Fredricks and Eccles 2006),
better mental health (Fredricks and Eccles 2006), and less
sexual risk taking for females (Dodge and Jaccard 2002;
Miller et al. 1998; Sabo et al. 1999). Adolescents’ par-
ticipation in sports also has been associated with
maladaptive behaviors, including use of smokeless
tobacco (Melnick et al. 2001), use of legal performance
enhancing substances, and use of illegal anabolic steroids
(Dodge and Jaccard 2006). Studies of the relationship
between participation in sports and alcohol use have been
inconclusive, with some showing that athletes are more
likely than non-athletes to use alcohol (Eccles and Barber
1999), and others reporting the opposite (Fredricks and
Eccles 2006; Sabo et al. 2002). Together, these studies
highlight a decade’s worth of research which has con-
sistently shown that participation in sports during
adolescence can affect the health and well-being of
adolescents.
Participation in Sports and Physical Activity
One of the most consistent findings regarding the associ-
ation between participation in sports and adolescent health
is the relationship between participation in sports during
childhood and increased physical activity later in life. A
number of studies has shown that participation in sports
123
814
during childhood and adolescence is associated with higher
levels of physical activity in adulthood. In a longitudinal
study, Perkins et al. (2004) followed an American sample
of 12-year-old adolescents until most were aged 24–
25 years old. Results of this study showed that participa-
tion in sports during adolescence was positively associated
with both participation in sports and physical activity in
young adulthood. In a longitudinal study conducted with a
sample of Finnish adolescents, frequent participation in
sports when adolescents were 14 years old, was associated
with higher levels of physical activity when the adolescents
reached 31 years of age (Tammelin et al. 2003). Kraut
et al. (2003) sampled more than 3,000 Jewish male
industrial workers. The workers were asked to report cur-
rent leisure time physical activity, and to recall
participation in sports when they were adolescents. Results
showed that those workers who recalled having partici-
pated in sports during adolescence were more likely to
report engaging in leisure time physical activity than those
who did not recall participating in sports. Finally, in a study
of Flemish girls aged 12–18 years old, participation in
sports during adolescence was a better predictor of
involvement in sports nearly 20 years later than was
socioeconomic status (Scheerder et al. 2006). Thus, the
relationship between adolescents’ participation in sports
and increased physical activity in adulthood is robust,
having been documented in cross sectional and longitudi-
nal studies with American, Finnish, Jewish, and Flemish
samples.
While these studies provide compelling evidence that
participation in sports during adolescence is associated
with higher levels of physical activity in adulthood, none of
them controlled for non-sport related physical activity
during adolescence. As a result, it remains unclear whether
higher levels of physical activity in adulthood are tied
specifically to participation sports during adolescence, or
whether any physical activity during adolescence would
result in similar levels of physical activity during adult-
hood. Therefore, one purpose of the present study is to
address this gap in the literature.
Two different hypotheses can be made with respect to
the relationships between participation in organized sports
or general physical activities during adolescence, and
physical activity during adulthood. Both hypotheses draw
from, and are consistent with, literature on positive youth
development (Larson 2000). This literature has identified
organized activities, working, leisure with friends, and
school work as activities in which adolescents spend a
majority of their time (Larson et al. 2006). According to
the positive youth development literature, time spent in
organized activities provides adolescents with opportuni-
ties to develop the capacity for a sense of personal
agency, or autonomy, and this has been labeled initiative
123
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
(Larson 2000). These experiences are central for positive
developmental outcomes such as civic engagement,
altruism, and lower levels of delinquency (Larson). The
positive youth development perspective further posits that
the opportunity to develop initiative is not provided by
participation in non-organized activities such as leisure
time with friends. While studies on positive youth
development have identified participation in sports as an
activity that can foster positive development, it remains
unclear whether participation in general physical activi-
ties, confers similar development opportunities. It is
possible that general physical activity settings are similar
to leisure settings, and, as a result, will not provide the
same opportunities for positive development that are
experienced in organized sport. Thus, one plausible
hypothesis is that the positive relationship between
physical activity during adolescence and physical activity
later in life, is due to participation in organized sports,
while the effect of participation in general physical
activities on later physical activity is minimal.
An equally plausible yet untested alternative hypothesis
is that adolescents who participate in any type of physical
activity, organized or not, will be more likely than ado-
lescents who do not participate in such activities to engage
in physical activity as young adults. There are many dif-
ferent types of physical activities in which adolescents may
participate besides organized sports teams including intra-
mural sports, bike riding, roller-blading, skate boarding,
martial arts, and yoga. Participation in these informal types
of activities also may foster positive youth development.
For example, it is seems reasonable to assume that an
adolescent who participates in an intramural sport is more
likely to pursue this activity, or other types of physical
activity, as s/he reaches adulthood than an adolescent who
has not participated in any sort of physical activity. As a
result, it may not be organized participation in sports per
se, that is linked to physical activity in adulthood but,
instead, it may be participation in any type of physical
activity that leads to increased levels of physical activity in
adulthood.
The first goal of the present study is to examine the two
aforementioned alternative hypotheses drawn from the
positive youth development perspective. One hypothesis is
that participation in organized sports during adolescence
will be associated with greater levels of physical activity
during young adulthood, while the effect of participation in
general physical activities on physical activity during
young adulthood will be minimal. The alternative
hypothesis is that participation in any type of physical
activity organized or not, during adolescence will be
associated with greater physical activity during young
adulthood. In this way, we examine whether the positive
relationship between adolescent physical activity and
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
physical activity in young adulthood is uniquely tied to
participation in organized sport.
A second goal of this study is to examine whether par-
ticipation in sports during adolescence is associated with
better subjective health in young adulthood, independent of
general physical activity during adolescence. It is impor-
tant to examine early predictors of subjective health in
adulthood because subjective health has been shown to
affect one’s physical health by virtue of increasing levels of
physical activity. Studies have found that individuals who
report better overall health, spend more of their leisure-
time exercising (Horgan 1987; Plotnikoff et al. 2004) and
report more vigorous activity than individuals who report
lower levels of overall health (Lee and Laffrey 2006).
Although numerous studies have examined links between
adolescents’ participation in sports and later physical
health outcomes, none have tested whether participation in
sports influences subjective ratings of health. Again, there
are two different hypotheses that can be made with respect
to the relationships between participation in organized
sports or general physical activities during adolescence,
and subjective health during adulthood. One hypothesis is
that the relationship between physical activity during
adolescence and later subjective health is due to partici-
pation in organized sports, while the effect of participation
in general physical activities on subjective health during
young adulthood is minimal. The alternative hypothesis is
that adolescents who participate in any type of physical
activity, organized or not, will report greater subjective
health during young adulthood than adolescents who do not
participate in such activities.
Participation in Sports, Positive Self-Beliefs,
and Young Adult Health Outcomes
While studies provide empirical support for the link
between participation in sports in adolescence and adult
physical activity, very few have identified the psycholog-
ical processes responsible for such associations. It is
possible that the benefits of participation in sports during
adolescence on later physical activity and subjective health
may be due, at least in part, to improvements in psycho-
logical well-being that accrue from sports activity. One
aspect of psychological well-being that may explain the
observed relationships between participation in sports and
later physical activity is one’s beliefs about the self. Thus, a
final goal of the present study is to test whether the positive
relationships between adolescents’ participation in sports
and later physical and subjective health are due to
improvements in adolescents’ positive self-beliefs that
accrue from participation in sports. The paragraphs below
describe this possibility.
815
Participation in Sports and Positive Self-Beliefs
The positive youth development perspective explains that
for adolescents, opportunities to engage in activities that,
allow for the experience of personal agency and challenge
should be associated with positive development (Larson
2000). Participation in organized sports is likely to provide
a context within which adolescents have the opportunity to
acquire unique skills or abilities that lead to the develop-
ment of a positive sense of self. Empirical research
suggests that this may indeed be the case. For example, in a
study of Swedish adolescents aged 15–20 years, Ferron
et al. (1999) found that adolescents who played sports were
better adjusted, less anxious, and had higher levels of
energy than their non-athlete counterparts. Kirkcaldy et al.
(2002) found that German adolescents, who participated
frequently in sports, reported a more positive self-image
than those who did not participate in sports. In a sample of
Canadian middle school students in grades 5–8, participa-
tion in sports was shown to have a positive, direct effect on
global self-esteem after controlling for its effects on
physical competence and global physical self-esteem
(Bowker 2006). These studies provide empirical support
for the idea that participation in sports can have a reliable,
beneficial effect on youths’ positive self-beliefs.
Positive Self-Beliefs and Young Adult Outcomes:
Physical Activity and Subjective Health
Several studies with children and adolescents have docu-
mented relationships between a positive sense of self and
physical activity. For example, Barr-Anderson et al. (2007)
found, in a sample of sixth grade girls that those with more
positive self-beliefs were more likely to report that they
had participated in structured physical activities (e.g.,
organized sports) in the past year than girls with fewer
positive self-beliefs. In a prospective longitudinal analysis
of adolescents aged 12–19 years who were part of Can-
ada’s National Population Health Survey (NPHS), Park
(2006) found that self-concept at time one was associated
with reduced odds of physical inactivity for male adoles-
cents 6 years later. Studies also have established a link
between positive self-beliefs and subjective health. In a
study of adults in the NPHS, Shields and Shooshtari (2001)
found that men and women with low self-esteem were
more likely than those with higher self-esteem to report fair
or poor health, and were less likely to report good health
4 years later. Park (2006) also found that, after controlling
for beliefs of health at the initial assessment, self-concept
was positively associated with adolescents’ perceived
health 6 years later.
Together these studies suggest that positive self-beliefs
during adolescence and adulthood may be associated with
123
816
improved physical activity and subjective health. However,
none of the empirical research has tested whether positive
self-beliefs mediate the relationship between adolescents’
participation in sports and the outcomes of physical activity
and subjective health in adulthood. The present study
examines this possibility.
Study Hypotheses
The current study addresses several gaps in the existing
literature on the effect of participation in sports on ado-
lescent development. We do so by testing whether
participation in sports in adolescence has unique effects on
physical activity and subjective health in adulthood. In
addition, we examine whether positive self-beliefs account
for the association between participation in sports and these
young adult outcomes.
Studies have documented a positive relationship between
participation in sports during adolescence and physical
activity in adulthood, but none have controlled for non-
sport related physical activity in adolescence (Perkins et al.
2004; Scheerder et al. 2006; Tammelin et al. 2003). Thus,
one objective of the present study is to test whether par-
ticipation in sports during adolescence exerts a positive
effect on physical activity in adulthood that is independent
from participation in general physical activity. Two alter-
native hypotheses will be tested with respect to this
objective. Our first hypothesis is that participation in gen-
eral physical activity and participation in sports during
adolescence will each be positively associated with physical
activity in adulthood. This hypothesis is based on the pos-
sibility that the observed positive relationship between
adolescents’ participation in sports and physical activity in
adulthood would emerge for any type of physical activity
during adolescence. An equally plausible, alternative
hypothesis is that there will be a positive relationship
between participation in sports during adolescence and
physical activity later in life whereas the effect of partici-
pation in general physical activities on later physical
activity will be minimal. This hypothesis is based on studies
demonstrating that participation in organized activities
during adolescence is associated with positive development
while participation in unstructured leisure activities confers
no developmental advantage (Larson et al. 2006). Thus,
membership on a sports team may be a type of organized
activity that can foster positive development whereas par-
ticipation in general physical fitness activities reflects an
unstructured leisure setting and thus confers no advantage.
The present study tests these two competing hypotheses.
A second study objective is to test for the mechanism
responsible for the positive relationship between partici-
pation in sports during adolescence and physical activity in
123
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
young adulthood. Adolescents who participate in sports are
likely to develop more positive beliefs about themselves
than adolescents who do not participate in sports. These
positive beliefs, in turn, may lead to improved physical
activity later in life. Thus, it is hypothesized that the
positive association between participation in sports during
adolescence and physical activity in young adulthood is
mediated by positive self-beliefs.
Although many studies have documented positive rela-
tionships between adolescents’ participation in sports and
health-related outcomes (Dodge and Jaccard 2002; Mel-
nick et al. 2001), very few have tested whether these
positive relationships extend to subjective health. The final
study objectives focus on the relationship between ado-
lescents’ participation in sports and subjective health
during young adulthood by extending the logic described
above. First, we test whether participation in sports during
adolescence exerts a positive effect on subjective health in
adulthood that is independent from participation in general
physical activity. Extending the logic described above, two
competing hypotheses will be tested. One hypothesis is that
participation in general physical activities and participation
in sports during adolescence will each be positively asso-
ciated with subjective health in adulthood. The alternative
hypothesis is that there will be a positive relationship
between participation in sports during adolescence and
subjective health later in life whereas the effect of partic-
ipation in general physical activities on later subjective
health will be minimal. Following the logic described
above, the final study hypothesis is that the positive asso-
ciation between participation in sports during adolescence
and subjective health in young adulthood is mediated by
positive self-beliefs.
Method
Respondents and Procedure
The present study used data from the National Longitudinal
Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health; Harris et al.
2003; Udry 2003). A random sample of 80 high schools
was selected to participate in Add Health. The sample was
stratified by region, urbanicity, school type, ethnic mix, and
size. For each high school, a feeder school was identified.
A feeder school was a middle or junior high school that
sent its graduates on to the high school. From September
1994 through April 1995 students in the 80 high schools,
and their associated feeder schools, completed a self-
administered questionnaire. The questionnaire was dis-
tributed during a class to students in grades 7–12. All
students who completed the in-school questionnaire, as
well as those who were listed on the school roster, were
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
used as a sampling frame to specify a sample of adoles-
cents for in-home interviews.
The in-home interviews were conducted in 1994–1995
with adolescents and their resident caregiver. In nearly all
cases the resident caregiver was the mother. Data were
collected on laptop computers. For less sensitive sections,
the interviewer read the questions and entered the adoles-
cents’ response into the computer. For more sensitive
sections the adolescent listened to the questions with head
phones and entered his/her responses directly into the
computer to minimize concerns about privacy and social
desirability.
Follow up data were collected from most of the in-home
sample 1 year later (wave II) and again, 6 years later (wave
III). The present study uses data from the in-home inter-
views and in-school questionnaires from wave I and the in-
home interviews from waves II and III. The response rates
for wave I, II, and III are 78.9, 88.2 and 77.4%, respec-
tively (Add Health 2003).
Nearly 15,000 respondents were interviewed at wave III.
The interviews were conducted between August 2001 and
April 2002. The behavioral outcomes of physical activity
and subjective health were assessed at wave III. Partici-
pation in sports and physical fitness during adolescence
were assessed at wave I. Positive self-beliefs was assessed
at wave II. Institutional review board approval was
obtained for analysis of the data set.
The sub-sample for the present study included 8,152
respondents (3,804 = male, 4,348 = female) who had
complete data for the sampling weights at all three waves
of data collection. Approximately 73% of the sample was
non-Hispanic White, 16% was non-Hispanic Black, 8.8%
was Hispanic, 1.9% non-Hispanic Asian, and less than 1%
was non-Hispanic American Indian.
Measures
Physical Activity
Add health assesses physical activity using self-reported
items that have been used and validated in other large-scale
studies (e.g., Pate et al. 1996; Sallis et al. 1992) and are based
on the seven day physical activity recall (PAR; Sallis et al.
1992). The seven day PAR has been shown to have adequate
reliability and validity when used with adolescents (Sallis
et al. 1992). Two items were used to assess moderate to
vigorous levels of physical activity at wave I. These two
items were not highly correlated; r = .10, p \ .01. One
question read ‘‘During the past week how many times did
you go roller-blading, roller-skating, skateboarding, or
bicycling?’’ This question is referred to as ‘‘biking/skating’’
in the results section. The other question read ‘‘During the
past week how many times did you do exercise such as
817
jogging, walking, karate, jumping rope, gymnastics or
dancing?’’ and is referred to as ‘‘exercise’’ in the results
section. Response options included 0 = not at all, 1 = 1 or
2 times, 2 = 3 or 4 times, 3 = 5 or more times. Activities
with metabolic equivalents [METS] of 5–8, such as roller-
blading, bicycling, jogging, and martial arts, have been used
as indicators of moderate to vigorous activities in prior
research (for a discussion of the MET intensities see Ains-
worth et al. 1993, 2000; Gordon-Larsen et al. 2000; Harris
et al. 2005). Moderate to vigorous physical activity during
adolescence is believed to be related to moderate levels of
physical activity during young adulthood (Heath et al.
1993). In addition, these two items have been used in pre-
vious research on physical activity in adolescence (Gordon-
Larsen et al. 2000; Guo et al. 2007; Harris et al. 2005).
At wave III, four additional items were included in the
questionnaire to assess a greater range of physical activities
relevant during young adulthood. Thus, the physical
activity measure during young adulthood included six
items. The six items were used to create an overall index
reflecting moderate to vigorous physical activity during
young adulthood. The stem of the questions read ‘‘During
the past seven days how many times did you …’’ followed
by: ‘‘bicycle, skateboard, dance, hike, hunt, or do yard
work?;’’ ‘‘roller-blade, roller-skate, downhill ski, snow
board, play racquet sports, or do aerobics?;’’ ‘‘participate in
strenuous team sports such as football, soccer, basketball,
lacrosse, rugby, field hockey, or ice hockey?;’’ ‘‘participate
in individual sports such as running, wrestling, swimming,
cross-country skiing, cycle racing, or martial arts?;’’
‘‘participate in gymnastics, weight lifting, or strength
training?;’’ and ‘‘play golf, go fishing or bowling, or play
softball or baseball?’’ Response options ranged from 0 (not
at all) to 7 (7 times). The mean of these six items was used
an overall index of moderate to vigorous physical activity.
The coefficient alpha for the scale is .68.
Subjective Health
Subjective health was assessed at wave III with the item
‘‘In general, how is your health?’’ Response options
included: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = good, 4 = very good,
5 = excellent.
Participation in Sports
A dichotomous variable representing participation in sports
during adolescence was created from the wave I in-school
questionnaire. Adolescents were provided with the fol-
lowing list of sports: baseball, basketball, field hockey, ice
hockey, football, soccer, swimming, tennis, track, volley-
ball, and wrestling. Adolescents were instructed to mark
the sports in which they were currently participating or
123
818
those sports they planned to participate in during the school
year. Those adolescents who were participating in, or who
planned to participate in, at least one sport were assigned a
score of ‘1.’ Adolescents who did not participate, or did not
plan to participate in a sport were assigned a score of ‘0.’
Positive Self-Beliefs
Positive self-beliefs were measured by taking the mean of
eleven items that assess positive beliefs about the self and
were taken from the personality and family section of the
wave II in-home interview. The items for this scale were
adapted from Lorr and Wunderlich’s (1986) self-concept
scale. Participants were provided with a statement about
themselves and were asked to indicate the extent to which
they agreed or disagreed with the statement. Sample items
include: ‘‘You feel socially accepted,’’ ‘‘You are well
coordinated,’’ ‘‘You have a lot of good qualities,’’ and
‘‘You have a lot to be proud of.’’ Participants responded on
a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5
(strongly disagree). The items were re-scored so that
higher numbers reflected more positive self-beliefs. The
coefficient alpha for the scale is .85.
Demographic Information
Parents’ self-reported total household income and highest
level of education from wave I were used as indicators of
socio-economic status. Resident caregivers were asked to
indicate the highest level of education they achieved. In
almost all cases, resident caregivers were mothers; there-
fore, parents’ education generally reflects mothers’ highest
level of education. Parents’ education was classified into
seven categories: 0 = never attended school, 1 = less than
8th grade, 2 = did not graduate from high school, 3 = high
school graduate, 4 = trade school, 5 = some college but
did not graduate, 6 = college degree, and 7 = professional
training beyond college. Family income was reported by
rounding to the nearest thousand. Gender was assessed at
wave III and was scored such that 0 = male and
1 = female. Five ethnic-racial groups were created based
on the self-reported wave III data: Hispanic, non-Hispanic
White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Asian and non-
Hispanic Native American. Age was assessed at wave III by
asking participants to report their age in years.
Analytic Plan
The two primary outcome variables are levels of moderate
to vigorous physical activity and subjective health as
assessed at wave III. The primary predictor variables are
participation in sports, biking/skating, and exercise as
assessed at wave I and positive self-beliefs as assessed at
123
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
wave II. Age, gender, race/ethnicity (where Whites served
as reference group), parents’ reported household income,
and parents’ education as assessed at wave I are included as
covariates in all analyses. In all path analyses, the effects of
covariates on the outcome variables are controlled. To
calculate descriptive statistics, the program SUDAAN was
used and sample weights developed by Add Health statis-
ticians were applied. Correlations between study variables
were conducted in SPSS.
Tests of study hypotheses are conducted with path
analyses using Mplus 5.1 (Muthén and Muthén 1998–2008)
and sample weights were applied. Formal tests of media-
tion are conducted according to the steps described by
Holmbeck (1997) and Baron and Kenny (1986). First, the
direct effect of the predictor variable (participation in
sports during adolescence) on the outcome variable is
assessed (Model 1). Next, a model with paths from the
predictor to the mediator variable (positive self-beliefs) and
from the mediator to the outcome is tested (Model 2). In
this model, the path from the predictor to the mediator, and
the path from the mediator to the outcome variable, must
be statistically significant and in the hypothesized direc-
tions. A third model is tested (Model 3) that is identical to
Model 2 except it allows a direct path from the predictor to
the outcome variable. Thus, both direct and indirect effects
of participation in sports on the outcome variable are
estimated in Model 3. Mediation is established if the pre-
viously significant direct effect of participation in sports on
the outcome variable (as observed in Model 1) is statisti-
cally non-significant in Model 3.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
During adolescence approximately 57% of the sample were
currently participating in, or planned to participate in, a
sport. The modal level of parents’ education reported was
high school and the mean yearly income was $44,730
(SE = 2.06). The mean level of physical fitness during
young adulthood suggests that individuals are engaging in
some moderate to vigorous physical activity (M = 4.52,
SE = 0.13) and feel they are in good overall health
(M = 4.01, SE = 0.02). The means and standard errors of
the major study variables are shown in Table 1. Inter-item
correlations are shown in Table 2.
Unique Effects of Participation in Sports on Physical
Activity and Subjective Health
Path analysis was conducted to test for independent effects
of participation in sports on moderate to vigorous physical
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825 819

Table 1 Means for positive self-beliefs, physical activity, and sub- adulthood. The biking/skating and exercise variables failed
jective health to reach conventional levels of statistical significance.
Positive Physical Subjective Results of this analysis are consistent with the hypothesis
self- activity health that sports activity during adolescence is uniquely associ-
beliefs ated with subjective health during adulthood. These results
White 4.11 (.01) 4.43 (.12) 4.01 (.02) are shown in Table 3.
Black 4.11 (.01) 3.71 (.16) 4.00 (.02)
American Indian 4.11 (.10) 4.02 (.55) 3.69 (.08) Positive Self-Beliefs as a Mediator of the
Asian 4.16 (.02) 4.56 (.34) 3.91 (.05) Sports-Physical Activity Relationship
Hispanic 3.99 (.03) 4.58 (.18) 4.00 (.03)
Did not play sports 4.03 (.02) 3.52 (.15) 3.89 (.02)
Given that participation in sports had an independent effect
on moderate to vigorous physical activity during young
Played sports 4.20 (.01) 5.27 (.18) 4.10 (.02)
adulthood (Model 1), a condition for testing mediation
Total sample 4.13 (.01) 4.52 (.13) 4.01 (.02)
(Baron and Kenny 1986; Holmbeck 1997), we examined
Note: numbers in () indicate standard error of the mean two additional models to test whether positive self-beliefs
mediated this relationship. The next model (Model 2)
activity in young adulthood controlling for biking/skating included paths from the predictor variables (participation in
and exercise at wave I. In this model, physical activity was sports, biking/skating, and exercise) to the mediator vari-
entered as the outcome variable and participation in sports, able (positive self-beliefs), and from the mediator to
biking/skating, and exercise were entered as predictor physical activity in young adulthood. Participation in sports
variables. Results showed that exercise (b = 0.54, was a statistically significant predictor of positive self-
p \ .01), biking/skating (b = 0.39, p \ .01), and partici- beliefs as assessed at wave II (b = 0.13, p \ .01), such that
pation in sports (b = 0.99, p \ .01) each were statistically adolescents who participated in sports at wave I reported
significant predictors of moderate to vigorous physical higher positive self-beliefs than their non-athlete counter-
activity in adulthood. Results of this analysis are consistent parts 1 year later. Biking/skating and exercise also were
with the hypothesis that participation in any type of phys- statistically significant predictors of positive self-beliefs
ical activity during adolescence is associated with greater (see Table 3). Additionally, positive self-beliefs at wave II
levels of physical activity during young adulthood. Results predicted moderate to vigorous physical activity in young
are shown in Table 3. adulthood (b = 1.35, p \ .01) (see Table 4).
Path analysis was used to test for independent effects of A third model (Model 3) was run to test whether positive
participation in sports on subjective health in young self-beliefs mediated the relationship between participation
adulthood where subjective health was entered in the in sports and moderate to vigorous physical activity in young
model as the outcome variable and the predictor variables adulthood. This model was the same as Model 2, but it also
in the model were: participation in sports, biking/skating, included direct paths from participation in sports, biking/
and exercise. Results of this analysis showed that partici- skating, and exercise to moderate to vigorous physical
pation in sports was a statistically significant predictor activity. In this model, the direct effect of participation in
(b = 0.17, p \ .01) of subjective health in young sports on physical activity was less than in Model 1, but

Table 2 Correlations between major study variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Gender –
2. Age -.08** –
3. Parent income .01 .01 –
4. Parent educate -.03* -.08** .29** –
5. Participation in sports -.14** -.08** .12** .12** –
6. Biking/skating -.16** -.22** .03* .03** .10** –
7. Exercise -.03* -.07** .02 .04** .11** .10** –
8. Pos. self-beliefs -.17** -.09** .04** .08** .18** .08** .08** –
9. Physical activity -.25** -.05** .07** .08** .17** .14** .14** .17** –
10. Subjective health -.09** .01 .06** .08** .10** .04** .04** .27** .16** –
* p \ .05; ** p \ .01

123
820 J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825

Table 3 Path analyses predicting positive self-beliefs, physical activity, and subjective health in young adulthood from participation in sports
and physical activity at wave I
Positive self-beliefs (wave II) Physical activity (wave III) Subjective health (wave III)
b SE 95% CI b SE 95% CI b SE 95% CI

Intercept 4.65** 0.14 4.23 to 4.80 5.11 1.48 1.59 to 9.06 3.61** 0.17 3.27 to 3.95
African American 0.08** 0.02 0.03 to 0.12 -0.35 0.22 -0.79 to 0.09 0.04 0.03 -0.03 to 0.13
American Indian 0.02 0.11 -0.28 to 0.42 -0.33 1.44 -3.15 to 2.49 -0.07 0.21 -0.47 to 0.34
Asian American -0.11 0.05 -0.17 to 0.13 -0.16 0.55 -1.25 to 0.93 -0.07 0.07 -0.21 to 0.08
Hispanic -0.09 0.03 -0.13 to 0.01 0.46 0.31 -0.16 to 1.07 0.04 0.04 -0.04 to 0.12
Age -0.03** 0.01 -0.04 to -0.01 -0.10 0.07 -0.23 to 0.03 0.01 0.01 -0.01 to 0.02
Gender -0.18** 0.02 -0.21 to -0.13 -2.49** 0.17 -2.82 to -2.16 -0.14** 0.03 -0.19 to -0.08
Parent income 0.0004* 0.0002 0.0001 to 0.0007 0.005* 0.002 0.001 to 0.009 0.001* 0.0004 0.0003 to 0.002
Parent education 0.01** 0.01 0.003 to 0.03 0.18** 0.05 0.08 to 0.29 0.01** 0.01 0.01 to 0.05
Sports part 0.13** 0.02 0.09 to 0.17 0.99** 0.20 0.59 to 1.39 0.17** 0.03 0.11 to 0.23
Exercise 0.03* 0.01 0.001 to 0.04 0.54** 0.06 0.42 to 0.67 0.02 0.01 -0.01 to 0.04
Biking/skating 0.02* 0.01 0.004 to 0.04 0.39** 0.09 0.21 to 0.57 0.01 0.01 -0.02 to 0.03
Note: sports part, participation in sports
* p \ .05; ** p \ .01

Table 4 Path analyses predicting physical activity and subjective health in young adulthood from positive self-beliefs at wave II
Physical activity (wave III) Subjective health (wave III)
b SE 95% CI b SE 95% CI

Intercept 2.40 1.57 -0.67 to 5.47 1.72** 0.21 1.32 to 2.12

African American -0.53 0.23 -0.97 to -0.08 -0.01 0.04 -0.08 to 0.06
American Indian -0.38 1.30 -2.93 to 2.17 -0.10 0.21 -0.51 to 0.32
Asian 0.07 0.55 -1.01 to 1.15 -0.01 0.07 -0.15 to 0.12
Hispanic 0.53 0.33 -0.12 to 1.17 0.07 0.04 -0.01 to 0.15
Age -0.16* 0.06 -0.28 to -0.03 0.02 0.01 0.002 to 0.03
Gender -2.49** 0.16 -2.81 to -2.17 -0.08* 0.03 -0.13 to -0.03
Parent income 0.01** 0.002 0.002 to 0.01 0.001* 0.0004 0.0002 to 0.002
Parent education 0.20** 0.05 0.10 to 0.31 0.03** 0.01 0.01 to 0.05
Positive self-beliefs 1.35** 0.14 1.07 to 1.63 0.43** 0.03 0.38 to 0.48
* p \ .05; ** p \ .01

remained statistically significant (b = 0.83, p \ .01), even
after controlling for positive self-beliefs. Thus, positive self-
beliefs only partially mediated the association between
participation in sports and physical activity. Both the direct
and indirect effects of participation in sports on physical
activity during young adulthood were statistically signifi-
cant. Table 5 shows the path coefficients for all predictor
variables included in this analysis. The unstandardized direct
and indirect effects from this analysis are shown in Fig. 1.
Positive Self-Beliefs as a Mediator of the Sports-
Subjective Health Relationship
Given that participation in sports had an independent effect
on moderate to vigorous physical activity during young
adulthood, a pre-requisite condition for mediation (Baron
and Kenny 1986; Holmbeck 1997), we examined two
additional models that tested whether positive self-beliefs
mediated this relationship. The next model (Model 2)
included paths from the predictor variables (participation in
sports, biking/skating, and exercise) to the mediator vari-
able (positive self-beliefs), and from the mediator to
subjective health in young adulthood. As noted above,
participation in sports was a statistically significant pre-
dictor of positive self-beliefs as assessed at wave II.
Additionally, positive self-beliefs at wave II predicted
subjective health in young adulthood, b = 0.43, p \ .01
(see Table 4).
A third model (Model 3) was run to test whether positive
self-beliefs mediated the relationship between participation

123
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825 821

Table 5 Path analyses predicting physical activity and subjective health in young adulthood from participation in sports, physical activity, and
positive self-beliefs in adolescence
Physical activity (wave III) Subjective health (wave III)
b SE 95% CI b SE 95% CI

Intercept -0.17 1.63 -3.36 to 3.02 1.67** 0.20 1.27 to 2.06

African American -0.44 0.22 -0.87 to -0.01 -0.002 0.04 -0.07 to 0.07
American Indian -0.31 1.37 -3.00 to 2.38 -0.07 0.21 -0.48 to 0.35
Asian -.01 0.54 -1.06 to 1.04 -0.01 0.07 -0.14 to 0.12
Hispanic 0.57 0.31 0.03 to 1.17 0.07 0.04 -0.004 to 0.15
Age -0.07 0.07 -0.20 to 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.004 to 0.03
Gender -2.28** 0.16 -2.61 to -1.96 -0.06* 0.03 -0.11 to -0.01
Parent income 0.001* 0.002 0.001 to 0.01 0.001 0.004 0.0001 to 0.02
Parent education 0.17** 0.05 0.07 to 0.27 0.03** 0.01 0.01 to 0.05
Participation in sports 0.83** 0.20 0.45 to 1.21 0.11** 0.03 0.06 to 0.17
Exercise 0.52** 0.06 0.40 to 0.65 0.01 0.01 -0.02 to 0.03
Biking/skating 0.37** 0.09 0.20 to 0.55 0.001 0.01 -0.02 to 0.02
Positive self-beliefs 1.14** 0.14 0.87 to 1.42 0.42** 0.03 0.37 to 0.47
Note: the unstandardized path coefficients shown reflect total effects
* p \ .05; ** p \ .01

Fig. 1 Participation in sports, Participation

physical activity, and positive in Sports
self-beliefs predicting moderate
to vigorous physical activity in .83**
young adulthood. Note: .15**
?
p \ .07; * p \ .05;
** p \ .01; v2 = 915.01;
Positive Self-
df = 23; TLI = 1.00 1.14**
Beliefs
+
.02 Physical
Biking/ .37** Activity
Skating

.10** .52**

Exercise

in sports and subjective health in young adulthood. This Discussion

model was identical to Model 2 but also included direct
paths from the predictors to subjective health. In this third
model, the direct effect of participation in sports on sub-
jective health was less than Model 1, but remained
statistically significant (b = 0.11, p \ .01) even after
controlling for positive self-beliefs. Thus, positive self-
beliefs only partially mediated the association between
participation in sports on subjective health during young
adulthood. Both the direct and indirect effects of partici-
pation in sports on subjective health were statistically
significant (see Fig. 2). Table 5 shows the path coefficients
for all predictor variables included in the analysis.
To date, much of the research on positive youth develop-
ment has focused on how participation in organized
activities is related to psychosocial outcomes including the
development of initiative and civic engagement (Larson
2000). The present study extends this literature by adding
two additional outcome variables that may be positively
influenced by participation in organized activities: physical
activity and subjective health. Results indicate that partic-
ipation in sports during adolescence is associated with
increased levels of physical activity and higher ratings of
subjective health in young adulthood. These effects are

123
822
Fig. 2 Participation in sports, Participation
physical activity, and positive in Sports
self-beliefs predicting
subjective health in young
adulthood. Note: * p \ .05;
.06**
** p \ .01; v2 = 812.23;
df = 23; TLI = 1.00
Biking/ .01*
Skating
.01**
Exercise
independent of participation in other forms of general
physical activity and suggest that the sporting environment
during adolescence has a unique influence on health
behaviors during young adulthood. This study is one of the
first to provide empirical evidence that the relationship
between participation in sports during adolescence and
adult physical activity is unique from engagement in any
general type of physical activity.
In the present study, the only physical activity in ado-
lescence that was associated with subjective health in
young adulthood was participation in sports. Participation
in general physical activities during adolescence were
unrelated to subjective health in young adulthood in the
present study. It is possible that participation in sports
during adolescence is positively associated with psycho-
logical health and mental well-being whereas general
physical activities do not confer similar benefits. Perhaps
membership on a sports team provides one with a sup-
portive social context that improves psychological well-
being. Future research should begin to explore what aspects
of the sporting context lead to psychological health.
The present study tested whether the beneficial effects of
participation in sports on physical activity and subjective
health during adulthood are due to the improvements in
psychological well-being that accrue from sports. This is
one of the first studies to test such a relationship and did so
using a longitudinal design. Results revealed that positive
self-beliefs partially mediated the relationship between
participation in sports and physical activity and subjective
health in young adulthood. This suggests that the gains in
positive self-beliefs that result from adolescents’ partici-
pation in sports are not solely responsible for the positive
relationships between participation in sports and the young
adult health outcomes of physical activity and subjective
health. Nonetheless, findings indicate that participation in
an organized sport was associated with more positive self-
beliefs 1 year later suggesting that participation in sports
123
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
.11**
Positive Self- .42** Subjective
Beliefs Health
can facilitate the development of a more positive sense of
self.
The present study has a number of implications for the
study of positive youth development. To date, the research
has established links between types of activities pursued in
adolescence and psychosocial outcomes including positive
relationships, social capital, and intrinsic motivation (Lar-
son 2000; Larson et al. 2006). The present data suggest that
the activities that adolescents choose to participate in may
have health-related implications later in life. Future
research could apply the positive youth development
framework (Larson) to investigate additional health-related
outcomes including alcohol and drug use. These studies
should investigate whether the feelings of initiative and
positive self-beliefs developed while pursuing activities
during adolescence serve as a protective factor with respect
to alcohol and drug use. It is possible that the development
of initiative prepares adolescents with the skills necessary
to refuse offers of alcohol and drugs. Similarly, adolescents
who have more positive self-beliefs may be better able to
avoid situations in which alcohol and drugs are present.
Future research should continue to identify other
mechanisms through which participation in sports can
affect physical activity and subjective health. One mecha-
nism that might explain the relationship between
adolescents’ participation in sports and later physical
activity is initiative (Larson 2000). Adolescents who par-
ticipate in sports may develop a greater sense of initiative
than those adolescents not involved in sports (Larson).
These positive feelings of initiative may in turn lead one to
be involved in more physical activity and be associated
with better subjective health. Another mechanism that
might explain the relationship between adolescents’ par-
ticipation in sports and later physical activity and
subjective health is the value one places on his/her body.1
1
We thank an anonymous reviewer for pointing out this possibility.
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
For example, adolescent athletes may come to value their
body more than their non-athlete counterparts by virtue of
their participation. As a result, these individuals may be
more likely to engage in healthy behaviors and less likely
to engage in unhealthy behaviors than their non-athlete
counterparts as they progress through adolescence.
Increases in healthy behaviors and decreases in unhealthy
behaviors should be associated with greater physical
activity and should lead to more positive ratings of health.
A better understanding of mechanisms (e.g., initiative
and valuing one’s body) linking participation in sports with
physical activity and subjective health during adulthood is
important for developing adolescent intervention programs
targeting health. Future research also should examine
whether participation in sports is associated with changes
in positive self-beliefs and physical activity over time.
Exploring alternative longitudinal associations between
these constructs will provide stronger empirical evidence
about causal relationships among these variables.
Results of this study have an important practical impli-
cation. Most schools have organized sports programs. Thus,
providing additional opportunities for youth to participate in
sports programs would not require a large structural change.
Given that participation in organized sport can result in such
positive mental and physical health outcomes, school
administrators, parents and communities may be willing to
invest more resources in these programs. The next step in
this program of research is to design and test the effective-
ness of an intervention program that provides additional
opportunities to participate in organized sports. A successful
intervention would increase confidence in the unique bene-
ficial effects that organized participation in sports have on
later physical activity and subjective health.
There are some limitations of the present study that
deserve mention. Study constructs were assessed using self-
report measures. Thus, it is possible that adolescents under-
reported or over-reported involvement in sports or physical
activity, possibly leading to biased parameter estimates and
standard errors. The measure of participation in sports was a
single dichotomous item. Such a measure does not reflect
subtle differences that exist within different types of sport-
ing environments. In this study, socio-economic status, age
and racial/ethnic background were conceptualized as
covariates. Future research should examine how the rela-
tionships identified in the present study operate within
specific ages, racial/ethnic groups and communities.
Despite these limitations, this study makes valuable
contributions to the literature on participation in sports and
adolescent development by addressing several gaps in the
literature. First, we found that participation in sports during
adolescence predicts physical activity and subjective health
in young adulthood independent of engaging in general
physical activity during adolescence. Second, these results
823
suggest that positive self-beliefs are partially responsible
for the beneficial affect of participation in sports during
adolescence on later physical activity and subjective
health. Taken together these results add to a growing body
of literature (e.g., Haines et al. 2007; Houlihan et al. 2008;
Mason et al. 2008; Timberlake et al. 2007) showing that the
experiences and choices made during adolescence can have
long lasting effects on one’s physical and mental health.
Acknowledgments This research uses data from Add Health, a
program project designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and
Kathleen Mullan Harris, and funded by a grant P01-HD31921 from
the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development, with cooperative funding from 17 other agen-
cies. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara
Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Persons interested in
obtaining data files from Add Health should contact Add Health,
Carolina Population Center, 123 W. Franklin Street, Chapel Hill, NC
27516-2524 (addhealth@unc.edu). No direct support was received
from grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis.
References
Add Health (2003) Retrieved May 7, 2008, from http://www.cpc.unc.
edu/projects/addhealth/faqs/aboutfieldwork#1264.
Ainsworth, B. E., Haskell, W. L., Leon, A. S., Jacobs, D. R.,
Montoye, H. J., Sallis, J. F., et al. (1993). Compendium of
physical activities: Classification of energy costs of human
physical activities. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
25, 71–80. doi:10.1249/00005768-199301000-00011.
Ainsworth, B. E., Haskell, W. L., Whitt, M. C., Irwin, M. L., Swartz,
A. M., Strath, S. J., et al. (2000). Compendium of physical
activities: An update of activity codes and MET intensities.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, S498–S504.
doi:10.1097/00005768-200009001-00009.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator
variable distinction in psychological research: Conceptual,
strategic and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182. doi:10.1037/0022-
3514.51.6.1173.
Barr-Anderson, D. J., Young, D. R., Sallis, J. F., Neumark-Sztainer,
D. R., Gittelsohn, J., Webber, L., et al. (2007). Structured
physical activity and psychosocial correlates in middle-school
girls. Preventive Medicine, 44, 404–409. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.
2007.02.012.
Bowker, A. (2006). The relationship between sports participation and
self-esteem during early adolescence. Canadian Journal of
Behavioural Science, 38, 214–229. doi:10.1037/cjbs2006009.
Dodge, T. L., & Jaccard, J. J. (2002). Participation in athletics and
female sexual risk behavior: The evaluation of four causal
structures. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17, 42–67. doi:
10.1177/0743558402171003.
Dodge, T. L., & Jaccard, J. J. (2006). The effect of high school sports
participation on the use of performance enhancing substances in
young adulthood. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 363–
373. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.12.025.
Eccles, J. S., & Barber, B. L. (1999). Student council, volunteering,
basketball, or marching band: What kind of extracurricular
involvement matters? Journal of Adolescent Research, 14, 10–
43. doi:10.1177/0743558499141003.
Ferron, C., Narring, F., Cauderay, M., & Michaud, P. A. (1999). Sport
activity in adolescence: associations with health perceptions and
123
824
experimental behaviours. Health Education Research, 14, 225–
233. doi:10.1093/her/14.2.225.
Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). Is extracurricular participation
associated with beneficial outcomes? Concurrent and longitudi-
nal relations. Developmental Psychology, 42, 698–713. doi:
10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.698.
Gordon-Larsen, P., McMurray, R. G., & Popkin, B. M. (2000).
Determinants of adolescent physical activity and inactivity
patterns. Pediatrics, 105, e83. doi:10.1542/peds.105.6.e83.
Guo, C., North, K. E., Gorden-Larsen, P., Bulik, C. M., & Choi, S.
(2007). Body mass, DRD4, physical activity, sedentary behavior,
and family socioeconomic status: The add health study. Obesity
(Silver Spring, Md.), 15, 1199–1206. doi:10.1038/oby.2007.640.
Haines, J., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Wall, M., & Story, M. (2007).
Peronal, behavioral, and environmental risk and protective
factors for adolescent overweight. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.),
15, 2748–2760. doi:10.1038/oby.2007.327.
Harris, K. M., Florey, F., Tabor, J., Bearman, P. S., Jones, J., & Udry,
J. R. (2003). The national longitudinal study of adolescent
health: Research design. Retrieved March 29, 2007, from
http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.
Harris, K. M., King, R. B., & Gorden-Larsen, P. (2005). Healthy
habits among adolescents: Sleep, exercise, diet, and body image.
In K. A. Moore & L. H. Lippman (Eds.), What do children need
to flourish? Conceptualizing and measuring indicators of
positive development (pp. 111–132). New York: Springer.
Heath, G. W., Pate, R. R., & Pratt, M. (1993). Measuring physical
activity among adolescents. Public Health Reports, 108, 26–42.
Holmbeck, G. N. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and
statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators:
Examples from the clinical-child and pediatric literatures.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 599–610.
doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.4.599.
Horgan, P. A. (1987). Health status perceptions affect health-related
behaviors. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 13, 30–33.
Houlihan, A. E., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Yeh, H. C., Reimer, R.
A., & Murry, V. M. (2008). Sex and the self: The impact of early
sexual onset on the self-concept and subsequent risky behavior
of African American Adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence,
28, 70–91.
Kirkcaldy, B. D., Shephard, R. J., & Siefen, R. G. (2002). The
relationship between physical activity and self-image and
problem behaviour among adolescents. Social Psychiatry and
Psychiatric Epidemiology, 37, 544–550. doi:10.1007/s00127-
002-0554-7.
Kraut, A., Melamed, S., Gofer, D., & Froom, P. (2003). Effect of
school age sports on leisure time physical activity in adults: The
CORDIS study. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
35, 2038–2042. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000099087.96549.96.
Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a positive youth development. The
American Psychologist, 55, 170–183. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.
55.1.170.
Larson, R., Hansen, D. M., & Moneta, G. (2006). Differing profiles of
developmental experiences across types of organized youth
activities. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 849–863. doi:
10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.849.
Lee, Y. S., & Laffrey, S. C. (2006). Predictors of physical activity in
older adults with borderline hypertension. Nursing Research, 55,
110–120. doi:10.1097/00006199-200603000-00006.
Lorr, M., & Wunderlich, R. A. (1986). Two objective measures of
self-esteem. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50, 18–23.
Mason, W. A., Kosterman, R., Haggerty, K. P., Hawkins, J. D.,
redmond, C., Spoth, R. L., et al. (2008). Dimensions of
adolescent alcohol involvement as predictors of young-adult
major depression. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69,
275–285.
123
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825
Melnick, M. J., Miller, K. E., Sabo, D. F., Farrell, M. P., & Barnes, G.
M. (2001). Tobacco use among high school athletes and non-
athletes: Results of the 1997 youth risk behavior survey.
Adolescence, 36, 727–747.
Miller, K. E., Sabo, D. F., Farrell, M. P., Barnes, G. M., & Melnick,
M. J. (1998). Athletic participation and sexual behavior in
adolescents: The different worlds of boys and girls. Journal of
Health and Social Behavior, 39, 108–123. doi:10.2307/2676394.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2008). Mplus User’s Guide.
Fifth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Park, J. (2006). The impact of adolescent self-concept on psycholog-
ical health, self-perceived health and health behaviour in young
adulthood. In A. Prescott (Ed.), The concept of self in medicine
health care (pp. 97–122). Hauppauge: Nova Science.
Pate, R. R., Heath, G. W., Dowda, M., & Trost, S. G. (1996).
Associations between physical activity and other health behav-
iors in a representative sample of US adolescents. American
Journal of Public Health, 86, 1577–1581.
Perkins, D. F., Jacobs, J. E., Barber, B. L., & Eccles, J. S. (2004).
Childhood and adolescent sports participation as predictors of
participation in sports and physical fitness activities during
young adulthood. Youth & Society, 35, 495–520. doi:
10.1177/0044118X03261619.
Plotnikoff, R. C., Mayhew, A., Birkett, N., Loucaides, C. A., &
Fodor, G. (2004). Age, gender, and urban-rural differences in
the correlates of physical activity. Preventative Medicine, 39,
1115–1125.
Sabo, D. F., Miller, K. E., Farrell, M. P., Melnick, M. J., & Barnes, G.
M. (1999). High school athletic participation, sexual behavior
and adolescent pregnancy: A regional study. The Journal of
Adolescent Health, 25, 207–216. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X
(99)00070-1.
Sabo, D., Miller, K. E., Melnick, M. J., Farrell, M. P., & Barnes, G.
M. (2002). Athletic participation and the health risks of
adolescent males: A national study. International Journal of
Men’s Health, 1, 173–193. doi:10.3149/jmh.0102.173.
Sallis, J. F., Buono, M. J., Roby, J. J., Micale, F. G., & Nelson, J. A.
(1992). Seven-day recall and other physical activity self-reports
in children and adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 25, 99–107. doi:10.1249/00005768-199301000-00014.
Scheerder, J., Thomis, M., Vanreusel, B., Lefevre, J., Renson, R.,
Vanden Eynde, B., et al. (2006). Sports participation among
females from adolescence to adulthood. International Review for
the Sociology of Sport, 4, 413–430. doi:10.1177/101269020
7077702.
Shields, M., & Shooshtari, S. (2001). Determinants of self-perceived
health. Health Reports, 13, 35–52.
Tammelin, T., Nayha, S., Hills, A. P., & Jarvelin, M. R. (2003).
Adolescent participation in sports and adult physical activity.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 24, 22–28. doi:
10.1016/S0749-3797(02)00575-5.
Timberlake, D. S., Haberstick, B. C., Hopfer, C. J., Bricker, J., Sakai,
J. T., Lessem, J. M., et al. (2007). Drug and Alcohol Depen-
dence, 88, 272–281. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.11.005.
Udry, J. R. (2003). The national longitudinal study of adolescent
health (Add Health), Waves I & II, 1994–1996. Wave, III, 2001–
2001. Machine-readable data file and documentation. Chapel
Hill: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill.
Author Biographies
Tonya Dodge is an Assistant Professor at Skidmore College. She
received her Ph.D. in Social/Personality Psychology from The Uni-
versity at Albany. Her primary research interests include the effect of
J Youth Adolescence (2009) 38:813–825 825

sports participation and physical activity on adolescent health and primary research interests include development and course of
development. depressive symptoms in urban youth, the role of the neighborhood
context in adolescent development, and school-based prevention.
Sharon Lambert is an Assistant Professor at The George Washing-
ton University. She received her Ph.D. in Clinical and Community
Psychology from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her

123