1
Analogue and digital signals
Yuriy Zakharov
We can say that signals are physical variables carrying infor-
mation. Then signal processing allows us to extract this infor-
mation. Mathematically, signals are represented as functions of
one or more variables. In our course, we will concentrate on
signals of one variable, notably time. As our main purpose will
be signal processing for communications, signals we are going
to deal with are signals that appear in different parts of com-
munication receiver and transmitter. Usually, they are electrical
signals. However, in recent time, most of signal processing is
performed by digital processors or computers. Therefore it is
convenient to consider signals as mathematical functions with
some properties.
The material related to this lecture can be found, for example,
in [1] and [2].
A. Continuous-time versus discrete-time signals
If we know a signal x(t) at any time t, we will say that this is
a continuous-time signal. If the signal is known at only discrete
moments, e.g., t = kT where T is a positive number and k
ranges over a set of integers, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., then we have a
discrete-time signal. The transform of a continuous-time signal
to discrete-time signal is known as sampling and the interval T
is known as the sampling interval.
B. Continuous-amplitude versus discrete-amplitude signals
We will also distinguish between continuous-amplitude and
discrete-amplitude signals. Thus, there are four different types
of signals depending on whether the time and amplitude are
continuous or discrete. Signals with both time and ampli-
tude continuous are usually called analogue signals. Signals
with both time and amplitude discrete are called digital signals.
When we are discussing software implementation of a commu-
nication receiver (or in other words, software radio), it implies
that we deal with digital signals, i.e., signals whose time and
amplitude are discrete.
Thanks to advances in computers and integrated circuits, dig-
ital signal processing, which deals with digital signals, is the
most important branch of signal processing. So, we need all
signals to be in digital form. If the signal to be processed is
in an analogue form, it is first converted to a discrete-time sig-
nal by sampling at discrete instants in time. The discrete-time
signal is then converted to a digital signal by a process called
quantization. The whole procedure is called analog-to-digital
(A/D) conversion.
We should admit that very often in theory, quantized signals
(or, in other words, discrete-amplitude signals) are not distin-
guished from continues-amplitude signals. There are two rea-
sons for that:
1) Firstly, quantization is a very difficult operation for accu-
rate mathematical analysis.
2) Secondly, quantization error can be easily made very
small, practically negligible.
In such cases, the discrete-time / continuous-amplitude sig-
nal model is very useful. We are going to deal with such signal
model in our course. However, when we are interested in prac-
tical implementation of signal processing, and especially fixed-
point software implementation, we always should take into ac-
count the quantization error.
C. Random versus deterministic signals
Signals can also be classified as random and non-random (or
deterministic). Theory of random signals, or random processes,
simplifies analysis of signals and allows development of simple
signal processing algorithms. Actually, signal processing for
communications deals mostly with random signals (or random
processes). The fact is that in order to contain information, a
signal must be random. Deterministic signals are totally pre-
dictable, so they cannot carry any information. Theory of ran-
dom processes, which is a part of probability theory, is of sig-
nificant importance for modern signal processing and commu-
nications. We will consider some properties of random signals
in this course.
D. Periodic versus aperiodic signals
A signal x(t) can be periodic with a fundamental period T
or aperiodic (or non-periodic). If a signal x(t) is periodic, this
means that x(t) = x(t + T ). For example, the signal
x(t) = A sin(ω0 t + ϕ) (1)
is a periodic signal with the period T = 2π ω0 , amplitude A and
phase ϕ. Sinusoids are very important in communications be-
cause they are used as carriers. When a receiver receives such a
signal, it should extract the transmitted information. Very often,
the information is in the amplitude, e.g., A = ±1 and we need
to find out whether it is +1 or −1. This process is called de-
modulation. However, to make the demodulation reliable, we
need to firstly find the frequency ω 0 and phase ϕ. These two
parameters are nuisance parameters, such a name is due to the
fact that we are not interested in these parameters themselves.
The process of finding such nuisance parameters is called pa-
rameter estimation. In a receiver, parameter estimation is per-
formed by a synchronisation block. In our example, we need to
perform frequency estimation (frequency synchronisation) and
phase estimation (phase synchronisation).
Is the sinusoid random or deterministic? If all its parameters,
such as the amplitude A, the frequency ω 0 , and the phase ϕ are
a priori known, the signal is deterministic; we know everything
about the signal and we can accurately predict the signal for
any moment. However, if some parameters are random, then
the signal itself is random.
2

E. Description of random variables 3) Example-3: Gaussian (or Normal) pdf:

Consider a random experiment which can be repeated many 1 (x−µ)2
times under the same conditions. If a result of the experiment px (x) = √ e− 2σ2 . (10)
2πσ 2
is given by a number x, we call x a random variable.
To describe a random variable, we need to describe all possi- The parameter µ is known as the mean; the parameter σ 2 is
ble values of the variable and probabilities of these values. The known as the variance.
relationship between the values of a random variable and their
probabilities is called the distribution of the random variable.
There are discrete and continuous random variables. A F. Real versus complex signals
discrete random variable takes on values from a finite set, Signals in the nature are real signals, or real-valued signals.
{x(1) , . . . , x(n) }, and its distribution is the probability mass However, in signal processing and communications we often
function (pmf): deal with complex, or complex-valued, signals. Such signals
have a real and an imaginary part, like
pi = P r{x = x(i) }, i = 1, . . . , n. (2)
√
x(t) = y(t) + j · z(t), j = −1. (11)
It is obvious that
n

We say that y(t) is the real part of x(t) and z(t) is the imagi-
pi = 1. (3) nary part of x(t). This is a very useful mathematical model that
i=1 allows us to simplify the signal analysis and synthesis.
1) Example: Complex exponential: One of the most impor-
A continuous random variable takes on values from a con- tant complex-valued signals is the complex exponential
tinuous set. A probability that the random variable takes on a
specific value from the set is often equal to zero. A continuous x(t) = Aej(ω0 t+ϕ)
random variable is described by the probability density function
= A cos(ω0 t + ϕ) + jA sin(ω0 t + ϕ). (12)
(pdf) px (x); the probability that the random variable x takes on
a value from the interval [a, b] is
The last relationship is due to the Euler’s theorem. The signal
 b x(t) is a periodic signal with the period
P r{a ≤ x ≤ b} = px (x)dx. (4)
a 2π
T = . (13)
ω0
In addition to the property (4), there are two other important
properties of the pdf. Firstly, the pdf is a nonnegative function: We will meet such signals in many applications.

px (x) ≥ 0. (5)
G. Power and energy of a signal
Secondly, the integral of p x (x) over all possible x is equal to 1: The instantaneous power associated with signal x(t) is
 ∞ |x(t)|2 . A signal energy over a time interval of length T is
px (x)dx = 1. (6) defined as
−∞
 T /2
ET = |x(t)|2 dt. (14)
A discrete random variable can also be described by a pdf (in- −T /2
stead of a pmf). This requires the use of the Dirac delta function The average power over a time interval of length T is defined
δ(x); the pmf in (2) is equivalent to the pdf as

n 1 T /2 1

PT = |x(t)|2 dt = ET . (15)
px (x) = pi δ(x − x(i) ). (7) T −T /2 T
i=1
Often we are interested in the signal energy and the average
Note that a constant (non-random) value c can be considered as power over the signal period T .
a random variable x with the pdf δ(x − c). If a signal exists over the infinite time interval t ∈
1) Example-1: Binary random variable: (−∞, +∞), to find its energy and average power we need to
take limits in (14) and (15) when T → ∞:
1 1
px (x) = δ(x + 1) + δ(x − 1) (8)  T /2
2 2
E = lim |x(t)|2 dt. (16)
T →∞ −T /2
2) Example-2: Uniform pdf:
  T /2
1
a < x < b; 1
px (x) = b−a (9) P = lim |x(t)|2 dt. (17)
0 otherwise. T →∞ T −T /2
 3

H. Operations with signals 10) The signal x(−t) is obtained from x(t) by a reflection
1) Time-shifting: The signal x(t − t 0 ) represents a time- about t = 0.
shifted version of the signal x(t). If t 0 = 0, we have no time- 11) The signal x(ηt) is a time-scaled version of x(t). If |η| >
shift. If t0 > 0, then the signal is delayed by t 0 seconds. If 1, then x(ηt) is a compressed version of x(t), whereas if 0 <
t0 < 0, we have an advanced replica of x(t). Physically, it is |η| < 1, then x(ηt) is an expanded version of x(t).
not possible, as we cannot obtain a signal if it does not exist
yet. However, in theory and practice, such an operation is use- R EFERENCES
ful, if, for example, the signal x(t) is itself a delayed version [1] S. S. Soliman and M. D. Srinath, Continuous and discrete signals and
of another signal. In communications, a signal can be delayed systems, Prentice Hall, 2nd edition, 1998.
[2] S. M. Kay, Fundamentals of statistical signal processing: Estimation the-
when propagated through a radio channel. In such a case, the ory, Prentice Hall PTR, 1993.
receiver should estimate the delay t 0 and compensate for the de-
lay before it starts the demodulation. This procedure is known
as timing synchronisation.
2) Reflection: The signal x(−t) is obtained from x(t) by a
reflection about t = 0, i.e., by reversing x(t). This operation
happens in a tape recorder when the rewind switch is pushed
on, i.e., the tape plays from the end to the beginning.
3) Time-scaling: The signal x(2t) can be described as x(t)
compressed in time by a factor of 2. The signal x(t/2) can
be described as x(t) expanded by a factor of 2. In general, if
time is scaled by a parameter η, then x(ηt) is a compressed
version of x(t) if |η| > 1 (the compressed signal exists in a
smaller time interval). The signal x(ηt) is an expanded version
of x(t) if |η| < 1 (the signal exists in a larger time interval).
The time-scaling operation happens when you play back your
tape recorder at a faster or slower speed than the speed used for
recording. In communications, the time-scaling happens when
there is the Doppler effect, i.e., the receiver or transmitter are
moving.

I. Summary
1) Signals can be continuous-time or discrete-time. Signals
can be continuous-amplitude or discrete-amplitude.
2) Continuous-time continuous-amplitude signals are called
analogue signals. Discrete-time discrete-amplitude signals are
called digital signals.
3) Signals that satisfy the condition x(t) = x(t + T ) are
called periodic signals with fundamental period T .
4) The complex exponential x(t) = Ae j(ω0 t+ϕ) is periodic
with period T = 2π ω0 .
5) The energy of a signal over a time interval t ∈
[−T /2, +T /2] is defined as
 T /2
ET = |x(t)|2 dt. (18)
−T /2

6) The average power over a time interval t ∈ [−T /2, +T /2]

is defined as 
1 T /2
PT = |x(t)|2 dt. (19)
T −T /2
7) Signals can be deterministic or random. A random signal
is often called a random process.
8) A random variable is described by the probability density
function (pdf).
9) The signal x(t − t 0 ) represents a time-shifted version of
the signal x(t).