SHEEP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (AGRICULTURE)

Supervisor Submitted by
Dr. Rajendra Kr. Pandey Neeraj Kumar Singh
Professor Head Id no: 15080
In-charge Gowshala (Dairy farm) Enrollment no: 379024

Department of Animal Husbandry and

Dairying
Institute of Agricultural Sciences
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi-221005
UP, INDIA

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 CERTIFICATE
This is to certified that Mr. Neeraj Kumar Singh B.Sc.
(Agriculture 7th Semester , Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu university, carried out the Dissertation entitled
“SHEEP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT ” for the partial
fulfillment of Bachelor Degree in Agricultural. The
Dissertation has not formed the basis for the award of any
degree, diploma, associate-ship or fellowship. The
Dissertation represents independent worked carried out by the
candidate.

Supervisor
Dr. Rajendra Kr. Pandey
Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying
Institute of Agricultural Sciences
BHU, Varanasi- 221005

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UNDERTAKING OF THE CANDIDATE

I, Neeraj Kumar Singh have presented this assignment to

enlighten the topic with whatever little I know. This thesis

mainly deals with the topic “SHEEP PRODUCTION AND

MANAGEMENT”. The literature and figure described in this

assignment has been prepared on the basis of available

literature, research paper and documents presented in various

relevant books. All these referred literature has been

referenced at a proper place in the assignment. However, as

such no originality is claimed. Proper care has been taken on

my behalf to ensure that no mistake has been committed in

this assignment.

CERTIFICATE FROM THE SUPERVISORS

This is to certify that the above statement made by the

candidate is correct to the best of our knowledge.
(R. K. Pandey)
Professor

3
UNDERTAKING OF THE CANDIDATE

I, Neeraj Kumar Singh have presented this assignment to

enlighten the topic with whatever little I know. This thesis

mainly deals with the topic “SHEEP PRODUCTION AND

MANAGEMENT”. The literature and figure described in this

assignment has been prepared on the basis of available

literature, research paper and documents presented in various

relevant books. All these referred literature has been

referenced at a proper place in the assignment. However, as

such no originality is claimed. Proper care has been taken on

my behalf to ensure that no mistake has been committed in

this assignment.

CERTIFICATE FROM THE SUPERVISORS

This is to certify that the above statement made by the

candidate is correct to the best of our knowledge.
(R. K. Pandey)
Professor

4
5
1 INTRODUCTION

2 Sheep Breeds and Breeding

3 Digestive System

4 Reproductive System

5 Diseases

6 Housing of sheep

7 Feeding Management

8 Sheep Care and Management

9 Gender Roles In Livestock Management

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Sheep Farming

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Artiodactyla

Family: Bovidae

Subfamily: Caprinae

Genus: Ovis

Species: O. aries
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The sheep (Ovis aries) is a quadruped, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Like all
ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Although the
name "sheep" applies to many species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always
refers to Ovis aries. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most
numerous species of sheep. An adult female sheep is referred to as a ewe, an intact male as a
ram or occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether, and a younger sheep as a lamb.

Sheep are most likely descended from the wild mouflon of Europe and Asia. One of the earliest
animals to be domesticated for agricultural purposes, sheep are raised for fleece, meat (lamb,
hogget or mutton) and milk. A sheep's wool is the most widely used animal fiber, and is usually
harvested by shearing. Ovine meat is called lamb when from younger animals and mutton when
from older ones. Sheep continue to be important for wool and meat today, and are also
occasionally raised for pelts, as dairy animals, or as model organisms for science.

Sheep husbandry is practiced throughout the majority of the inhabited world, and has been
fundamental to many civilizations. In the modern era, Australia, New Zealand, the southern and
central South American nations, and the British Isles are most closely associated with sheep
production.

Few countries in the world have no sheep. They are found in tropical countries and in the arctic, in
hot climates and in the cold, on the desert and in humid areas. There are over 800 breeds of sheep
in the world, in a variety of sizes, shapes, types and colors.

Sheep were domesticated long before the dawn of recorded history. Wool fibers have been found
in remains of primitive villages of Switzerland that date back an estimated 20000 years.
Why do you want to raise sheep?
There are many reasons to raise sheep. The reason(s) are important, as they will have a
significant impact on the breed(s) that are raised and the manner in which the sheep are fed,
managed, and marketed.

Economic

traditionally, sheep have been raised on farms and ranches for the purpose of generating an
income for the farm and family. While some farms make a majority of their income from raising
sheep, sheep production is very often a secondary or tertiary enterprise on a farm. In fact, sheep
raising compliments many other agricultural enterprises. It is a popular enterprise for many part-
time and lifestyle farmers. Sheep production is a good activity for youth.
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There can be numerous tax advantages to raising sheep or engaging in similar agricultural
activities. Some people raise sheep for the primary purpose of having their land holdings taxed at
(lower) agricultural rates. The legal definition of a farm (for real estate tax purposes) varies by state
and country.

While all agricultural enterprises are expected to eventually generate a profit and pay taxes, many
people raise sheep (and other livestock) as a "tax write-off." Farm expenditures, including capital
purchases, can be written off against ordinary income. Most sheep-related purchases are exempt
from sales tax.

Environmental

Some people keep sheep to improve and/or maintain their landscapes. Due to their small size,
upland grazing preferences, and desire for a varied diet, sheep are ideal for vegetation control,
especially where the primary vegetation is grass and forbs. Their small hooves minimize soil
compaction and erosion. They shy away from fragile riparian areas.
In fact, opportunities for fee-based grazing by sheep (and goats) are expanding as society seeks
more environmentally-friendly ways to control invasive weeds and other unwanted vegetation. But
even when they're not being used to clean up a landscape, sheep (and other livestock) help to
keep land in open space and preserve rural landscapes

Quality of life

Many families enjoy the rural lifestyle and wish to expose their children to plant cultivation, animal
husbandry, and other aspects of agricultural production. Sheep are an ideal small farm (or ranch)
enterprise. Because of their small size and gentle nature, sheep are especially suitable for women,
Schildren, and people with certain disabilities.

Showing (or exhibiting) sheep can be an enjoyable activity for people of all ages, but especially
youth. Sheep and lambs make excellent 4-H and FFA projects. In fact, 4-H and FFA is how many
people get started in the sheep business. Sheep are suitable projects for home schoolers. Many of
life's lessons can be taught on the farm. There are many science fair projects that can be done
with sheep and wool.

There is a certain satisfaction to growing your own food and fiber. Many people keep a few sheep
to provide meat, dairy products, and/or fiber for their family. Small flock owners contribute to the
supply of local food and fiber. Some people wish to support livestock conservation efforts by
raising and helping to preserve a rare or heritage breed of sheep.

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Many people raise sheep because of their desire to train and trial herding dogs, usually Border
Collies. It is hard to train and work a herding dog without having access to a flock of sheep. Hair
sheep are usually kept for this task, as they are more tolerant of the heat and rigorous workouts.
Wethers are often preferred because they can be worked on a year-round basis.

Sheep raising can be an enjoyable activity for retired or disabled persons. Sheep are easier to
handle than larger livestock and the investment in breeding stock, equipment, and facilities is
usually much less. In some situations, the sheep enterprise can supplement the retirement income.
Empty-nesters and single people may keep sheep so they have something to care for.

Increasingly, people are keeping sheep (and other farm animals) as pets or companions. Wethers
and ewes should be chosen for this purpose. Intact males and horned animals should not be kept
as pets. Hair sheep are a good choice because they do not require shearing. They are also more
resistant to internal parasites (worms). Bottle babies make the best pets because they will naturally
bond to whoever feeds them. Sheep are social animals. Pet sheep should be kept in pairs or small
flocks (ideally).

The love of sheep and animal husbandry is the motivation for many shepherds, both commercial
producers and lifestyle farmers. In fact, if you don't genuinely like sheep, there are a lot easier
ways to make money or spend your leisure time.

Goal and objectives

Once you have decided to raise sheep and have defined your reason (or reasons) for raising them,
it's time to set goals for the sheep operation, especially if it is a commercial undertaking. Goal-
setting includes determining which aspect(s) of sheep production -- meat, fiber, or dairy-- will be
the focus of the operation, what products will be sold, how they will be sold, and who will be the
primary customer(s). It is a good idea to have a business plan.

Success - a favorable outcome; accomplishing what was proposed; an event that accomplishes its
intended purpose; the achievement of one's aim or goal; financial profitability.

Define success

Success will be defined differently by different sheep owners. For the commercial producer,
success will likely be to make a financial profit and return on investment, though the farm may have
additional goals that pertain to quality-of-life and stewardship of their farm.

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Winning shows or selling expensive breeding stock or club lambs may define success for some
producers. For performance-minded feedstock producers, having the ram that ranks the highest in
the breed's sire summary or has the best EBV (estimated breeding value) for a specific trait may
be the mark of success.

Some producers will measure success by achieving certain production goals. Marketing a 200
percent lamb crop would be a worthy accomplishment for most producers. Not losing a single lamb
during the lambing season may be a goal of some small-scale producers. Keeping pre-weaning
death loss below 5 percent would be good accomplishment for large commercial growers.

Raising thoughtful, responsible children who have a healthy respect for animals and the
environment could define success for the many families that undertake sheep raising as a 4-H,
FFA, or home school project. Livestock production is an excellent way to enhance a child's science
education and encourage science-related careers. It is also a way to encourage entrepreneurship.

Unique characteristics of sheep:-

Strong herd instincts of sheep make them excellent ranch animals as they keep together in tight
and easily managed flocks and do not disperse widely all over the available land, which would
make it difficult to protect them from predators and difficult to round up.
Excellent ability to survive over a prolonged period of drought and semi-starvation
Sheep have the ability to produce prime carcasses on roughage alone, thus they are well adapted
to many areas unable to produce grain profitably.
The structure of their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest time, and thus convert waste
feed into profitable products
Less prone to extreme weather conditions, ectoparasites as well as other diseases
Unique ever-growing fiber which allows ventilation and also protects the skin from the hot sun, rain
and abrasions
Sheep can also constrict or relax blood vessels in the face, legs and ear for control of heat loss
Advantages
Multi-faceted utility: meat, wool, skin, manure, and to some extent milk & transport … helps it to
play an important role in the Indian agrarian economy
The production of wool, meat and manure provides three different sources of income per year
Since the two major products of sheep (wool and mutton) are entirely different in their production
and utilization, the price of one may not necessarily have a bearing on the other. Wool may be
stored and held for higher prices or sold at shearing time. A crop of lambs may be marketed from
5-6 months onwards (preferably before one year), bringing rather a quick return.

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Mutton is one kind of meat towards which there is no prejudice by any community in India
In addition to wool, mutton and to some extent milk, sheep provide employment to about 3 million
people in the form of self-employment, as hired labour for tending flocks during migration, and
persons engaged in wool shearing and in wool and skin processing. Furthermore, sheep farming is
a logical source of livelihood in arid zones where crop production is an uncertainty and thus it
suitably fits into desert development programs in vogue by protecting them from the vagaries of
drought and famine.
Most suitable of the small ruminants to utilize the sparse vegetation in dryland areas through
rangeland management and developed (reseeded) pasture
Unlike goats, sheep hardly damage any tree
Better adapted to arid and semi-arid tropics with marginal and sub-marginal lands, otherwise unfit
for crops, due to their superior water & feed (esp. protein) economy
Since sheep eat more different type of plants than any other kind of livestock, they can turn waste
into profit and at the same time improve the appearance of many farms (i.e. excellent weed
destroyer).
Sheep dung is a valuable fertilizer, and since they are grazed on sub-marginal lands, their
droppings are the only means of improving the growth of plants in such areas

World scenario about sheep

World sheep population during the period 2000-2013 was increased by 10.7% with Africa to keep
the first place (32%) having a contribution about 27.7%. Asia has the largest contribution in world
sheep population (44.9%). During the period 2000-2012 world sheep milk production was
increased by 24.1%. In all continents, with exception of Europe, was observed a significant
increase in milk production. The top five countries in the world with the larger sheep milk
production are China, Τurkey, Syria, Greece and Romania. World sheep meat production, during
the same period was increased by 29.5%. Asia has the larger contribution in the total meat
production (48.6%), while Africa has the larger increase (36.6%). The leader country in sheep meat
production worldwide is China followed by Australia, New Zealand, Sudan and India. China
produces 24.5% of the total world sheep meat production. The mean sheep carcass weight in
world level is 15.8 kg with significant variation among the continents and different countries.
Greasy wool production, during the same period, was decreased by 10.6%, with the greater
decrease in Oceania. Worldwide sheep raw skin production during the above period was increased
about 405%, with the greater increase in Oceania.
Sheep population
World sheep number and its evolution is presented in Table 1. During the period 2000-2013 sheep
population was increased by 10.7% (average per year about 0,83%). The world goat population at
the same period was increased by 33.8% (Faostat 2013). On the other hand the ratio sheep to
goat in 2013 was 1.17, while in 2000 was 1.4, indicating that goat population was increased more
rapidly in comparison with sheep population (Faostat 2013). It should be noted that the increase of

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sheep population wasn’t uniform in all continents and in all countries. During 2013 in the low
income and developing countries existed above of 70% of the total number of sheep worldwide
(Faostat 2013).
Table 1. Sheep population in the World in 2000 and 2013 (Faostat 2013).
Sheep population Change
Contribution (%)
(heads) (%)
2013
2000 2013 2000-2013
Asia 414 248 526 590 27.1 44.9
800 642
Africa 246 505 325 338 32 27.7
821 760
Οceania 160 828 106 351 -33.9 9.07
340 147
Europe 146 694 129 650 -11.6 11.1
240 518
ΕU (28) 123 202 97 553 -20.8 8.32
970 758
Αmericas 90 805 84 902 -6.50 7.24
157 123
World 1 059 082 1 172 833 10.7 100
358 190
Among the continents, Asia constantly holds the first place having a contribution to the world sheep
population of 44.9% and increase of sheep number during the period 2000-2013 of 27.1%. Africa
takes the second place with contribution 27.7% and increase 32%. In all other continents is
observed a significant decrease of sheep population with Oceania to have the largest decrease
(33.9%) (Table 1). This because in Australia the sheep population was decreased by 36.3% and in
New Zealand by 27.2%. In Americas the decrease of sheep was 6.5%, while in Europe and in the
E.U.(28) was observed a significant decrease (11.6 and 20.8%, respectively, Table 1).
Among the Asian countries the largest sheep population exist in China, India, Iran, Pakistan and
Turkey. Sheep in China (185 000 000 heads) constitute the 15.8% of the total world sheep
population and the 35.1% of Asia sheep population. During the period 2000-2013 sheep population
in China was increased by 41.1%, in India by 27% and in Pakistan by 19.6%. On the contrary, in
Turkey and Iran this population was decreased by 9.35 and 6.83%, respectively (Faostat 2013).
In the African continent the largest sheep population exist in Sudan, Nigeria, Ethiopia and Algeria.
During the period 2000-2013 sheep population in Ethiopia was increased by 142%, in Nigeria by
50%, in Algeria by 44.8% and in Sudan by 13.9% (Faostat 2013). In Americas the top five
countries with the largest sheep population are Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia and Mexico (Faostat
2013).

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In the European continent the largest sheep population exist in United Kingdom, Russian
Federation, Spain, Greece, Romania and France. In some of the European countries during the
period 2000-2013 was observed a significant increase in sheep number (Russian Federation
75.1%, Romania 8.78% and Greece 6.36%). On the other hand, in other countries with tradition in
sheep production sheep population was decreased significantly (Portugal 42.2%, Italy 36.3%,
Spain 32.7%, France 24.5% and United Kingdom 22.3%) (Faostat 2013). It should be noted that all
these countries are members of EU(28).

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Breeds of sheep
Indian Breed
1. Nali Sheep:
Medium-sized sheep; face is light brown in colour; skin is pink; ears are large and leafy; both sexes
are polled; tail is short to medium in length and thin; fleece is white with brownish tinge, coarse,
dense and long-stapled; forehead, legs and belly are covered with wool.
Uses:
This sheep are mainly reared for wool and clipped twice a year. Average cut varies between 2.5-
3.5 kg per year. March clip is yellow and September clip is golden brown in colour.

Indian Breed # 2. Chokla Sheep:

Light to medium sized; face is generally devoid of wool and is reddish-brown/dark brown in colour;
skin is pink; ears are small to medium in length and tubular; coat is dense; both sexes are polled.
Uses:
Although Chokla is perhaps the finest carpet-wool breed, its wool is being diverted to the worsted*
sector due to scarcity in fine apparel wool in the country. The average yield is between 1.5-2.5 kg
per year.

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Indian Breed # 3. Marwari Sheep:
Medium-sized; black face with colour extending up-to the lower part of the neck; ears are
extremely small and tubular; both sexes are polled; tail is short, medium and thin.
Uses:
This breed is clipped twice a year, yield varies from 1.5 – 2.5 kg per annum. Fleece is white and
not very dense and suitable for carpet making. It is also used for meat purpose.

Indian Breed # 4. Magra Sheep:

Medium to large in size; white face with brown patches around the eyes are characteristic; skin
colour is pink; ears are small to medium and tubular; both sexes are polled; tail is medium in length
and thin.
Uses:
Fleece is of medium carpet quality, extremely white and lustrous and not very dense. Bikaneri
magra strains have extremely white and lustrous fleeces and are suitable for good quality carpets.

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Indian Breed # 5. Jaisalmeri Sheep:
Tall, well-built, largest breed in Rajasthan; black or dark brown face with the colour extending upon
the neck; typical roman nose, long drooping ears generally with a cartilaginous appendage; both
sexes are polled; tail is medium to long.
Uses:
Fleece colour is white, of medium carpet quality and not very dense. Annual fleece weighs about
750 gm with staple length of 6.5 cm. It is also known as a meat breed.

Indian Breed # 6. Malpura Sheep:Fairly well-built with long legs; light brown face; belly and legs
are devoid of wool. Ears are short and tubular, with a small cartilaginous appendage on the upper
side; both sexes are polled; tail is medium to long and thin.
Uses:
Fleece is white, extremely coarse and hairy. Annual fleece yield is about 1 kg which is used by
carpet industry. Malpura meat is also acceptable.

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Indian Breed # 7. Sonadi Sheep:
Fairly well-built but somewhat smaller to Malpura; long legs; light brown face with colour extending
to the middle of the neck; ears are large, Hat and drooping and generally have a cartilaginous
appendage; tail is long and thin; both sexes are polled; udder is fairly well developed.
Uses:
Fleece is white, extremely coarse and hairy and yield varies from 0.6 – 1.2 kg annually. This breed
also gives milk 1-1.5 kg per day.
Indian Breed # 8. Patanwadi Sheep:
The breed includes three distinct strains:
Non-migratory, red-faced animals with small bodies-, these are typical Patanwadis and are
located in north-eastern Saurashtra.
Migratory type with larger body and long legs, typical Roman nose and long tubular ears.
Meat type, with big body and low stature.
Uses:
Yielding relatively finer fleeces
Produces coarser fleece
Used as a source of meat, also produces coarser fleeces.

Indian Breed # 9. Muzaffarnagari Sheep:

Medium to large in size; it is one of the largest breed and very well adapted to irrigated areas. Face
lines are slightly convex; face and body are white with occasional patches of brown or black; both

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sexes are polled; males sometimes contain rudimentary horns; ears are long and drooping; tail is
extremely long and reaches fetlock. Belly and legs are devoid of wool.
Uses:
Fleece is white, coarse and open from which carpets are manufactured. People also take its meat.

Indian Breed # 10. Jalauni Sheep:

Medium-sized; straight nose line; both sexes are polled; ears are large, flat and drooping; tail is
thin and medium in length; belly and legs are devoid of wool.
Uses:
Fleece is coarse, short-stapled, and open and generally white which can be used for carpet
industry. Jaalauni is also taken for meat purpose.
Indian Breed # 11. Hissardale Sheep:
Small low-set appearance with short legs; leaf-like medium-sized ears. Most animals are polled;
colour is predominantly white, although some brown or black patches can also be observed.
Uses:
Its wool is fine and suitable for garments. Annual fleece yield is about 2 kg.
Indian Breed # 12. Deccani Sheep:
Medium-sized; predominantly black with white markings; white and brown/fawn animals are also
seen. Rams are horned but ewes are polled: ears are medium, long, flat and drooping; tail is short
and thin. Belly and legs are devoid of wool.
Uses:
Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open and used for rough blankets. Annual yield is about 700
gm.

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Indian Breed # 13. Bellary Sheep:
Medium-sized; body colour ranging from white to black with various combinations; one-third of the
males are horned, females are generally polled; ears are medium, long, flat and drooping. Belly
and legs are devoid of wool.
Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open. Annual yield varies from less than 500 gm.

Indian Breed # 14. Nellore Sheep:

Based on the coat colour, three varieties of the breed are: “Palla” – completely white or white with
light brown spots on head, neck, back and legs; “Jodipi/ Jodimpu” – white with black spots,
particularly around the lips, eyes and lower jaw, but also on belly and legs; and “Dora” –
completely brown.
Animals are relatively tall with little hair except at brisket, withers and breech: Rams are horned but
ewes are almost always polled; ears are long and drooping; tail is short and thin; 86% of the
animals carry wattles.
Uses:
Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open.
This breed is famous for mutton. Ewes are not prolific and late maturing.

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Indian Breed # 15. Mandya Sheep:
Relatively small in size; white in colour, but in some cases, the face is light brown, which may
extend up to the neck; possess a compact body with a typical reversed, U-shaped wedge from the
rear.
Ears are long, leaf-like and drooping, tail is short and thin; a large percentage of the animals carry
wattles; slightly Roman nose; both sexes are polled; coat is extremely coarse and hairy. There is a
high incidence of cryptorchidism in the male.
Uses:
It is the best meat breed of the country.

Indian Breed # 16. Hassan Sheep:

Small-sized; white body with light brown or black spots; ears are medium long and drooping; 39%
of males are horned; females are usually polled. Belly and legs are generally devoid of wool.
Uses:
Fleece is white, extremely coarse and open. Mostly used for meat.
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Indian Breed # 17. Mecheri Sheep:
Medium-sized; light brown in colour; ears are medium sized; both sexes are polled; tail is short and
thin. Body is covered with very short hair which is not shorn.
Uses:
Its skin is of very high quality. This breed also has good dressing percentage (55%).

Indian Breed # 18. Vembur Sheep:

Tall; colour is white with irregular fawn patches all over the body; ears are medium-sized and
drooping; tail is short and thin; males are horned but ewes are polled; body is covered with very
short hair which is not shorn.
Uses:
Used mainly for meat purpose.
Indian Breed # 19. Coimbatore Sheep:
Medium-sized; white colour with black or brown spots; ears are medium in size and directed
outward and backward; tail is short and thin; 38% males are horned but females are polled.
Uses:
Fleece is white, coarse, hairy and open. Used for meat purpose.

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Indian Breed # 20. Nilgiri Sheep:
Medium-sized; body colour is generally white with exceptions having brown patches on face and
body; face line is convex, giving a typical Roman nose. Ears are broad, flat and drooping; males
have horn buds and scurs but the females are polled. Tail is medium and thin.
Uses:
Fleece is fine and dense. The breed produces fine fleece but there is little organised shearing and
marketing of its wool. The breed is mostly maintained for manure by tea planters and other flock
owners.

Indian Breed # 21. Ramand White Sheep:

Medium-sized; predominantly white, though some animals have fawn or black markings over the
body. Ears ire medium-sized and directed outward and downward. Males have twisted horns but
females are polled. Tail is short and thin.
Uses:
Mainly used for meat.

Indian Breed # 22. Madras Red Sheep:

Medium-sized; body colour is predominantly brown and its intensity varies from light tan to dark
brown. Some animals have white markings on the forehead, inside the thighs and on the lower
abdomen. Ears are medium-long. Males have twisted horns but females are polled. Body is
covered with very short hair which is not shorn.
Uses:
This breed is used for meat purpose. Dressing percentage is about 40%.

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Indian Breed # 23. Tiruchi Black Sheep:
Small-sized. Completely black body. Males are horned but ewes are polled. Ears are short and
directed downward and forward. Tail is short and thin.
Uses:
Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open. Good for meat purpose also.
Indian Breed # 24. Kenguri (Tenguri) Sheep:
Medium-sized. Body colour is mostly dark brown, but colours ranging from white to black with
spots of different shades are also not uncommon. Males are horned but the females are generally
polled.
Uses:
It is a meat breed.
Indian Breed # 25. Chottanagpuri Sheep:
Small, light-weight animals. Light grey and brown in colour. Ears are small and parallel to the head.
Tail is short and thin. Both sexes are polled.
Uses:
Fleece is coarse, hairy and open and is generally shorn thrice in a year.
Indian Breed # 26. Shahabadi Sheep:
Medium-sized, leggy animals. Fleece colour is mostly grey, sometimes with black spots. Ears are
medium sized and drooping. Tail is extremely long and thin. Both sexes are polled. Belly and legs
are devoid of wool.
Uses:
Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open. Annual yield varies between 500 gm to 1 kg.

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Indian Breed # 27. Balangir Sheep:
Medium-sized. White or light brown or of mixed colours; few animals are black. Ears are small and
stumpy. Males are horned and females are polled. Tail is medium long and thin. Belly and legs are
devoid of wool.
Uses:
Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open and used for carpet industry. The breed is used for
meat also.
Indian Breed # 28. Ganjam Sheep:
Medium-sized. Coat-colour ranging from brown to dark tan; some have white spots on the face and
body. Ears are medium-sized and drooping. Nose line is slightly convex. Tail is medium long and
thin. Males are horned but females are polled.
Uses:
Fleece is short and hairy and is not shorn. Used for meat purpose also.

Indian Breed # 29. Bonpala Sheep:

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Tall, leggy and well-built. Fleece colour ranges from complete white to complete black with a
number of intermediary tones. Ears are small and tubular. Both sexes are horned. Tail is short and
thin. Belly and legs are devoid of wool.
Uses:
Fleece is coarse, hairy and open. This breed is used for meat and carpet wool.
Indian Breed # 30. Gaddi (Bhadarwah) Sheep:
Medium-sized. Usually white, although tan, brown and black and mixtures of these are also seen.
All males and 10-15% females are horned. Tail is short and thin.
Uses:
Fleece is relatively fine, lustrous and dense. It is clipped thrice in a year. The undercoat is used for
manufacturing Kulu Shawls and blankets.

Indian Breed # 31. Rampur Bushair Sheep:

Medium-sized. Fleece colour is predominantly white, but brown, black and tan colour are also seen
in varying proportions. Ears are long and drooping. Roman nose. Males are horned but most of the
females are polled. Legs, belly and face are devoid of wool.
Uses:
Fleece is of medium quality and dense. This breed is also good for meat.
Indian Breed # 32. Bhakarwal Sheep:
Medium-sized. Roman nose. Generally white, although coloured fleeces are occasionally
observed; all animals are spotted, fawn or grey. Rams are horned and ewes polled. Ears are long
and drooping. Tail is short and thin.
Uses:
Fleece is coarse and open, used for blanket and carpet industries.

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Indian Breed # 33. Poonchi Sheep:
Animals are similar in appearance to Gaddi except being lighter in weight. Predominantly white in
colour but spotted sheep varying from brown to light black are also seen. Ears are medium long.
Tail is short and thin. Legs are short giving a low-set conformation.
Uses:
Wool is of medium to fine quality, mostly white in colour. It is clipped twice or thrice in a year with
annual yield of 1.6 kg/sheep.
Indian Breed # 34. Gurez Sheep:
Largest sheep breed of J & K. Generally white in colour, although some animals are brown or black
or have brown or black spots. A small proportion of animals have small, pointed horns. Tail is short
and thin. Ears are long, thin and pointed.
Uses:
Fleece is generally coarse and hairy and suitable for carpet making.

Indian Breed # 35. Changthangi Sheep:

Strongly built, large framed.

29
Good fleece cover of an extraordinarily long staple.
Uses:
Wool is of a good carpet/medium apparel quality. Animals are usually shorn twice a year, generally
in May/June and September/October.

Exotic sheep breeds

Dorset
This is native of U.K and are polled and horned.
Face, ears and legs white in colour and free from wool.
Wool yields 2.75 to 3.25 kg produce mutton of superior quality.
Rams weight 80-110 kg and ewes weigh - 50 to 80 kg.
It is a hardy breed and capable of performing well under most conditions.

Suffolk
It is native of U.K. and is large animals with black face, ears and legs.
Head and ears entirely free from wool.
Both rams and ewes are polled though rams sometimes have scurs.
Its average wool yield 2-3 kg.
Mature Rams weigh 100-135 kg and ewes from 70-100 kg.
Ewes are very prolific and excellent milkers.

30
 Suffolks imported to India have performed poorly than Dorsets.

Merino
The most popular fine wool breed of the world, originated in Spain.
It is a white faced sheep with white feet.
Rams have horns whereas the ewes are hornless.
Most of the head and legs are covered by wool.
The animal is extremely hardy being able to survive under adverse weather and poor
grazing conditions.
The ewes live and yield longer than any other breed.

Rambouillet
It was developed in France.
This breed has a large head with white hair around the nose and ears.
Rams have horns and ewes are hornless.
Rams weigh as much as 125 kg and ewes up to a maximum of 90 kg.
It produces an excellent fine-wool fleece.

31
 The fleece is heavy, close, compact, covering most of the body including face and legs.

Cheviot
Is a medium wool breed, primarily developed in Scotland.
The breed is small with erect ears, a clean white face and white legs, covered with short
white hair.
The nose, lips and feet are black.
Rams weigh on an average upto 80 kg and ewes up to 55kg.

Southdown
This breed is one of the oldest English breeds and has greatly contributed to the
development of many other breeds of sheep.
It is a small sheep excellent for mutton production.
Body is low-set, compact, wide and deep with legs wide apart. Head is broad; face is light
brown coloured.

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 Rams weigh about 80 kg and ewes 55kg at maturity.

Breeding Management of Sheep

Introduction
Points to be considered in the selection of animals for
breeding

It is better to purchase a goat/sheep with 2 dental ages.

The females should possess a long preferably low set body, roomy hind quarter, well-formed
pliable udder, active foraging habit and good mothering instinct.
The females having poor milking capacity, over short or undershort jaw, broken mouth, blind teat
and meaty udder should be disqualified from the breeding programme.
Wide roomy hind quarter with good space between inner aspects of two thighs gives an indication
about future development of udder.
Male animals should be in good body condition, masculine, legs should be stronger and free from
defects.
Breeding male should show good libido.
The animal should be having both testicle intact in the scrotum.
It will be better, if the goats can be purchased from a best farm or from an individual farmer who
maintained the goats in a best manner, instead of getting the goats from weekly shandies.
Females having ability to yield 2 or 3 kids in parturition can be selected.
Soft and shiny skinned goats should be selected and this indicates the health of the animal.
Animals with broader back and rump regions will be better. Broad back and rib cages indicates
that, goat having better feed intake capacity. Whereas broad rump region indicates better breeding
characters.
The female should have the maternal character of protecting her kid and with better milk feeding
abilities.

33
The female with well grown, blended udder should be selected.
The udder should be thoroughly checked for any kind of defects before purchase.
Breeding ewe of indigenous breeds should be 18to 24 months depending upon their body
condition.
Breeding too young ewes result in more weakling and thus results in higher lamb loss.
As a guideline, females should be mated only when they reach 70 per cent of the average adult
body weight.
Body weight of an ewe at breeding should normally be less than the adult body weight of that
breed.
The libido of the ram is very important to achieve desirable breeding. Poor libido may result from
inadequate feeding, extreme heat stress or ill-health.
Reproductive parameters of sheep

Breeding age- 6-8 months

Comes to heat after lambing – 21 days after
Length of pregnancy - 147 days (ranges between 144 and 152 days)
Male female ratio - 1:20
Estrous period is repeated every 16-17 days on average in ewes (range 14-19 days).
Estrous period is 19-21 days in does (range 17-24 days).
The estrous period lasts for about 24-36 hours in ewes and 34-38 hours in does.
Estrous signs of sheep

Redden of the vulva and discharge from vulva

Tail wagging
Mounting other animal
34
Seeking male
Frequent bleating
Push her back
Standing for mating (standing reflex)
The males are attracted by smell, sight and sound and exhibit following behaviour
Sniff the vulva
Extending neck with curling of upper lip
Biting the side of the ewe/doe and wool pulling
Paw the ewe– raising and lowering of one front leg in a stiff legged striking motion
Mount and mate
Identification of sheep t in heat
Using an intact male
The male is allowed in the flock to identify the oestrous animals.
There is a chance of the ram will mate the ewe if it is not controlled properly.
Use of intact male fitted with aprons

Male with aprons

An apron is tied on the abdomen of the male to cover the penis.

The apron is made of a soft piece of cloth measuring 60x45 cm with strings on four sides to tie it
properly. This prevents mating.
The apron should be washed daily and checked for holes or tears to avoid unwanted mating.
There is a risk of fertile mating if the apron is not securely fastened and checked frequently.
Inflammation, irritation and infection of penis and prepuce area can occur, resulting in inhibited
sexual desire and mounting behaviour.
The ram/buck are apronized and allowed in to the flock for identification of animals in the morning
and evening for about 15 to 20minutes.
Teasure ram detects the females in heat, which are marked and separated out for breeding with
desired ram.
Vasactamised ram
Vasactamised rams can be prepared by doing surgical intervention.
An intact ram is let in to the flock. The ram follows the ewe in estrous.

35
Preparation of Female
Flushing

Flushing

Flushing is feeding of extra concentrate to ewes prior to onset of breeding season, normally 3 or 4
weeks before breeding.
This increases the ovulation rate of ewes, so that the number of twins and triplets increase.
In tropical flocks twining and triplets are rare and in extensive rearing twining and triplets are
undesirable.
Flushing will have effect only if the ewes were in declining phase of nutritional availability.
Ewes in better body condition will produce more lambs thus the flushing of leaner ewes will
increase the fertility by way of increasing incident of oestrous, increase ovulation rate and
decreases the early embryonic mortality by strengthening the fetal membrane integrity.
Flushing can be done by supplementing 250 g of concentrate daily or 500 g of good quality legume
hay per head per day.
Flushing increases the lambing rate by 10 to 20 per cent.
In wooly breeds of sheep the following preparations are required.
Tagging
Ewes sometimes are not bred because wool or tags prevent the ram from making satisfactory
copulation, thus tagging makes service by the ram more certain.
The ram is also trimmed around the sheath.
Eyeing
To prevent wool blindness in some breeds the excess wool around the eyes should be clipped
away regularly. This process is referred to as eyeing.
Ringing
Before the breeding season starts the wools should be completely removed from all over the body
of the ram.
He should at least be clipped from the neck and from the belly particularly at the region of penis.
This process is referred to as ringing.
This process makes it easier for the ram to have proper mating.
Crutching
36
Removal of wool around the perennial region and base of the tail of an ewe is known as crutching.
This facilitates better mating.
This refers shearing the lock of wool and dirt from the dock.

Preparation of Male
Marking the ram
For the sake of identification of the ewe does which have been bred by the rams bucks, it is
essential that rams bucks must have some cye in their breast, which at the time of mating will mark
the particular ewes does (marked ewes does). For this either lamp black or Venetian red is mixed
up with linseed oil to make a paste, which is then applied in the brisket area at least once a week.
When the ram buck mounts the ewe doe during the course of breeding, she will be marked on the
rump (marked).
This makes it possible to record the date when the ewes doe are bred and also to remove them
from the breeding flock.
The colour of the dye should be changed every 16 to 18days so that the repeaters can be
discovered, if the bred ewes does have not been removed from the flock.
This process is termed as marking of ewes 1 does by breeding ram buck and marked ewes does
considered as bred.

Raddle/raddling
Marking of ewe by ram can also be done by raddle. Raddle is nothing but a ram harness
containing crayon, which is rubbed on the ewe’s rump when mating takes place, so that a colour
mark is left.
The process of allowing the ram to run along with raddle is termed as raddling.
The above practice can also be adopted in goats

Methods of mating
1. Hand mating
In this system the females are allowed to mate one by one.
In this system a ram or buck will not be allowed to mate more than three ewes/does in a
day.
Merits
This method ensure the expected time of lambing / kidding
This system allows the farmer to know that the animal has actually bred.
This system reduces the risk of injuries to the animals.

37
 It is beneficial when mating older male with a younger female.
It also improves the breeding efficiency of male, resulting in an increased number of
females that can be bred in shorter period of time.
2. Pen mating

In this mating system the ewes/does are divided into batches varying from 20 to 25
ewes/does.
Males are turned in to the flock only during the night time and separated during day time.
Merits
This system of mating prevents the disturbances to the ewes/does by the male during
grazing hours.
Males are also given enough rest and they can be fed properly.
Flock mating/pasture mating

In this system males are allowed to run along with the females throughout the day
and night.
The male may lose it most of its body reserves in chasing the females and they may lose
their body conditions.
Demerits
The ram or buck sometimes may develop attraction for particular ewe or doe in heat and
serve it a number of times while other remains unattended resulting in empty ewes/does
and low fertility rate.
The ram/buck some time exhaust itself overnight by serving more than a dozen times and
the last served ewes or does not receive optimum number of spermatozoa and remain
unconceived.
Artificial insemination
38
 Artificial insemination offer the best means of distributing germplasm from nucleus breeding
flock to many small flocks within each eco system.
Fresh as well as frozen semen is used.
The speculum method of insemination is used for ewes and does.
Generally artificial insemination leads to lower reproductive rate than natural service and
frozen semen gives even much low pregnancy rate that is around 40%.
Cervical insemination is generally followed for better conception rate.

Care of pregnant animals

The pregnant animals ewes should not be handled frequently.

The ewes/does in advanced stage of pregnancy should be separated from the flock and effective
care should be taken in
their feeding.
Extra feed during the later part of pregnancy (3-4 weeks before parturition) will be beneficial for the
condition of the pre-parturient ewes does which will help in improving milk production of ewes does
and birth weight and growth of lambs/ kids.
Inadequate and poor nutrition in pregnant animals may result in pregnancy toxaemia, abortion and
premature birth of weak lambs / kids.
Ewe/ doe in advanced stage of pregnancy should be kept in a separate lambing corals or shed 4-6
days before partition and maximum comfort like soft clean bedding and individual lambing pen
should be provided.
The pregnant ewe/doe should be protected from chilly weather condition.
Care at kidding/lambing/parturition

39
The preparatory stage of kidding ranges between 20 to 50 minutes.
Vigilant eye should be kept for dystocia or difficult birth.
Maiden ewes in poor condition or small-framed ewes mated to big rams will generally have
difficulty in parturition and
will have to be assisted.
If no progress in kidding, better call for the veterinary obstetrician for physical manipulation and
surgical need.
After kidding the doe naturally licks the kids which she would invariably do and remove the
membranous cover and she may even eat it.
Allow to lick the kids, which helps in early drying, sensitizing and stimulating the kid and thereby
attracts the new born with motherly instinct towards udder.
If she does not do so better remove the membranous attachment from over the face, nostrils, eyes,
mouth as well as the
body parts.
Apply Tincture iodine on the naval after cutting the naval cord 1” below with a new sterilized razor
blade.
Do not leave the navel cord as such in hanging position lest it may attract the crows in open
causing bleeding injury to
the navel.
Allow the kids to suckle the mother within 20 minutes of birth so that the kids get Vit-A-rich
colostrum and immunoglobulin essential for the kids.
Give the doe warm cereal meal-the gruel drink either as such or mixed with one to two
tablespoonful.
In case of heavy milker if not sucked by the kid she should be milked out soon to the extent of
relieving her udder pressure.
Elite dairy goat of high production potential should be milked from the third day of kidding.
The lambs/kids should not be handled too frequently immediately after birth and let the dams lick
and recognize them properly.
The first 1 to 2 hrs after birth is the vital period for establishment of bond between the new born
and the mother. Hence
the dam should be kept in a calm place without disturbance from stray dogs and other animals.
Allow newborn lambs 1 kids to be with their mother all the 24 hrs for first week or so.

General breeding management

40
The male female ratio is 1:20.
Young males can be put in to experienced older ewes and older rams to younger ewes will help in
better mating.
Inbreeding should be avoided.
The males should be replaced or exchanged once in two years to avoid inbreeding.
Breeding ewe of indigenous breeds should be 18to 24 months depending upon their body
condition.
Breeding too young ewes result in more weakling and thus results in higher lamb loss.
Body weight of ewe at breeding should normally be less than the adult body weight of that breed.
Oestrous detection of all female goats above 1 year should be done either with approned or
vasectomized buck both in morning or evening during breeding season.
The normal breeding season is Sept to Oct, Feb to March and May to June.
In order to synchronize them improved hormonal technology may be used or buck may be in a
partitioned corral of woven-wire net so that the does and the buck may have full view of each other.
This may be done a week or two before or during the breeding season.
A 90% conception rate in does may be ensured if one buck with one doe or more does (not
exceeding 2 to 3) in heat are allowed to remain together for a whole day or whole night provided it
is followed over period of 3 cycles.
If 2 services at an interval of 8 to 12 hrs is practised, improvement in conception may be achieved.
Goats which do not return to oestrus after 2 cycles are considered as pregnant and should be
separated from the dry, non pregnant flock. They should be kept in a group of not more than 15 to
20 does to avoid infighting.
41
If they have no kidding for complete one, year they should be removed from flock.
Efforts should always be made to avoid kidding during the peak winter season which can be
practically achieved by a planned breeding avoiding summer season within a specified period
between 15th may to 15th June. This will save the kids from cold susceptibility and resultant
pneumonic death during winter.
Avoid starvation of goat since even two days starvation period early in pregnancy can cause a high
percentage of shed embryos to be absorbed.
Managemental methods to optimize breeding
Oestrous stimulation
It is the practice of stimulating and synchronizing breeding by putting vasectomized males with
females about 10 days to 2 weeks prior to the beginning of breeding.
As a result of this, large portion of the ewes will ovulate and conceive during the early part of the
breeding season.
Oestrous synchronization
Oestrous cycle of the ewe/doe is synchronized so that large numbers of them come in heat at one
time.
This would help in reducing the cost of artificial insemination or natural breeding and subsequent
care at lambing/ kidding.
It gives uniform flocks of lambs/ kids, which will facilitate the disposal and fetch more
prices.
Ram effect
Sudden introduction of ram / buck in the ewes/ doesflock after prolonged separation bring more
number of ewes/ does into oestrous.
Telescoping
Introducing ram in the flock after keeping it away for 2 to 3 months
Sudden introduction of ram into the ewes flock will bring 70 to 80 % of ewes in heat in the first
oestrous cycle.
the above technique can also be applied to goats
Hormonal method
Administration of progesterone hormones or their analogues through feed, as implant or as
impregnated vaginal sponges. After the administration for 14 days the hormone is withdrawn. The
animal comes to heat within 3 days.
Administration of two intra muscular injections of Prostaglandin F2 alpha or its synthetic analogues
10 mg each at an interval of 10 days bring all the animals in heat within 72 to 96 hrs.
Breeding systems

Animal breeding is a branch of animal science that addresses the evaluation of the genetic value of
domestic livestock. A breed is a group of domestic animals with a homogeneous appearance,
behavior, and other characteristics that distinguish it from other animals.

42
Pure-breeding

Pure-breeding is the mating of rams and ewes of the same breed or type. A
purebred flock can be managed as a single flock because all ewes and rams are of the same
breed. The goal of purebred sheep production is to provide superior genetics (seedstock) to the
commercial sheep industry. Seedstock are marketed as rams and replacement ewes to other
seedstock producers or to commercial sheep operations.

Improvements in purebred sheep should be documented through performance records.

The National Sheep Improvement Program (NSIP) collects performance data from purebred
producers and provides them with across-flock EPDs. "EPD" is short for "Expected Progeny
Difference."

An EPD is an estimate of the genetic merit of an animal for a given trait. It is the expected
difference between the performance of an animal's progeny (offspring) and the average progeny
performance of all the animals in the breed for that trait. For example, if a lamb has a weaning
weight EPD of 2.0 lbs., this means that its progeny will be 2.0 lbs. heavier than the average lamb in
the breed.

Australia's LAMBPLAN is a similar system for determining the genetic value of a sheep. There are
similar performance record keeping systems in Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.
The show ring generally does a poor job of identifying genetically superior sheep, particularly
maternal breeds of sheep whose traits cannot be evaluated by visual appraisal.

Out-breeding

Within pure-breeding, there are several types of mating systems. Out-breeding is

the mating of animals of the same breed but which have no closer relationship than at least 4 to 6
generations. Outbreeding is the recommended breeding practice for most purebred sheep
breeders.

Inbreeding

Inbreeding is a system of breeding in which closely related animals are mated. This
includes sire to daughter, son to dam, and brother to sister. Technically, inbreeding is defined as
the mating of animals more closely related than the average relationship within the breed or
population concerned. The primary genetic consequence of inbreeding is to increase the frequency
of pairing of similar genes.

43
Inbreeding is essential to the development of prepotent animals — animals that uniformly "stamp"
their characteristics on their progeny. Inbreeding may also be used to uncover genes that produce
abnormalities or death — genes that, in outbred herds, are generally present in low frequencies.
Inbreeding is suggested for only highly qualified operators who are making an effort to stabilize
important traits in a given set of animals.

In general, inbreeding results in an overall lowering in performance: vigor, disease resistance,

reproductive efficiency, and survivability. It also increases the frequency of abnormalities. For
example, the spread of spider lamb disease in black-faced sheep is believed to be the
consequence of inbreeding.

Linebreeding

Linebreeding is a system of breeding in which the degree of relationship is less

intense than in inbreeding and is usually directed towards keeping the offspring related to some
highly prized ancestor. The degree of relationship is not closer than half-brother half-sister matings
or cousin matings, etc. Line breeding is a mild form of inbreeding.

Crossbreeding

Crossbreeding is the mating of rams and ewes of different breed compositions or types. However,
it does not denote indiscriminate mixing of breeds, but rather is a systematic utilization of different
breed resources to produce crossbred progeny of a specific type. Crossbreeding is used
extensively in the commercial sheep industry and the majority of slaughter lambs are crossbred.

Crossbreeding offers two distinct advantages: 1) heterosis; and 2) breed complementarity.

Heterosis or hybrid vigor is the superiority of the crossbred offspring. Mathematically, heterosis is
the difference in performance between the crossbred and the average performance of its purebred
parents.

There are effects of heterosis in the crossbred offspring, crossbred dam, and crossbred ram. In
general, crossbred individuals tend to be more vigorous, more fertile and grow faster than
purebreds.

Heterosis in the crossbred lamb

Trait Percent heterosis

Birth weight 3.2

44
Weaning weight 5.0

Pre-weaning ADG 5.3

Post-weaning ADG 6.6

Yearling weight 5.2

Conception rate 2.6

Prolificacy of dam 2.8

Lamb survival 9.8

Carcass traits 0

Lambs born/ewe exposed 5.3

Lambs reared/ewe exposed 15.2

Weight of lamb weaned/ewe 17.8

Source: Nitter, G. 1978. Breed utilization for meat production in

sheep. Anim. Breed. Abstr. 46:131.

Effects of heterosis tend to be large for traits that are lowly heritable (e.g. reproduction) and small
for traits that are highly heritable (e.g. growth, carcass, and wool). The effects of heterosis are
cumulative. Heterosis can be maximized by mating crossbred ewes to a ram of another breed to
produce crossbred offspring. Composite breeds such as the Katahdin and Polypay capture most of
the benefits of heterosis.

Heterosis in the crossbred ewe

Trait Percent heterosis

Fertility 8.7

Prolificacy 3.2

Pre-weaning ADG 5.3

Body weight 5.0

Lamb birth weight 5.1

Lamb weaning weight 6.3

Lamb survival 2.7

Lambs born/ewe exposed 11.5

Lambs reared/ewe 14.7

Weight of lamb weaned/ewe 18.0

45
Source: Nitter, G. 1978. Breed utilization for meat production in
sheep. Anim. Breed. Abstr. 46:131.

Breed complementarity

The second major advantage of crossbreeding lies in the ability to

utilize breed complementarity. All breeds have strengths and weaknesses. No one breed excels in
all relevant traits. Thus, production can be optimized when mating systems place breeds in roles
that maximize their strengths and minimize their weaknesses.

Mating Polypay ewes to Suffolk rams is an example of matching complementary strengths of

breeds to optimize efficiency of a production system. This cross takes advantage of the
reproductive efficiency and moderate maintenance costs of Polypay ewes while producing Suffolk-
sired lambs to meet market requirements for fast-growing, heavy muscled lambs.

The efficiency of this cross would be much greater than the reciprocal mating of Suffolk ewes to
Polypay rams. The latter cross would produce genetically equivalent market lambs (half Suffolk
and half Polypay), but fewer lambs would be sold and production costs greatly increased due to
higher feed requirements of heavy Suffolk ewes compared to Polypay ewes.

Crossbreeding Systems

There are several systematic crossbreeding systems. Terminal

crossing makes maximum use of both heterosis and breed complementarity. It may utilize two,
three, or four breeds, and can be as simple as crossing two pure breeds.

Terminal crossing
In terminal crossing, all of the crossbred offspring are sold and replacement
ewe lambs must be purchased or produced in the flock by mating a proportion of the flock to rams
of the same breed. In a three or four breed terminal crossbreeding system, crossbred ewes and
crossbred rams can be utilized in the system to maximize heterosis.

Rotational crossing

Rotational crossing will also maintain high levels of heterosis. Rotational

crossing involves alternating the use of rams of two, three, or more breeds. Ewes are mated to
rams of the breed which they are least related. It works best when breeds which function
acceptably as both ram and ewe breeds, are utilized.

46
 Roto-terminal crossing

Roto-terminal crossing involves both terminal crossing to produce market lambs

and rotational crossing to produce ewe lambs. The best ewes in the flock would comprise the
nucleus flock. They would be used to produce replacement ewes. The rest of the ewes in the flock
would be bred to a terminal sire to produce market lambs.

Grading up

Grading up denotes the repeated crossing of ewes and their female progeny to rams
of a single breed, with the ultimate objective of creating a flock that is indistinguishable from
purebred flocks of the ram breed. It is used when only rams of the breed of interest are available or
affordable.

Composite breeds

Crossbreeding is also used to form new or "composite" breeds. Once the

crossbred base population has been formed, the flock is managed as a purebred flock. This is how
many new breeds are created.
Many of the aforementioned crossbreeding systems are difficult to accomplish in a small flock,
which may only have the option of one or two breeding groups. The purchase of replacement
females would enable the use of a terminal crossing program. Alternating the use of ram and ewe
breeds would maintain maternal and growth characteristics in the flock.

Katahdin flock Bluefaced Leicester ewe Purebred Charollais ram

47
Ewe with crossbred lambs Montadale flock Crossbred ewe

48
49
The Digestive System

In order to make use of the nutrients stored in feedstuffs, all animals must first break down (digest)
feed into a form that can be absorbed by the body. The focus of this chapter is to provide a basic
overview of the structures, abilities, and limitations of the sheep’s digestive system. Sheep belong to a
group of herbivores called ruminants. Ruminants are able to digest a large portion of the nutrients
contained in fibrous plant material due to their unique digestive system, which integrates a large
microbial population with the animal’s own system. Although this system is remarkably efficient, proper
feeding management is needed to maintain healthy and productive animals. Mismanagement of a
ruminant’s diet can be disastrous.
Structures of the Digestive System:
The digestive tract is composed of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and
anus. Various other structures and organs, such as the salivary glands and liver, also aid in digestion.
A few of the key structures are described below:
Salivary glands: There are three sets of glands that drain saliva into the mouth. The saliva mixes
with the feed that is being chewed and is swallowed with the feed. Saliva, which has a high pH, is very
50
important in maintaining the correct pH balance in the rumen and is a key component of rumen fluid.
Therefore, the salivary glands in ruminants are extremely productive. An adult sheep, for example,
may secrete over 25 litres of saliva per day.
Esophagus: The esophagus is a long muscular tube that runs to the stomach. When feed is
swallowed, muscles in the esophagus move the food to the rest of the system Stomach The stomach
of ruminants greatly differs in structure and function compared to monogastrics (dogs, pigs, horses,
humans etc.). Monogastrics have a relatively simple, single-chambered stomach. Sheep, like other
ruminants, have three additional chambers (reticulum, rumen, and omasum) that feed passes through
before reaching the ‘true’ stomach (abomasum). Reticulum: The reticulum is a blind pouch of the
rumen that acts as a holding area for feed after it passes down the esophagus. The reticulum receives
material coming into the digestive system and will trap large inedible objects. As there is no distinct
division between the rumen and the reticulum, they are often referred to together (reticulo-rumen).
Rumen: The rumen is a very large muscular pouch, which extends within the left side of the body
cavity from the diaphragm to the pelvis. The rumen is a critical site for feed digestion in ruminants.
The rumen has a complex environment composed of microbes, feed at various stages of digestion,
gases, and rumen fluid. The microbes (bacteria, protozoa and fungi) number in the billions and are the
basis of the fermentation (digestion) process. The rumen contents separate into three zones based on
their density and particle size: gas (fermentation by-product) rises to the top; small, dense particles
sink to the bottom (grain, well digested forage), and lighter, longer particles form a middle layer on top
of the rumen fluid (recently eaten forage). Feed remains in the rumen until the particles are small
enough to pass into the omasum.
Approximately 70% of the energy requirements of the animal are supplied through microbial activity in
the rumen. As proteins vary in how easily they can be dissolved within the rumen fluid, the amount
supplied through the rumen depends on the type of protein being provided in the diet. Some types of
proteins will be completely dissolved and utilized by the microbes, while other types pass from the
rumen intact (by-pass proteins).

Omasum: The omasum is much smaller than the rumen. It grinds feed particles (digesta) coming from
the rumen/reticulum to reduce the particle size and to absorb excess moisture. As fermentation
requires large amounts of fluid, it is important to recapture water to avoid dehydration. From the
omasum, digesta proceeds into the abomasum.
Abomasum: The abomasum is called the ‘true’ stomach. It functions in a similar manner as the
stomach of a monogastric, including the production of acids to aid in digestion of certain feed
components. Protein that is insoluble in the rumen fluid, a small percentage of starch, and any fats in
the diet are passed from the rumen into the abomasum relatively intact. As large numbers of microbes
are also flushed from the rumen, the abomasum is specialized to break down the microbes. These
microbes are an important source of nutrients for the ruminant.
Small intestine The small intestine is the main site of absorption of nutrients that have by-passed the
rumen. The small intestine is approximately 85 feet long in adult sheep. Bile and pancreatic juice

51
drain into the small intestine to aid in digestion of certain feed components, such as dietary fat. Liver
The liver is a large organ, about 1.5% of an animal’s live weight. It is located towards the front of the
animal’s body cavity, just behind the diaphragm. Newly digested and absorbed nutrients are
transported from the absorption sites to the liver for storage and/or further processing. The liver also
produces bile that drains into the intestine to aid in the digestion of fats. Large intestine The
mammalian large intestine consists of the caecum and the colon. The caecum is a blind pouch that
opens into the digestive tract. In ruminants, approximately 10-15% of the animal’s energy requirement
is supplied through microbes in the caecum.

The Digestive System in Lambs

When lambs drink milk, the rumen and reticulum are generally by-passed. Suckling causes a reflex
action bringing the walls of the reticulum together to form an esophageal groove leading directly to the
omasum. This reflex is very important in newborn lambs, to ensure that antibodies in the colostrum
are transported intact to the abomasum. The esophageal groove generally does not form when lambs
are fed milk by a stomach tube. Without the reflex, the milk will end up in the reticulum and may cause
bloating, as the milk will be poorly digested.
During the first few weeks of a lamb’s life, the rumen is very small and has no microbes. The rumen
will become functional as the lamb begins to consume more plant material and the rumen is ‘seeded’
with microbes.
Rumen Function:
Rumen microbes Everything that the sheep eats is subjected to microbial digestion. The feed you
see your sheep consume is actually, for the most part, being used to feed and maintain the rumen
microbes. The microbes in turn provide nutrients to the sheep. Like any other organism, the microbes
need to be fed. If an animal is held off feed for a few days, the microbial population will die. If this
occurs the ruminant will be unable to utilize feed until microbes are reintroduced to the rumen.
Microbes secrete enzymes directly onto the feed particles and into the rumen fluid. Therefore, feed is
broken down directly by the microbes and also by the surrounding fluid. Unlike many mammalian
groups that rely on both carbohydrates and fats, the vast majority of energy in ruminant diets is
supplied through plant carbohydrates. Plant carbohydrates are classified as either insoluble or
soluble, based on how easily they can be digested. The rigid, fibrous plant cell wall is largely
comprised of insoluble carbohydrates (mainly cellulose), while the inside of the cell contains more
soluble forms (starch, hemicellulose etc.). The cell walls of different types of plant material and plants
at different stages of development will vary in thickness and therefore contain different proportions of
soluble and insoluble carbohydrates. Much of the nutritive value of plants with thick cell walls
(forages) is unavailable to mammals without microbes to break down the cellulose. Feeds high in
starch (e.g. grains) provide more readily available energy than feeds high in cellulose (e.g. forages).
As microbes are breaking down and utilizing carbohydrates in the rumen, they produce energy rich by-
products called volatile fatty acids (VFA's). It is the VFA’s rather than the original plant material that
provide energy to the ruminant. The VFA’s are absorbed by the animal through the rumen wall, after

52
which they are carried through the blood system to the liver for further processing and storage. There
are many types of microbes in the rumen. Although their functions vary and even overlap in some
cases, they can be classified into two general groups based on the type of carbohydrate that they
digest. One group is adapted to breaking down the fibrous cell wall (cellulose), while the other group
digests soluble particles (starch). Therefore, the composition of the microbe population (cellulose
digesters vs starch digesters) will vary depending on the type of feed provided to the sheep.
Rumen pH
The normal environment of the rumen is neutral (pH of 6 to 7) and most rumen microbes can only
thrive in this type of environment. Therefore, the acidic by-products of fermentation must be removed
from the rumen continuously by absorption through the rumen wall and saliva (high pH) must be added
to the rumen fluid frequently to maintain the proper pH. Many of the digestive problems in ruminants
occur when the mechanisms regulating the pH balance are disrupted and the rumen becomes too
acidic (acidosis). As discussed below, the diet and the microbe population have a direct influence on
the rumen pH. Increased fermentation rates can lead to a rapid decline in rumen pH. The speed of
digestion is dependent on the type of feed and the particle size.
Type of feed and changes in diet Ruminants can adapt to diets with different levels of forages and
grains. However, sudden changes from forage to easily digestible feed can cause a major disruption
in the microbe population of the rumen. For instance, the rumen microbe population of an animal fed
only grass hay will be largely comprised of cellulose-digesting microbes. If the diet is suddenly
switched to a high grain, low forage ration, it will take time for the population of most starch-digesting
microbes to increase. This creates a favourable environment for a population explosion of one
particular type of starch-digesting microbe. This microbe produces large levels of lactic acid. Although
a small amount of lactic acid is a normal by-product of fermentation, very large levels will cause the
rumen pH to drop below 5. This will kill the cellulose-digesting microbes, and prevent the growth of
other types of starch-digesting microbes. As the lactic acid microbes are able to survive in a low pH
environment, their population will continue to increase, further adding to the drop in pH. This is a very
serious situation for a ruminant. At the very least, rumen function and feed utilization will be slowed,
and the rumen will need to be re-populated with essential microbes. In severe cases, the animal could
die, due to bloat or lactic acidosis. It is very important, therefore, to make changes to high-energy
diets slowly. If grain is increased incrementally over a few weeks the transition in the microbe
population will occur gradually, preventing an overpopulation of the lactic acid producing microbes.
Even with animals adapted to high-energy diets, precautions should be taken to prevent disruptions in
microbe populations
(i.e. maintain a regular feeding schedule and prevent animals from ingesting very large amounts of
easily digestible feeds at one time)
Particle size: Very small feed particles can be quickly surrounded and digested by microbes,
increasing the fermentation rate. One way to moderate the digestion of small particles, such as grain,
is to provide the animal with sufficient fibre. As mentioned earlier, the long fibres of recently consumed
forages settle in the middle region of the rumen, where they form a structure known as a rumen mat.

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When a mat is present, it will entangle small particles (e.g. grain, alfalfa leaves), which helps limit their
exposure to microbes and slows their digestion. It is important to note that in the case of very fibrous
feeds (straw), particle size may need to be decreased. This type of feed may be chopped to reduce
the particle size to help increase intake and digestion.
Rumen Gases:
Large quantities of gas are produced within the rumen as a by-product of fermentation. (~5 litres per
hour in a sheep). Ruminants need to frequently rid themselves of these gases, mainly through
eructation (belching). Bloating occurs if the animal is unable to release gas or if gas is produced faster
than it can be released. If bloating is severe, the rumen enlarges to the point that it pushes against the
lungs, potentially suffocating the animal. The rate of gas production is dependent on the speed of
fermentation, which (as noted above) varies with the type of feed and the particle size. Rumen pH is
also a factor for gas release as it affects rumen motility (see below). There are two types of bloat:
• Frothy bloat occurs when the gas becomes trapped within the rumen fluid creating a frothy layer.
As the gas is not in a ‘free’ form, it cannot escape the rumen. This type of bloat most frequently occurs
when animals are fed high protein forages (legumes) that have a small particle size (e.g. alfalfa with a
high percentage of leaves or finely chopped forage). Precautions should be taken when switching
sheep to legume hay, and particularly, when first turning sheep into pastures with a high legume
content. • With free gas bloat, the gas forms a distinct layer, but the animal is unable to release it
because of decreased rumen motility (see below).
Rumen Motility Approximately every half-minute, the rumen and reticulum are subjected to strong
muscular contractions which cause churning and mixing of the rumen contents. The highest frequency
of contractions occurs during feeding. The rumen environment significantly affects motility, and
motility will slow down or cease (rumen stasis) if rumen contents become overly acidic. Consequently,
the type of diet will influence rumen motility, with high-fibre diets increasing motility relative to low fibre
diets.
Rumen motility aids rumen function by:
a. Increasing efficiency of digestion: Churning of the rumen contents helps increase the exposure of
feed particles to microbes.
b. Release of gas: As mentioned earlier, the gas produced during fermentation remains in the top
portion of the rumen. As the rumen contents are moved by muscles contractions, the gas bubble is
shifted to the esophageal opening, allowing for eructation. If the contractions are decreased by a low
pH, gas release will be decreased and the animal may bloat (free-gas bloat).
c. Ruminating or ‘chewing cud’: Rumen churning also stimulates cud chewing. The passage to the
omasum is narrow which limits the size of the particles that can be passed into the rest of the digestive
system. While feeding, ruminants take fairly large bites and swallow the material with little chewing.
Therefore, sheep must continue to physically break down the feed after it has been swallowed the first
time. At regular intervals boluses of feed (cud) being held in the reticulum are brought back up to the
sheep’s mouth to be further chewed and then swallowed again. This process (rumination) reduces the

54
size of the forage particles and greatly increases the surface area available for microbial digestion.
Rumination also increases rumen pH by stimulating the release of saliva.
d. Digesta movement to the omasum: Rumen contractions help move digested rumen contents into
the omasum. Impaction of the rumen may result if motility is suppressed for a significant length of
time.

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56
Sheep’s reproductive physiology

Reproduction in the ewe

The ovaries are roughly spherical and about the size of a marble (10 to 15 mm diameter). They have
two principle functions:
 the production of eggs (or ova)
 the secretion of the female sex hormones (oestradiol and progesterone), which are required for
conception and pregnancy.
The fallopian tubes (or oviducts) extend towards the ovaries but are not connected to them. Instead
they end with a small funnel shaped opening which catches the egg when it is released. The fallopian
tubes provide the site of fertilisation and early embryo development before the embryo passes to the
uterus.
The uterus is a small muscular organ that provides protection and nourishment for the developing
embryo. It consists of a body and two uterine horns that are continuous with the fallopian tubes. The
inner lining of the uterus is made up of many button-like projections known as caruncles, which are the
sites of attachment for the placenta ('afterbirth'). The transfer of nutrients between the ewe and the
developing embryo takes place via the placenta. The development of the embryo and later the foetus
continues within the uterus for the duration of the pregnancy.
The cervix (a muscular and fibrous constriction) separates the uterus from the vagina. During
pregnancy it is sealed and protects the embryo and foetus from the external environment. At the time
of mating and ovulation it is open, enabling passage of sperm into the uterus.
The vagina connects the cervix to the vulva (external opening of the genital tract).

Reproductive rate is defined as the number of live lambs born per ewe exposed for breeding. Optimal
reproductive rates are essential to profitable sheep production. Optimal reproductive rate varies by
farm, production system, and geographic area.
Puberty (sexual maturity)

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Puberty is when a ewe reaches sexual maturity and exhibits estrus (heat) for the first time. The age of
puberty is influenced by breed, genetic selection, body size, nutrition, and season of birth. Most ewe
lambs reach puberty between 5 and 12 months of age.

Ewe lambs will tend to reach puberty their first fall. For this reason, spring-born ewe lambs tend to
exhibit puberty earlier than fall-born ewe lambs. Lambs born early in the season reach puberty earlier
than those born late in the season, due to their increased age and body weight.

High levels of feed pre and post-weaning reduce the age at puberty. Single lambs cycle at a younger
age than twin and triplet-born ewe lambs, due to their size advantage. Ewe lambs from fine-wool,
coarse wool, and late-maturing medium-wool breeds reach puberty later than many of the meat
(Suffolk, Dorset, etc.) and hair sheep (Katahdin, St. Croix, and Barbados Blackbelly) breeds.
Finnsheep and Romanov ewe lambs and their crosses reach puberty at an earlier age than most
breeds. Crossbred ewe lambs cycle at a younger age than purebred ewe lambs.

The estrus (or heat) cycle

Reproduction in non-human mammals is regulated by an estrus cycle. In sheep, the length of the
estrus cycle ranges from 13 to 19 days and averages 17 days. The phases of the estrous cycle are
proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus. Estrus is the period of time when the ewe is receptive to the
ram and will stand for mating. It lasts approximately 24 to 36 hours.

Ovulation (release of eggs by the ovary) occurs in mid to late-estrus. Metaestrus begins with the
cessation of estrus and lasts for about 3 days. Primarily it is the period of the formation of corpus
luteum (CL). The corpus luteum produces progesterone and maintains pregnancy in the ewe. Diestrus
is the period of the estrus cycle when the CL is fully functional.

Proestrus begins with the regression of the CL and drop in progesterone and extends to the start of
estrus. Rapid follicular growth is occuring during this period. It usually extends from day 4 to day 13-15
of the cycle. Anestrus refers to a state where the normal cycle stops.
Estrous cycles are usually affected by the seasons. The number of hours daily that light enters the eye
of the animal affects the brain, which governs the release of certain precursors and hormones. Most
sheep are seasonally polyestrus and short-day breeders. They will begin to exhibit estrus when length
of day begins decreasing. They will come into heat every 16 to 17 days until they are bred or return to
anestrus. Thus, the most natural time for sheep to breed in the U.S. and Canada is the fall (Oct-Nov).

Some sheep breeds are less seasonal. They breed almost year-round or have an extended breeding
season. The less seasonal breeds include Dorset, Rambouillet, Merino, Finnsheep, Romanov,
Karakul, and hair sheep. The most seasonal breeds are the British long wool and meat breeds. The

58
closer the flock is located to the equator, the longer the breeding season and the less complete and
shorter will be the seasonal anestrus.

Signs of estrus in the ewe are much less pronounced than in the cow or doe and can usually not be
detected unless a ram is present. When mature ewes are in heat, they will seek out the ram and stand
still for him to mount them. Sometimes they wag their tails vigorously. They may nuzzle the ram
around the belly or scrotum and even try to mount the ram. Young ewes rarely exhibit these behaviors.
There is evidence to suggest that rams and ewes prefer to mate with their own breed, but when there
is no option ewes will mate with almost any breed of ram.

Reproductive characteristics of ewes

Characteristic Average Range

Age at puberty, 5 to 12 months

Length of estrus cycle, days 17 13-19

Duration of estrus, hours 30 18-48

Timing of ovulation 20-30 hours after start of estrus

Gestation, days 146-147 138-149

Pre-Breeding

Prior to breeding, ewes should be evaluated for their need for anthelmintic treatment. They should
have their hooves trimmed. If there is a history or risk of abortions in the flock, ewes should be
vaccinated prior to breeding. It goes without saying that only healthy, reproductively sound ewes
should be exposed to rams for breeding.

The udder of every ewe should be examined. Those with hard lumps, abscesses, or unresolved
should be culled. Ewes that prolapsed should not be kept for breeding, because there is a high
probability for reoccurance. Ewes that did not raise a lamb should be culled. Ewes that are in poor
body condition due to age and/or missing teeth should be culled. Ewes with chronic hoof problems
(e.g. foot rot) should be culled.

Gestation (pregnancy)

The average gestation length in sheep varies from 142 to 152 days. The average is 147 days.
Individual pregnancies may vary from 138 to 159 days. There are breed differences in gestation
length. The earlier maturing breeds (e.g. Finnsheep) tend to have shorter pregnancies than the late
maturing breeds (e.g. Rambouillet). Ewes carrying multiple births tend to have shorter gestations. Male
lambs and heavy birth weight lambs are usually carried longer than female lambs.

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The period of early gestation most critical to success during the lambing season is the first 30 days
after fertilization. The first 21 to 30 days after breeding is when embryonic implantation occurs. This
first 30 days is when most embryonic mortality occurs. Thus, anything that can be done to reduce
embryonic mortality and should result in more lambs born.

Shearing, vaccinating, working ewes, pronounced changes in feeding practices should be avoided
during the first 30 days of gestation. Ultrasonic pregnancy scanning can be done on ewes from 35 to
60 days after breeding, depending on equipment used and operator skill. Nutrition during early
gestation is quite simple. Ewes need only slightly above maintenance levels of nutrition for the first 15
weeks of pregnancy.
Late gestation (last 4 to 6 weeks) is a critical period for ewe reproduction. This is when the majority of
fetal growth is occurring, placing increasing nutritional demands on the ewe. Ewes consuming
inadequate diets are prone to pregnancy toxemia and milk fever. Nutrition in late-pregnancy affects the
size and vigor of lambs and the milk producing ability of the ewe.
Parturition (lambing)

There are three stages to parturition (lambing): 1) dilation of the cervix; 2) expulsion of the fetus(es);
and 3) expulsion of the placenta. Stage one usually takes 3 to 4 hours. The birth of a lamb usually
occurs within an hour of less from the rupture of the first water bag. A ewe lambing for the first time or
with multiple births may take longer.

If labor takes over an hour for mature ewes and over 2 hours for ewe lambs, assistance may be
required. The placenta is passed 2 to 3 hours after delivery is finished. In multiple births, there are
separate afterbirths for each lamb. After the lamb is born, the ewe will lick and nuzzle it to begin the
bonding process.

Breeding Ewe Lambs

Ewe lambs should not be bred until they achieve approximately 70 percent of their mature size
(weight). At the same time, care should be taken not to overfeed replacement ewe lambs. Research
has shown that overfeeding pre-pubertal females (2 to 4 months of age) has a detrimental effect on
mammary development (they deposit excess fat in their udders) and affects subsequent milk
producing ability. Replacement ewe lambs should be fed separately than market lambs or ram lambs
being fed for market.
Pregnant and lactating ewe lambs should be kept separate from mature ewes. Ewe lambs require
extra nutrition because they are still growing. They will not compete well at the feed bunk with mature
ewes and will not gain weight properly. Ewe lambs that are forced to run with the ewe flock will lose
weight in late gestation and lactation.

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Single-births are common with ewes lambs, but twins and triplets are not uncommon with the more
prolific breeds. Even when management and nutrition are practices, more lambing problems will be
encountered with ewes lambing for the first time at 12 to 14 months of age.
While breeding ewe lambs increases their lifetime productivity, it may not be economically
advantageous for all producers. Intensively managed sheep operations usually benefit from breeding
ewe lambs.

Minimum weight to breed ewe lambs

Avg. mature weight of ewes Minimum weight to breed

in flock ewe lamb

Lb. Kg Lb. Kg

90 41 63 29

100 45 70 32

120 55 84 38

140 64 98 45

160 73 112 51

180 82 126 57

200 91 140 64

220 100 154 70

240 109 168 76

Controlling reproduction in the ewe

When satisfactory results are not obtained under natural breeding conditions, it is possible to artificially
manipulate the reproductive cycle of sheep.

Hormonal control

A common method of inducing estrus in non-cycling ewes is progesterone-based therapies.

Progesterone prevents the ewe from returning to estrus and ovulating. It is produced by the corpus
luteum (CL) of the ovary following ovulation and sustains pregnancy. When progesterones are
introduced artificially, they fool the body into thinking it is pregnant and the animal will not ovulate or
come into estrous (heat).

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When the progesterone source is totally removed, the body realizes it is no longer pregnant and will
ovulate within a very predictable period. Progestins refer to the synthetic compounds with the
properties of progesterone. These substances mimic the function of the CL. Progestogens (synthetic
analogs of progesterone) can be provided by feeding (MGA), implants under the skin (Synchro-Mate
B®), sponges (or pessaries) inserted into the vagina, or plastic delivery devices inserted into the
vagina (CIDR).
Intravaginal sponges (or pessaries) have been the traditional method of inducing and/or synchronizing
estrus in ewes. They contain progestagens that are effective at lower doses than natural progesterone.
Two types of sponges are Chronogest (FGA) and Veramix® (MAP).

Intravaginal sponges are usually inserted over periods of 9 to 19 days and are used in conjunction with
PMSG, injected at the time of sponge removal or 48 hours prior to sponge removal. Intravaginal
sponges have high retention rates (>90%) and females usually exhibit estrus 24 to 48 hours after
removal. Responses to intravaginal sponges have varied according to breed, protocol, co-treatment,
management, and mating system.
CIDR™ (controlled internal drug release) devices are made of progesterone-impregnated medical
silicone elastomers and were developed in New Zealand. Protocols for the use of CIDR™ devices is
usually identical to protocols for intravaginal sponges. Research has shown that CIDR™ devices and
intravaginal sponges yield similar results. CIDR™ devices were recenty approved for use in sheep in
the U.S.
Synchro-mate-B® is a cattle implant that contains 6 mg of the synthetic progestagen norgestomet.
One-third or one-half of the Synchro-mate-B® implant is typically used in ewes. Implantation periods
range from 9 to 14 days. Two days before the end of the implantation period, injections of PMSG and
/or PGF2a are usually given.
Melengesterol acetate (MGA®) is an orally active, synthetic progestagen developed and used to
suppress estrus in feed lot heifers. The use of this product requires the feeding of a supplement
containing MGA® once or twice daily for a duration of 8 to 14 days. Protocols usually include co-
treatments with PMSG, P.G. 600® or Ralgro® (zeranol).

Ralgro® is a commercially available growth promotant for cattle and sheep with estrogen-like effects
on LH and FSH concentrations. P.G. 600® is the only veterinary grade source of PMSG readily
available in the U.S. Estrus responses to MGA feeding vary, but are usually higher with co-treatment.
Prostaglandin
Prostaglandin-based protocols are only applicable to cycling ewes and are restricted to use during the
breeding season. The two commonly used products are Lutalyse™(PGF2a) and Estrumate®
(cloprostenol). Prostaglandins cause regression of the CL, telling the body than no pregnancy exists.
The ewe will ovulate within a very predictable time.

When a single treatment of prostaglandin is given to a flock of cycling ewes, 60 to 70 percent of the

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flock will exhibit a synchronized estrus beginning 30 to 48 hours later. A double injection system (11
days apart) is most common in sheep.
Melatonin
Melatonin treatments have been shown to be an effective method of inducing estrus in non-cycling
ewes. Melatonin is called the "hormone of darkness," because it is released by the pineal gland during
the night. Treatment with melatonin therefore mimics the short days of fall and induces estrus after a
minimum of approximately 35 days of treatment.
It is important to note that most of the pharmacological treatments described above have been
approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in sheep, though they may be available to
producers in other countries.
Light Control
Controlled lighting can be used to initiate estrus. Short-day breeders like sheep may be programmed
to cycle if they are maintained in a light-tight building where the photoperiod is reduced gradually over
an 8 to 12 week period. Rams should be exposed to the same light regiment to obtain high fertility.
Light control is usually impractical for most producers.

The "ram effect"

The "ram effect" is when non-cycling ewes are stimulated to ovulate by the sudden introduction of a
ram or "teaser." Rams produce a chemical substance called a pheromone, the smell of which
stimulates the onset of estrus. When ewes and rams are in constant contact (sight or smell), the
pheromones are much less effective at inducing estrus.

Ewes that are not cycling when a ram (or teaser) is introduced will ovulate in 3 to 4 days. This first
ovulation will be a "silent" heat, which cannot be detected by the ram. Following this silent heat, there
will be two normal estrus peaks, with some ewes cycling around day 18 and the remainder around day
25.

Ewes that do not conceive at either of these times may return to heat in another 17 days. It is expected
that 60 to 70 percent of the ewes will conceive at the first normal estrus. Of the remaining ewes, 60 to
70 percent should conceive at the second estrus.
Although recommendations vary, rams should be isolated from ewes for at least 6 weeks in order for
the ram effect to work. Ewes must have no contact with rams by either sight or smell, which means
that they must be separated by distance.

The ram effect is not as effective with ewe lambs. The ram effect is most effective during the
transitional period when ewes have not begun to cycle, but are almost ready to. Breed of ram can
affect ewes' response to the ram effect, with the less-seasonal breeds being more effective at bringing
non-cycling ewes into estrus.

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The great value of the ram effect is the synchronization of estrus activity which will result in large
numbers of ewes ovulating, conceiving, and lambing in a relatively short period of time. To be
effective, it is important to have adequate numbers of young, healthy rams. Teaser (vasectomized)
rams or testosterone-treated wethers can also stimulate the ram effect.
Selection
Selection is another method to obtain early lambing flocks, but it requires a long term commitment.
Heritability is generally thought to be less than 10 percent. Researchers at Virginia Tech were able to
decrease the seasonal anestrus to 11 days in a crossbred flock of 1/2 Dorset x 1/4 Rambouillet x 1/4
Finnsheep by selecting for spring fertility.

Artificial insemination (AI)

Artificial insemination is possible in sheep, but not common in the United States. This is because the
ewe has a very complicated cervix which makes trans-cervical A.I. as is done with cattle, swine, and
goats more difficult. As compared to other livestock, the ewe shows few visible signs of heat (estrus).
Breed improvement in the sheep industry has been much slower to develop and the industry lacks a
means to identify superior genetics.
There are four methods of artificially inseminating a ewe: vaginal, cervical, trans-cervical, and
intrauternine.
Vaginal AI
Vaginal is the simplest form of insemination and involves depositing fresh semen into the anterior
vagina without any attempt to locate the cervix. Reported success rates are highly variable and this
method is unsuitable for use with frozen semen.
Cervical AI
Cervical is another cheap and relatively easy method of insemination. The cervix is located, via a
speculum fitted with a light source, and the semen is deposited into the first fold of the cervix.
Conception rates with fresh or chilled semen are good, but generally unacceptably low with frozen,
thawed semen.
Trans-cervical AI
The trans-cervical method of insemination involves grasping the cervix and retracting it into the vagina
with a pair of forceps to allow an inseminating instrument to be introduced into the cervical canal. The
University of Guelph (Canada) has developed an instrument with a special bent tip that allows
passage through the cervix.
Laparoscopic AI
Laparoscopic AI, also known as intrauterine, by-passes the cervix and deposits semen directly into the
uterine horns. In 1982, Australian researchers developed the laparoscopic insemination (LAI)
procedure that revolutionized the sheep AI technique. LAI is a minimally invasive, minor surgical
procedure that requires veterinary expertise.

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The technique utilizes an endoscope, a special telescope with a fiberoptic light, which permits the
technician to view the ewe’s reproductive tract. The semen is injected directly into the lumen of the
uterus, and the same procedure is repeated on the other uterine horn. The procedure takes 2 to 5
minutes per ewe. After the procedure is over, the ewe normally starts eating within minutes.
Conception rates range from 50 to 80 percent with laparoscopic AI.
Embryo Transfer (ET)

Embryo transfer is a technique whereby embryos are harvested from the ewe's reproductive tract
before they have attached to the uterus. This technique allows the production of a greater number of
offspring from a given female, the "donor", without requiring her to carry all the offspring. For sheep,
the embryo transfer technique most often used is a surgical procedure, both for collecting the embryos
and for transferring them into the recipients.

Reproduction in the ram

The testes develop inside the abdomen and then as the lamb matures they descend into the scrotum.
The testes have two main functions - to produce sperm and to secrete the male sex hormone,
testosterone. It is testosterone that is responsible for male animals developing their particular
characteristics. These characteristics are often called secondary sexual characteristics. A male sheep
that has had his testes removed (castrated) is called a wether.
testes – plural; testis – singular
Each testis contains seminiferous (sperm-producing) tubules. The testes of a ram can produce up to 5
x 1010 sperm per week. In between the seminiferous tubules are the cells of Leydig which produce
testosterone.
The scrotum is the skin covered pouch which contains and supports the testes. Its main function is to
keep the temperature of the testes at several degrees below that of the body. Body temperature is too
high for normal sperm form. In order to keep temperature relatively constant the skin of the scrotum
can contract and relax.

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The scrotum draws the testes up close to the body during cold conditions and allows the testes to
descend further during warmer conditions. The ram scrotum also has large numbers of sweat glands
which help with cooling at high temperatures.
The epididymis consists of three parts - a head, body and tail. The sperm produced by the testes is
stored and matured in the epididymis. A ram epididymis may contain 1 x 1011 sperm. It takes about
seven weeks in the epididymis for sperm to mature properly (immature sperm are not able to fertilise
ova). Water is absorbed through the walls of the epididymis to concentrate the sperm. The sperm pass
into the vas deferens which is a tube that joins each epididymis to the urethra and the penis.
At ejaculation, secretions from the accessory sex glands (the ampulla, the prostate, the seminal
vesicles and the bulbo-urethral or Cowper's glands) are released into the urethra and mix with the
sperm to form the semen. Each ram ejaculation contains between 1.5 - 5 x 109 sperm.
The bladder and the vas deferens connect to the urethra. The urethra is a tube that carries semen and
urine through the penis to the outside.
The penis of the ram is usually hidden inside his body. When a ram is sexually excited, his penis fills
with blood and retractor muscles relax. An ‘S’ shaped bend in the penis straightens out and this allows
it to protrude from a flap of protective skin (the prepuce) to the outside for mating.
In rams the urethra extends a little past the end of the penis. This moves about in a spinning motion
during ejaculation and sprays semen around the inside of the vagina of the ewe.

Puberty

Puberty is the age at which the ram's reproductive organs become functional, his secondary sex
characteristics develop, and he is ready to successfully mate ewes. Most ram lambs reach puberty
between 5 and 7 months of age, at 50 to 60 percent of their mature weight.
The onset of puberty is affected by breed, genetics, and nutrition. Ram lambs on a low plane of
nutrition may not reach puberty until they are 12 months of age or older. Some breeds reach puberty
earlier than other breeds: prolific breeds and hair sheep. Meat breeds tend to reach puberty earlier
than wool breeds.

Spermatogenesis

Sperm is the male reproductive cell. Sperm production takes about 49 days (7 weeks) in rams.
Testicle size is a good indication of a ram's sperm-producing ability. Palpation of the epididymis is a
useful guide for determining sperm reserves. A large, firm tail is indicative of good reserves whereas a
small, soft tail would indicate the opposite.

Nutrition can have a dramatic effect on testicle size. Research has shown that improving nutritional
intake during the two-month period before breeding can increase testicle size and subsequent sperm

66
production up to 100 percent. At the same time, overfeeding can have a detrimental effect on sperm
production.
For normal sperm production to occur, the testes have to be at a temperature several degrees below
normal body temperature. The ram has large sweat glands in the skin of the scrotum and a system of
muscles that raise or lower the testes into the body for temperature regulation.
Semen standards for rams

Percent motility 30-70

% normal morphology 30-50

White blood cells >5

Brucella ovis Negative

Source: Sheep Production Handbook (2002)

Seasonal Effects on Reproduction

Sheep native to temperate climates are usually quite seasonal in their breeding habits, though rams
are less affected than ewes. A ram's testicular size, sperm production, and mating capacity will vary
according to the season of the year, being highest during the normal fall breeding season.

Some breeds are much less seasonal in their breeding behavior: Dorset, Rambouillet, Merino,
Polypay, Finnsheep, Romanov, and hair sheep. Temperature is also a seasonal component affecting
fertility in the ram. As little as a half degree change in body temperature may reduce spermatogenesis
and/or libido.
Mating

A ewe in heat (estrus) will generally seek out the ram. She will sniff and chase after him. The ram
responds to urination by the estrus ewe by sniffing, extending the leg, and curling his lip. Curling the lip
is called the "flehmen response." If the female is receptive, she will stand for mating. The ram may fail
in several initial attempts to mount the ewe. He may repeatedly mate the same ewe. Rams will tend to
select older ewes over younger ewes and sometimes will choose ewes of their own breed over ewes
of another breed.
Some producers prefer to use one ram per group of ewes. If more than one ram is used, the older
ram(s) will usually dominate the younger ram(s) and may prevent the less dominant ram(s) from
breeding. The rams may fight at the expense of mating ewes. It will be more difficult to detect infertile
rams or male-oriented rams in multi-sire situations. In large flocks, multi-sire matings are usually
necessary. On the other hand, single-sire matings run the risk of low conception rates or an extended
lambing season if a ram with reduced fertility or libido is used.

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Breeding Soundness Exam

Preparing a ram for breeding should start well in advance of the breeding season. Never wait until the
last minute to purchase or select rams or check their readiness for breeding. Rams should be
purchased at least several months before the start of the breeding season.
The purpose of a breeding soundness exam (BSE) is to evaluate a ram's potential breeding ability. A
low percentage of rams are sterile, but many rams have reduced fertility. Research has shown that 10
to 15 percent of rams that are given a BSE fail or have questionable fertility. A BSE should be
conducted by a veterinarian or trained technician. The exam consists of two parts: a physical
examination and a semen evaluation.
Rams should be evaluated for lameness, body condition, and any other physical defects which would
interfere with the breeding process. Rams need to be free from footrot or foot scald, and if necessary
have their hooves trimmed. The general health of the ram should be evaluated by observing his eyes,
feet, legs, prepuce, and penis for any defects that would interfere with breeding.

The testes and epididimides should be palpated. A testicle that has scar tissue or is abnormally small
will reduce the breeding capacity and endurance of the ram. Swelling of the epididymis could be an
early indication of epididymitis (Brucella ovis).

Scrotal circumference

Scrotal circumference (width of the testicles at the widest point) should be measured as it gives a good
indication of a ram's breeding ability. Sperm production is directly correlated to testicular width. Scrotal
circumference will vary with season and body condition, but should be at its maximum peak during the
fall breeding season.

Ram lambs with a scrotal circumference of less than 30 centimeters and adult rams with a scrotal
circumference of less than 32 centimeters should probably not be used for breeding. There is some
evidence to suggest that rams with larger testicles will sire more prolific ewes.

Scrotal circumference (cm)

Questionable Satisfactory Exceptional

Ram lambs, 8-14 months < 30 30-36 >36

Mature rams, > 14 months < 32 32-40 >40

Source: Sheep Production Handbook, 2002

Semen samples can be collected using electro-ejaculation or via an artificial vagina. Usually veterinary
assistance is required to collect semen. Semen should be evaluated for sperm motility, morphology,
and white blood cells. The minimum acceptable standards are fair gross motility or 30 percent
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individual motility and 70 percent normal morphology. White blood cells in the semen are an indication
of infection (e.g. epididymitis).
A BSE does not include an evaluation of a ram's sex drive or breeding behavior.

Libido (sex drive)

The willingness to breed ewes is highly variable among rams and can have a major impact on sheep
production, especially in a single-sire mating scheme. Libido is a ram's desire to mate. It is regulated
by the release of testosterone, produced by specialized cells in the testes.
Some breeds of rams show libido almost continuously once they reach puberty. In other breeds, there
is a marked decline in libido during the non-breeding season. Underfed and overfat rams may show
reduced libido. A ram's desire to mate also decreases with age and disease conditions, such as
arthritis.
Some rams have inheritantly poor libido. In fact, studies have shown that up to 15 percent (average of
8 to 10 percent) of rams are homosexual and will not mate with ewes. Unlike heterosexual males,
male-oriented rams do not experience an LH surge when exposed to estrus ewes. They also have a
reduced capacity for producing testosterone.

Animal scientists are hoping to develop a blood test which would identify rams that will not mate with
ewes. There is some evidence to suggest that rearing rams in an all-male environment may have a
detrimental effect on mating behavior.
A "serving capacity test" can be conducted to determine a ram's desire to mate ewes. In a serving
capacity test, rams are exposed to estrus ewes, and their breeding activity is recorded over a period of
two weeks or more. Research has shown that a serving capacity test is useful for identifying low and
high-performing rams.

Ram serving capacity may be affected in utero by number and sex of siblings. Rams born as co-twins
were shown to have the highest serving capacity and single born rams the lowest. In another study,
long-term selection for reproductive rate in ewes did not affect mating behavior in male offspring.
However, serving capacity or breeding behavior is a heritable trait.
The simplest way for a producer to evaluate mating behavior is by observing breeding performance as
rams are exposed to ewes. The use of rattle paint (on the brisket) or a marking harness can be used to
monitor breeding activity. The color of the paint or marking crayon should be changed every 17 days,
starting with the lightest color first.
If a ram fails to mark ewes, he could lack the desire to mate and should be replaced. If a high
percentage of ewes re-mark after the first 17 day heat cycle, this means the ram is mating the ewes
but they are not becoming pregnant. When it's more than a few ewes, it is likely the result of a sub-
fertile or sterile ram.

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Ram Management

A ram may lose up to 15 percent of his body weight during the breeding season. Consequently, rams
need to be in good body condition at the time of breeding (condition score 3 to 4). Thin rams (condition
score 1 or 2) may have difficulty getting the ewes bred, while fat (condition score 5) rams may be too
lazy to breed, and their fertility may be affected during periods of hot weather.

Rams should be sheared, treated for internal parasites (if necessary), have their feet trimmed, and be
started on the diet that they will be consuming during breeding 2 to 4 weeks prior to Ram lambs
A ram lamb at 5 months of age will settle some ewes, but he will be a better breeder by the time he is
7 or 8 months of age. As a general rule of thumb, ram lambs should be 50 to 60 percent of their
mature weight before being used for breeding. A well-grown ram lamb should be able to mate 15 to 30
ewes in a 34 day breeding season.

Ram lambs should be fed separately from mature rams. Ram lambs and mature rams should never be
run together in the same breeding group. The older ram(s) will dominate dominate and may injure the
younger ram(s). Ram lambs should be observed closely to monitor their breeding behavior and libido
to ensure they are servicing and settling ewes.

Causes of Ram Infertility

There can be many causes of infertility or reduced fertility in rams: e.g. poor semen quality, poor libido,
physical defects, disease, poor nutrition, injury, heat stress, body condition, and age.
Heat stress
If the temperature in the testes cannot be kept low enough, due to hot weather (e.g. over 90°F for long
periods of time or short spells of very high temperature, 100°F or more), the production of viable sperm
may be affected. Fully developed sperm are less affected by heat stress than sperm in the developing
stages.
The prevent heat stress, rams should not have a full fleece during the breeding season. They should
be sheared 6 to 8 weeks prior to breeding. The scrotal sack should be free from wool. Adequate shade
and water should be provided during the breeding season. In extreme circumstances, rams can be
housed during the hottest part of the day and put out for breeding during the cooler parts of the day
Epididymitis
Epididymitis due to Brucella ovis is a common cause of ram infertility, especially in rams in the western
United States. The disease usually affects the tail of the epididymis (the bump at the bottom of the
testicle) which becomes hardened and swollen. Transmission is from ram-to-ewe or ram-to-ram.
Infected rams usually produce semen of lower quality, making them either sub-fertile or sterile,
depending on the site and severity of the lesions.

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Epididymitis can be diagnosed by scrotal palpation, blood test, or semen evaluation. There is a
commercial vaccine for epididymitis. Its use is recommended if the risk of epididymitis is high.
Pizzle rot
Pizzle (or sheath) rot is an infection in the sheath area and could affect breeding activity. Pizzle rot is
caused a bacteria, Corynebacterium renale (or one from that group). The other factor is high protein
diets (>16 percent crude protein). Ammonia, produced by excess urea in the ram's urine can cause
severe irritation and ulceration of the skin around the preputial opening. The debris from the ulcer form
a crust which may block the opening to the prepuce.
Cryptorchidism
Cryptorchidism is the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum. Cryptorchids are
undesirable breeding animals. If both testicles are affected, the ram is infertile. If only one testical is
affected, the ram may be fertile, but he will pass the trait onto his offspring.
Rams usually reach their peak breeding performance when they are 3 to 4 years old. In commercial
situations, they are usually culled by the time they are 6 years old. Older rams can be used to hand
mate a small number of ewes.

Sheep care and management

Pregnant, Parturient and Lactating Ewes
Careful management of the pregnant, parturient and lactating ewes will have a marked influence on
the percentage of lambs dropped and reared successfully. So, the following steps may be taken to
afford proper attention to these animals.

Do not handle the pregnant ewes too frequently.

Separate the advanced pregnant ewes from the main flock and take effective care in their feeding and
management.
Extra feed during the later part of pregnancy (3-4 weeks before parturition) will be beneficial for the
condition of the pre-parturient ewes which will help in improving milk production of ewes, birth weight
and growth of lambs.
Inadequate and poor nutrition may result in pregnancy, toxaemia, abortions and premature births of
weak lambs.
Bring lambing ewes into lambing corals 4-6 days before parturition and provide maximum comfort. If
possible, provide soft, clean bedding and individual lambing pens.
Watch gestation length, which ranges from 142 to over 150 days. Early maturing breeds have slightly
shorter gestation period.
Save parturient ewes from cold and chilly weather.
Care at Lambing / Parturition
An ewe about to lamb prefers to leave the flock. Ewe is often restless, the udder is often distended and
external genital are in a flushed and flaccid condition. Generally in a healthy ewe parturition is normal.
Still the following precautions may be taken during and after parturition

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Care of Lambs
The lamb should be taken care of the maximum extent during early period of life. This will also ensure
better survival. The following steps may be taken for ensuring better growth and survival.

Ensure proper suckling of lambs. Examine udders for blindness of teats or mastitis.
Take care of indifferent mothers and arrange suckling of lambs by restraining such type of ewes.
Provide creep feed (good quality hay with or without concentrate mixture) to suckling lambs in addition
to suckling of milk from tenth day to weaning age.
If possible, make available green leguminous fodder or fresh tree leaves to lambs to nibble during
suckling period.
Lambs may be ear-tagged or tattooed on the ear for identification (tattooing forceps and ear-tagging
forceps should also be cleaned and sterilized at the time of use). Tail docking and castration may also
be done in first week or so by placing elastrator (strong rubber band) at the intervertebral space and
not on the vertebra.
Alternatively use sterilized and clean knife for castration and docking and resort to proper ligation and
antiseptic dressing at the roof of scrotum with testicles before it.
During castration keep the lambs on perfectly dry, clean and hygienic site so as to minimize the risks
of losses from tetanus.
Weaning and Care of Weaners
The management of weaners plays an important part in good sheep husbandry. The following steps
are important in proper care and management of weaners.

Weaning should preferably be done at 90 days, although in breeds with low milk production or where
re-breeding is desired it can be done around 60 days.
Supplementary feeding and good clean pastures for growing weaners should be provided.
Weaned lambs should be drenched against gastro-intestinal parasites by first month; and vaccinated
against enterotoxaemia and sheep-pox.
Weaners should not be grazed on poor burry and thorny types of pasture since it could cause skin
irritation, injury to the eyes and damage to wool.
They should be protected against vagaries of climates and predation.

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73
Diseases of sheep
Purpose : Identification of animals in the early stages of sickness can aid the farm manager in
restricting the spread of disease in the flock and initiating treatment at the earliest.
A. Spotting of sick animals
Parameter Healthy animal Sick animal Sheep
1. Look of animal Alert Dull
2. Head Raised Bent downwards
3. Eyes Wide open, bright Dull with white deposition at the corners
4. Conjunctivalm.m. Normal Pale or congested
5. Nose No discharge Slimy discharge
6. Movement Active Sluggish, lameness
7. Response Quick Slow
8. Feces Normal Hard / loose, mucus/blood-stained, discolouration, dysentry
9. Pulse (/min) 70-90 70-90 Increased
10. Body temperature (oF) 102.4 103.8 Increased
11. Respiration (/min) 12-30 12-30 Increased, difficult
12. Grazing Normal Abnormal
13. Rumination Regular Irregular
14. Feed and water intake Normal Reduced
15. Udder Normal May be swollen
16. Skin Healthy Infected, external parasites
B. Sample collection Samples include blood (microbiology, immunology, hematology, protozoan
parasites), feces (endoparasites and enteric pathogens), urine (urinary tract infections), skin scraping
(ectoparasites), ruminal fluid (ruminal dysfunction), vaginal discharge (reproductive tract infections)
C. Administration of medicines Routes include oral (drenching/feeding bolus), parenteral (intra-
muscular, intra-venous, intraperitoneal, sub-cutaneous) and topical.

COMMON DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL

Morbidity and mortality are the two important factors resulting in heavy losses in sheep production and
improvement programmes. Prevention is always better than cure as it is a lot cheaper. This has
special significance with sheep as they seem to respond less to treatment when sick than other
livestock species. Diseases in sheep can be broadly classified as non-infectious and infectious.
a) Non-infectious diseases Approximately 80% of deaths in lambs have been estimated due to
non-infectious causes. Starvation, primarily from mismothering and behaviour, nutritional and
environmental stress, reproductive problems and predation are the major causes reported. (1)
Pneumonia It is one of the most common and important pathological conditions in sheep. It is
characterized clinically by increased respiration, coughing and abdominal breathing. A toll of 20-40%
of the mortality has been reported at organized sheep farms due to pneumonia of bacterial or viral
origin. Another type of pneumonia is “aspiration” or “drenching” pneumonia caused to wrong and
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forceful drenching operations. If some fluid has erroneously entered the animal’s respiratory tract, its
head should be lowered immediately and slapped a few times. (2) Ruminaltympany (Bloat) It is
the over-distension of the left flank either due to free gas or froth. This is generally encountered in
“greedy feeders” when lush green pasture is available. Tying a bitter (eg. neem) stick in the mouth as
a bit to increase secretion of saliva is the most practical and can be done immediately. Oral
administration of sweet oil with turpentine oil or at times with formalin is advised.
(3) Rumen acidosis Ingestion of large amounts of highly fermentable carbohydrate feeds causes an
acute illness due to excess production of lactic acid in the rumen. Clinically, the disease is manifested
by dehydration, blindness, recumbency, complete rumen stasis and a high mortality rate. Normal
saline, sodium bicarbonate and antihistaminics are advised.
(4) Intussusception It occurs commonly due to nodular worms, change in feed and local intestinal
problems. The animal is dull, off-feed, kicking at the belly with no rise of temperature, frequent
straining with no defaecation, colic symptoms, and at later stages, recumbency. Emergency surgery is
the only rational treatment.
(5) Deficiency diseases Young sheep grazing on drought-stricken pastures can suffer serious
depletion of reserves of minerals and vitamins.
1. Copper and Cobalt : Characterized by anorexia and wasting. Growth and wool production are
severely retarded. Wool may be tender or broken. Fine wool becomes limp and glossy and loses
crimp, developing straight, steely appearance. Anemia, diarrhoea and unthriftiness occur in extreme
cases. Copper or cobalt sulphate treatment causes rapid disappearance of the symptoms.
2.Calcium, Phosphorous &Vit. D : The daily requirement of Ca, P &Vit. D for an adult sheep is about
2.5 gm, 1.5 gm and 300-500 units, respectively. Deficiency may result in rickets in lambs and
osteomalacia in adults. Mineral supplementation in diet is essential to prevent this deficiency.
3 Vitamin A :Vit. A deficiency occurs in sheep on dry countryside during periods of drought.
Symptoms include night blindness, corneal keratinization, ptyriasis, hoof defects, loss of weight and
infertility. Congenital defects are common in the offspring of deficient dams. Animals should have
access to green pasture and should be supplied with Vit. A in feed to prevent deficiency.
(6) Pregnancy toxaemia (Ketosis) It is a highly fatal disease caused due to a decline in the plane of
nutrition and short periods of starvation (40 hrs) during the last two months of pregnancy.
Hypoglycaemia and hyperketonemia are the primary metabolic disturbances. It is primarily a disease
of intensive farming systems. Symptoms include separation from the flock, apparent blindness,
constipation, grinding of teeth, drowsiness, tremors of the head, twitching of lips, in-coordination,
ketonic breath, leading to coma and death. Treatment comprises intravenous administration of 50%
glucose. Supply of molasses in the ration and provision of additional concentrate in the last two
months of pregnancy helps prevent the condition.

(7) Poisoning
1. Organochlorinecompounds : This group includes DDT, BHC, lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane,
toxaphane, methocychlor etc. which are used as pesticides on crops and as ectoparasiticides on

75
sheep. Toxicity symptoms include increased excitability and irritability followed by muscle tremors,
weakness, paralysis etc. Treatment consists of administering antidote, usually short-acting
barbiturates.
2. Organophosporouscompounds : This group consists of malathion, darathion, chlorathion,
carbophenothion, demton, dasnon, dimethylparathion, trichlorphon, dioxalthion etc. Symptoms of
toxicity are profuse salivation, muscle stiffness, dyspnoea with open mouth breathing, tremors.
Treatment consists of administering antidote, usually atropine sulphate. 3. Snake bite : Sheep are
usually bitten on the scrotum or udder. The presence of hair may obscure the typical fang marks.
Prolonged pain, muscular weakness, impaired vision, nausea and paralysis are generally exhibited
along with symptoms of shock. If anti-venin is not available and the bite is located in an area where a
tourniquet cannot be applied, excision of an area of skin and sub-cutaneous tissue can be life-saving.
(8) Wounds During the monsoon season, a large number of animals suffer from wounds at various
sites esp. around the ear, sternum and fore- and hind-legs. The main reason seems to be the awns of
Aristidia andHeteropogon species of grasses, which initially break the continuity of the skin, which is
then attacked by flies making the wound infected and maggoty. It causes great stress in young lambs,
and may also lead to conjunctivitis, corneal opacity and blindness. (9) Dystokia The common causes
are insufficient opening of the cervical canal, heavy lambs (esp. crossbreds), abnormal fetal position
and uterine torsion. The condition can be relieved surgically.

b) Infectious diseases

(1) Blackleg It is an acute, infectious disease caused by Clostridium chauvoei and characterized by
inflammation of muscles, severe toxaemia and high mortality (approaching 100%). All age groups are
susceptible. Increased protein feeding of sheep increases their susceptibility. The spores are highly
resistant to the environment and the portal of entry is through the alimentary mucosa. Infection in
sheep generally takes place through skin wounds following shearing and docking. Symptoms include
high fever, anorexia, discolouration of skin, crepitation and depression. Penicillin is the drug o choice
for treatment.
(2)Enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) It is an acute disease of sheep of all ages, but primarily of lambs.
It affects animals in a high state of nutrition on a lush feed, grass or grain. Morbidity rates seldom
exceed 10% but mortality rate approximates 100%. It is caused by Clostridium perfringens type D
which normally inhabits the alimentary tract of sheep. Under certain conditions, the organism
proliferated rapidly in the intestines and produces lethal quantity of toxin. In lambs, the course of
illness is very short, often less than 2 hours and never more than 12 hours, and many are found dead
without manifesting early signs. Symptoms include green, pasty diarrhea, staggering, recumbency,
opisthotonus, and acute, clonic convulsions with frothing at the mouth. A history of sudden death of
several big lambs justifies a tentative diagnosis of enterotoxaemia. Suphadimidine may be effective for
treatment. Two major control measures include reduction in the feed intake and vaccination. Infection

76
with Cl. Perfringens type B (lamb dysentery) and type C (struck, hemorrhagic enterotoxaemia) result in
severe enteritis with diarrhea and dysentery in lambs.
(3) Tetanus It is an acute, infectious disease manifested by tonic convulsions of the voluntary
muscles. In sheep, it commonly follows routine operations such as shearing, docking, castration and
even vaccination.Clostridiumtetani form spores which are capable of persisting in soil for a number of
years. The portal of entry is usually through deep, puncture wounds. Symptoms include stiffness of
limbs, lock jaw, opisthotonus, followed by death due to asphyxiation. Tetanus antitoxin is usually
administered but is of little value when the signs have appeared. (4)Pasteurellosis It is primarily
caused by Pasteurellahaemolytica in sheep and usually occurs in pneumonic form, although a
septicaemic form is not uncommon in lambs. Morbidity and mortality rates may be as high as 40%.
Transmission occurs by the inhalation or ingestion of the infected material. Symptoms include pyrexia,
mucopurulent discharge from the eyes and nose, coughing, depression and anorexia. Preventive
vaccination is recommended, after which the animals should not be sent out for grazing for 2-3 days.
(5)Paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease) It is a chronic, wasting disease caused by
Mycobacteirumparatuberculosis and characterized by progressive emaciation and a thickening and
corrugation of the intestinal wall. Mortality rate may be as high as 10%. The disease causes severe
economic losses in infected flocks. As the progress of the disease is slow, it is mostly seen in older
animals. No treatment is successful.
(6)Sheep pox It is a highly contagious viral disease characterized by development of vesicles and
pustules on the skin and internal lesions. Spread may be by contact with infected animals and
contaminated articles, or by inhalation. It often causes death in 50% of affected animals. Infection of
the pustules by secondary organisms may cause pyrexia and other complications. The course of the
disease is 3-4 weeks, during which time the sheep becomes emaciated and may shed their wool.
Vaccination is the best control.
(7)Foot and mouth disease It is an extremely contagious, acute viral disease characterized by
development of vesicles in the oral cavity and in the interdigital space. Mortality is usually low (3%),
but the economic loss is chiefly due to the loss in condition of the affected animal. Transmission is by
contact with the diseased animal and incubation period is less than 24 hrs. Antibiotics are
recommended to check secondary infections. Vaccination is the best control.
(8)Contagious ecthyma It is a viral disease characterized by the formation of papules and pustules
and the piling up of thick crusts on the lesions. The virus gains entry through unobserved wounds on
the lips. The incubation period is dependant on the amount of virus introduced. The lesions are mostly
found on the commissures of the lips and are covered by scabs. The course of the disease is 1-4
weeks. Antibiotics are recommended to check secondary infections.
(9)Blue tongue It is an infectious but non-contagious, exotic disease of sheep. Natural transmission
takes place through insect vectors viz. Culicoides and Aedes species, and sheepked
Melophagusovinus. Incubation period is less than a week. Pyrexia upto 106oF is the common initial
symptom.. The disease has three clinical forms : abortive, acute and sub-acute. The abortive form
mostly goes unnoticed. In the acute form, there is fever lasting for 5-6 days with nasal discharge,

77
frothing, marked salivation, highly congested and cyanotic nasal and oral mucosa, epithelial
excoriation in the oral cavity and purplish discolouration of the interdigital space, pasterns and
coronets. Symptoms are less severe in the sub-acute from. Morbidity rate may be 50% or more
whereas mortality rates very widely. Antibiotics are recommended to check secondary infections.

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HOUSING FOR SHEEP
Importance of building sheep and goat house:
• Animals do not get sick very often
• You can make sure that only the animals you
want to breed do so
• Make it very easy to feed
• Stop wasting feed
• Save the sheep and goats wasting energy and increase the amount of milk you get
• Keep goat‟s feet dry and clean all the time
HOUSING SITE SELECTION
Due consideration should be given to the following points in site selection for a sheep and goat house
Drainage: The area should be slightly sloped for effective drainage
Wind direction:
Animal houses should be partially or totally protected from the direction of strong wind depending on
the wind intensity of the area.
Climatic factors:Suchas
temperature and rainfall
EnvironmentalFigure 10: Sample floor plan for improved multi-animal housing
factors: Livestock housing should not be placed within 10 meters of springs, rivers/streams or
other water bodies.
HOUSING DESIGN
Having an appropriate design for sheep and goat housing is crucial prior to beginning construction.
Housing design should be practical, cost saving, and protect the health of both animals and people.
Key design features include; the floor plan, floor construction, wall construction, roofing, and other
additional facilities
Floor plan
Housing for goats and sheep should be practical, easy to build, and protect the health of the animals.
Multiple pens can easily be put under one roof. Pens should have easy access to the outside, a place
for water and feed, and be easy to clean. Figure 10 outlines a simple design that gives young animals
access to their mothers, and has easy access for feeding and waste removal.

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Floor design is particularly important in wet climates, where dung and urine on a damp floor make
ideal conditions for the multiplication of disease-causing organisms. In particular, kids and lambs are
very susceptible to pneumonia and it is wise to avoid damp and poorly ventilated houses. Specific floor
plan recommendations are:

House should be raised 50 cm (or just below knee height) from the ground

Ventilation is good and dung and urine drop through the floor, preventing build-up and reducing
risk of disease spreading
Table 1: Size requirements based on production system

Type of Housing Space (m2/animal)

Breeding Young
Breeding Female Male Stock Additional

Permanent confinement
(zero- Exercise yard, feed
1.2 2.0 0.8 racks, watering
grazing) trough

Night housing with day-time

0.8 1.5 0.5
Grazing

Where slatted floors cannot be constructed and concrete or earthen floors are used, it is
important to control temperature of the floor and avoid muddiness

o In such cases, bedding materials may be used. Straw or wood shavings or any material that
can absorb moisture can be used for this purpose

Floor construction

The floor should be sloped, porous or slatted for water drainage. A minimum floor slope of 5%
is recommended; that is, for every 1 m there should be a fall of 5 cm
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 Houses with raised, slatted floors have a number of advantages including keeping the floor
clean and dry

The spaces between slats need to be big enough to allow manure to drop easily, but small
enough to prevent feet from passing through.

o A spacing of 1.5 cm is optimal for adult sheep (slightly narrower for goats). For young lambs,
1.3 cm is enough

Floors may be made from stones or bricks. With all floors, ease of manure removal and
disposal should be given attention

Roof construction

The roof is important as it protects animals against the sun and rain. The under-surface of the roof
should remain cool and watertight. To ensure adequate ventilation, the height of the roof and the
design should be considered.
A high roof encourages air movement but is more likely to be damaged by strong wind

o In some cases a design with a chimney or

roof vent could be useful to assist ventilation and Figure 11: Roof and wall design that encourages
remove ammonia that could easily accumulate good ventilation
outlines one roof/wall design that encourages the
continuous flow of air.
The following materials are used for roof
construction in different locations:
o Iron sheet
o Grass/bushes o Wood
o Stone/brick o Earth
The majority of houses have roofing made of glass

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o
Wall construction

In rural areas, animal housing is commonly built with woven plant materials or the same mud/wattle
human housing is constructed from. These styles are not undesirable as long as they provide
appropriate ventilation to remove heat, moisture and pollutants so that animals stay cool, dry and
clean. Some points to consider before building your animal shelter:
Outer walls protect the animals from external influences while separation walls within the
house prevent mixing among the animals.
Attention needs to be given to construction of pens within the house. Pens serve as a means
of controlling animals and for management purposes, such as controlling breeding.
Areas for lambing/kidding and isolation of sick animals should be included.

ADDITIONAL FACILITIES

Feed trough

Feeding animals on the ground in a confined space encourages disease transmission and feed
waste. Fodder should not be put on the ground for sheep and goats. Instead a feeding rack should
be included in the pen.

Feeding rack for forage/fodder:One meter (3 feet) above the platform with a width of 30 cm
and a depth of 15 cm

o Approximately 30 to 40 cm per animal space is the minimum

Wooden troughs can be created from construction rafters or logs.
Metal troughs can be made from sheet metal or a half-cut barrel )
Water troughs
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Confined goats and sheep should be offered clean water daily. Most smallholder farmers will carry
water to their animals (if confined) 2-3 times per day or trek the animals to a water source twice
daily.

Lactating animals have the highest water needs of any animal. On average,

Goats can be expected to consume 3-7 liters/animal/day and

Sheep 3-5 liters/animal/day.

Water troughs can be made from a variety of supplies. Watertight tins, buckets or bowls can be
adequate.
Any type of watering trough used should be easy to clean and ideally lifted off the floor to prevent
spillage and contamination with feed or fecal matter .
Water troughs can be placed 1 foot above the floor in the feeding area, or o Hung in a 5 liter tin on
the door/wall

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85
FEEDING MANAGEMENT

The feeding and grazing conditions vary from place to place. The most favorable grazing time is
soon after the onset of monsoon till the onset of winter. Grazing resources become extremely
poor during summer months. During this period supplementary feeding should be done. Sheep
generally thrive well on pasture. Attention should be paid on pasture improvement and
management. Rotational grazing should be followed to avoid worm infection and unthriftiness,
and to ensure availability of good pasture all the time. The fodder should be conserved in the
form of hay and silage for the lean period. Fodder trees should be planted in the pasture to
provide shade and fodder during the lean period to the grazing flocks. Supplementary feeding of
concentrate should be done depending upon the physiological status and availability of grazing
resource in the pasture.

Water : Water requirement of sheep very depending upon its physiological status and ambient
temperature in different seasons. The sheep should be watered at least once a day at the rate
of 2-3 litres per head per day. The requirement of water for crossbreds during summer months
will be slightly more and may range between 5-6 litres. The younger ones may require 1-2 litres
of water every day. Sheep breeds in arid regions have good adaptation to water restriction upto
48 hrs. Watering should be done in metallic troughs or cements channels.

The flock should be weighed at least once in a week to the extent of at least 10% prior to being
turned out for grazing. This work may be distributed over the week.

1) Feeding lambs up to two weeks : There is no feed equal to the ewe’s milk for putting
rapid gains on young lamb because dam’s milk yield is closely related to early growth of lamb.
Lambs depend entirely on dam’s milk upto 2 weeks. Colostrum is rich in fat, protein, vitamins
etc. and contains

86
antibodies to protect the lamb from infections. If the ewes are fed good ration during the last six
weeks of gestation, it enhances milk production.

2) Feeding lambs beyond two weeks : The recommended rations are given below:-

Feed ingredients (%) Pre-weaning period Growing period Finisher

ration
(upto 3 months) (3-6 months)

1. Ground maize 65 27 25

2. Groundnut cake 10 35 20

3. Wheat bran 12 35 52

4. Fish meal 10 - -

5. Common salt 1 1 1

6. Min. mix. 2 2 2

Expected growth rate per day (gms) 110-125 100-120 100-120

Rate of feeding/day (approx) :-

Body weight Concentrate (gms) Roughages

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 when leguminous fodder
(kgs) when leguminous fodder is is (kgs)
available not available

1 12-15 50 300 ad lib.

2 15-25 100 400 ad lib.

3 25-35 150 600 ad lib.

3) Feeding suckling ewes : During suckling period, ewes should be fed good milk producing
ration. She should be fed good legume hay or oat hay with little or no grain for a week. After she’s
milking freely and her bowels are functioning normally with no sign of constipation, the amount of
grains may be increased. If pasture is available, hay is not needed. The following rations can be
used :-

Feed ingredients Ration – I Ration – II

1 Grain mixture 400gm 400gm

2 Legume hay 700gm 1400gm

3 Green fodder/silage 1400gm -

4) Feeding adult sheep : Roughage part may be taken care by grazing, but 150 gm of
concentrate (as for suckling ewes) with mineral mixture and salt must be fed. The nutritional
requirements of various categories of sheep are as under :-

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Body wt. Dry matter intake DCP TDN Ca P

(kg) (as % of live wt.) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm)

Growing
lambs

5 4.0 38.0 180 2.4 2.0

10 3.3 33.0 230 2.5 2.2

15 3.3 44.1 320 2.6 2.4

20 3.3 52.8 400 2.8 2.5

25 3.4 59.5 510 2.8 2.6

30 3.3 65.0 550 2.9 2.5

35 3.2 67.2 670 3.0 2.7

40 3.0 66.0 720 3.0 2.7

Ewes – non lactating and in first 15 weeks of pregnancy

20 3.0 27.0 300 2.8 2.2

30 3.0 36.0 450 2.9 2.3

40 2.8 44.8 560 3.0 2.4

50 2.6 52.0 650 3.2 2.5

60 2.5 60.0 750 3.3 2.6

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Ewes – during last 6 weeks of pregnancy

20 5.0 54.0 600 3.8 2.8

30 4.0 58.5 720 3.9 2.9

40 3.7 68.4 760 4.0 3.0

50 3.4 74.8 850 4.2 3.1

60 3.0 81.7 950 4.3 32

Ewes – during last first 10 weeks of lactation

20 5.2 57.8 680 5.8 4.3

30 4.6 69.0 900 5.9 4.4

40 4.3 77.4 1030 6.0 4.5

50 4.0 90.0 1100 6.2 4.6

60 3.6 97.2 1190 6.3 4.7

Ewes – during last 14 weeks of lactation

20 5.0 56.0 600 4.2 3.1

30 4.0 65.0 720 4.3 3.2

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40 3.7 68.4 760 4.4 3.3

50 3.4 76.5 850 4.6 3.4

60 3.2 85.5 950 4.7 3.5

Ram lambs

20 3.6 46.8 470 2.9 2.6

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 30 3.5 63.0 650 2.9 2.6

40 3.5 79.8 840 3.0 2.7

50 3.5 80.5 960 3.0 2.7

60 3.3 79.2 990 3.0 2.7

70 3.0 79.8 1050 3.0 2.7

Fattening lambs

15 5.0 51.8 410 2.6 1.4

20 5.0 70.0 560 2.9 2.6

25 4.5 78.8 680 3.0 2.7

30 4.5 81.0 810 3.0 2.7

35 4.3 90.0 900 3.0 2.7

Note : Daily requirement of common salt is 2-8 gm, and carotene is 2-8 mg.

Flushing : Ewes which are to be bred should be underfed for about 45 days prior to breeding in
order to prevent fat accumulation which reduces fertility. Two weeks prior to breeding, the ewes
should be fed about 150-200 gm concentrate mixture daily along with good quality forages
(cowpea, oat, doob grass, berseem). It conditions the animal and induces maturation of more
number of follicles, and thus improves conception and twinning rate.

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5) Feeding breeding rams : Good quality green fodders like maize, cowpea, oat, doob
grass, lucerne, berseem etc. would meet all requirements of breeding rams. If forages fed are of
poor quality like straw or sorghum hay, then 150-200 gms concentrate should be fed daily.

GRAZING MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP

Purpose : As pasture is a valuable fodder for sheep and the cheapest source of nutrients
necessary for maintenance and production, proper grazing management and care of pastures is
essential for ensuring higher yields.

Characteristics of sheep feeding under range conditions:-

1. Sheep have a small muzzle and split upper-lip which enables them to nibble tiny blades
of vegetation which cannot be eaten by larger animals.

2. Sheep prefer small, tender grass and chew food more thoroughly than cattle.
3. The capacity of the sheep stomach is 15-16 litres and excess feeding can cause
indigestion.
4. In general, sheep do not relish ripe grass.
5. Sheep on pastures may consume 10-15 % more dry matter compared to stall feeding.
6. Daily grazing for 10-12 hours should be permitted to meet the dry matter requirements.
7. Sheep usually relish leguminous fodder such as lucerne, cowpea, berseem etc.
8. Sheep should preferably be grazed in different small flocks.
9. Lambs should be grazed separately from adults to prevent parasitic infestation.
10. Rotation of pastures should be should be adopted to prevent under- or over-grazing

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3. Grazing lands should be re-seeded with nutritious perennial grasses like Cenchrusciliaris,
Cenchrussetigerus, Lasirussindicus and Dichanthiumannulatum in arid and semi-arid plains;
Sehimanervosum in sub-humid plains; and fescue, rye grass and kikyu grass in the temperate

and sub-temperate regions.

4. Perennial legumes like Dolichos

lablab, Clitoriaternatea, Macropteliumatropurpureum, Atylosiascarabacoides and Stylosanthus

species should be incorporated in the regenerated or reseeded pastures.

5. Combined production of grass and legumes can increase forage production by 20-30 per
cent as compared to that of grass alone. The legumes, besides being rich in protein content, are
more palatable and digestible, enrich the soil by nitrogen fixation, and help in checking soil
erosion.

6. During the first year of pasture establishment, grazing should not be allowed; the fodder
must be harvested, conserved as hay, and fed during the lean period.

7. Rotational grazing, i.e. dividing the pasture into four equal compartments and allowing
grazing sequentially, helps the grasses to regenerate, checks soil erosion caused by over-
grazing and allows agricultural operations to be carried out.

8. Pastures should be top dressed with sufficient quantities of farmyard and inorganic
fertilizers at regular intervals.

9. Pest control by means of spraying and dusting with pesticides should be done as and
when required. Sheep should not be allowed to graze for 2-3 weeks after spraying.

10. Timely hoeing and weeding operations will not only improve the forage yield but will also
help in checking the growth of undesired bushes and weeds, and prevent worm infestations.

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11. Protection of pasture, removal of undesirable bushes and weeds, soil and water
conservation, application of fertilizers, proper stocking rate and grazing system (rotational or
deferred rotational) are essential components of good pasture management.

Silviculture:-

1. Fodder trees serve as a potential source of feed for sheep during December to June
when the grazing resources become scarce.
2. Fodder trees also provide shade during summer, check soil erosion and improve soil
texture.
3. Fodder trees should be planted in well-managed pastures after the first monsoon rains
at a spacing of 20 x 10 metres(approx. 50 trees/hectare).
4. Lopping can be done twice a year in Oct-Nov (conserved) and May-Jun (fed green) in
such a manner that the top branches are left in situ; yielding about 8-10 quintals of good quality
green fodder/hectare.

5. The pods of many trees, esp. babool (Acacia arabica) and khejri (Prosopis cineraria) are
very nutritious and palatable, and serve as a good source of feed for flushing ewes.

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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP

Nursing ewes and does, especially those nursing twins or triplets, need special attention. Lactating
animals and those recovering from giving birth need to be fed sufficient quantities of hay and
concentrate (if available) to meet the high nutritional and energy requirements during early lactation.

The quality of feed offered and particularly that of the roughage is important. There is also a need to
provide plenty of clean, fresh drinking water. Lactating ewes and does require double the amount of
water as non-lactating animals.

MANAGEMENT OF NEWBORN ANIMALS (LAMBS AND KIDS)

The management of lambs/kids starts before birth. Proper feeding and care of the does during the
last trimester of gestation is necessary to have healthy, vigorous offspring.

Lambs/kids with birth weight within the normal range for the breed can be raised without
much difficulty

Lambs/kids with low birth weight or are weak at birth need special follow-up, feed and shelter

Immediately after birth, the umbilical cord should be trimmed if needed using clean scissors and
then dipped in tincture of iodine; the recommended concentration is 7% tincture of iodine. As much
as possible, protect newborn lambs/kids from cold, rain and wind.

Mothering instinct in primiparous mothers (first kidders/lambers) often needs some time to fully
develop. Do not handle lambs/kids too frequently immediately after birth and let the does lick and
recognize them properly. In order to ensure the establishment of firm doe-offspring relationships, the
does and their offspring should be confined together soon after birth or stay around the homestead
for at least 4 days.
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 If the lamb/kid is not licked dry or is born in a wet/windy place or does not consume
colostrum immediately, it will develop hypothermia (very low body temperature), especially if small in
size (triplet, premature, mother malnourished)

If the lamb/kid is shivering or has a cool mouth and extremities and is not suckling, dry the
lamb/kid with a cloth. The lamb/kid may need to be warmed with a heat source or with a hot water
bath or warming box, particularly if body temperature is cool.

If only one of a twin birth needs to be removed for feeding or warming, it is best to remove
both offspring. If one is left, there is the risk that the doe will not accept the treated one when it is
returned If lambs appear thin and weak, check the ewe to see if she is milking. Check for mastitis in
the teats, whether the teats are open, and/or if she has claimed the lamb. Hand feed the lamb with
colostrum or milk replacer (if available) if any one of these problems is observed.

Colustrum
Intake of colostrum, the "first milk”, is crucial for successful rearing of lambs/kids. What is special
about colostrum?
Colostrum contains a high level of nutrients important for lamb health and performance.
Colostrum also contains a high level of antibodies against a variety of infectious agents.
At birth, the lamb/kid does not carry any antibodies because antibodies in the ewe's bloodstream do
not cross the placenta.
Colostrum strengthen disease defense mechanism. It has to be fed during the first 24 hours;
feeding colostrum later than this period offers little or no advantage. This is because the intestinal
wall of the newborn is only permeable to antibodies (large protein molecules) during the first 24 to
36 hours and absorption is most efficient during this period.
If the ewe/doe has inadequate colostrum, cow colostrum can be given.
Normally, the newborn stands and suckles within 30 minutes of birth. If you do not see the newborn
standing after an hour, it is wise to assist the newborn to stand and nurse so they can get the
colostrum.
Growth of the young, particularly during the first weeks of life, is entirely dependent on milk of their
mothers. For this reason, it is important to ensure that does produce adequate milk.
The health and structure of the udder should be examined. Faulty udders may mean
insufficient milk production for adequate lamb/kid growth
Newborn lambs/kids are pre-ruminant animals in the early stage of development.
It will take usually 6–8 weeks for the rumen to develop.
When concentrate feed or hay is offered, consumption starts at about 2–3 weeks of age.
Access to palatable and digestible roughage feed or concentrate is essential as it stimulates early
development of the rumen.

98
 It is recommended that forage be chopped and given to kids, and when possible concentrate
feed should be offered but not in a dry form.

Figure 6: A women practicing milk bottle- feeding of

kids CARE OF ORPHANS

In cases where a newborn

loses or is rejected by their
mother, try to foster orphans to docile
does/ewe for nursing (grafting). If this is not
an option, expressed milk or commercial
milk replacer can be fed by a bottle.
Alternatively, sweet potatoes vines can be
used to feed orphan animals.

Grafting orphan lambs/kids

Grafting is defined as giving a lamb/kid to

another ewe/doe. In cases of twins, always
graft the stronger lamb, as the problem
ewe/doe will normally take care of the
smaller one. An experienced mother will
accept a newborn covered with birth fluids
immediately after

99
delivering her own lambs/kids. If lambs/kids aren‟t being cared for by their
mother or are not receiving an adequate amount of milk, they may become
orphan lambs. The sooner this is detected the higher the chance of survival.
Techniques to facilitate grafting include:
Bathe the graftee in amniotic fluid from the new mother (if available).
A wooden stanchion (or head/neck press) to hold the ewe/doe in place
while the orphan nurses may result in adoption in 7–10 days.
If an orphan is older, tying its legs together so it appears helpless may
help.
If all this fails, the lambs/kids will have to be raised artificially: Feed
cow‟s milk. If they are newborns, they need to be fed frequently, i.e., 5–6 times
daily
After the lambs/kids are 10–12 days of age, they may be fed only 3–4
times per day and offered creep feed.
MANAGING KID/LAMB MORTALITY
What cause kid/lamb death?
Mortality of lambs and kids is one of the main factors adversely affecting sheep
and goat production. Losses are usually as high as 50% of the lamb/kid crop.
An essential factor affecting return on investment in sheep and goat production
is pre-weaning mortality.
The highest losses usually occur during the first 30 days of life.
Causes of mortality are related to management and production system. Some of
the reasons for death of newborn and young animals include:
Low birth weight
Low environmental temperature at birth or shortly
Litter type (single or multiple)
Diseases and accident
Season of birth
Inadequate colostrum consumption
Inadequate milk production of the doe
Predators
How to reduce kid/lamb mortality?
Reducing kid mortality focuses on two key issues:
Improving birth weight of newborns by supplementary feeding of pregnant
animals during the third trimester of pregnancy
Following standard hygienic practices to prevent/reduce incidence of diseases
that affect young animals
MANAGING YOUNG GOATS AND SHEEP
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Tail docking
Tail docking is not a common practice in Ethiopia except in some parts of the
country, e.g., Gojjam and some parts of Arsi, and it is normally done for ewe
lambs only. Steps to tail docking are:
A Burdizzo instrument is used to crush the tail between the vertebrate
joints before 2 days of age.
The tail is then cut off with a knife

Spraying the wound with antiseptic powder is recommended to prevent

infection

Although castration and tail docking can be used as management tools, some
communities do not accept meat from docked or castrated sheep or goats. For
instance, the Muslim Festival of Sacrifice requires unblemished lambs. An
unblemished lamb is one that has not been docked, castrated, or had its horns
removed. Note that a sheep‟s tail has a purpose. It protects the sheep's anus,
vulva, and udder from weather extremes. Because of this, care should be taken
while docking. Tails must be left long enough to cover the ewe's vulva and the
ram's anus. Docking has the following purposes:

Even distribution of fat on the carcass

Easier ewe mating/breeding

Prevention of fecal matter from accumulating on the tail and hindquarters

of sheep and lambs

101
Castration

In most cases, non-breeding males and males not slaughtered at a young age need to be castrated.
Castration is done to control mating by preventing inbreeding and inferior males from breeding, or
for production of fattened carcass. Male goats that will not be bred should be castrated early in life
(in the first 2 months) and kept for meat. The main effect of castration is on the composition of the
carcass and weight development. In general, the following effects are noted:

Carcasses from castrated sheep/goats have more fat tissue

Castration could retard growth and reduce the quantity of lean meat if done late (after 6
months)

In the case of goats, meat from castrated males has no „goaty smell‟ as does the meat from
entire bucks

grains early in life to strengthen their stomachs.

When kids/lambs start eating fodder they will suffer high worm infection so they need to be
dewormed after exposure.

When given concentrates kids are likely to suffer Enterotoxiemia (see Textbox to right) so
you will need to vaccinate against these diseases.

Do not stop feeding milk suddenly but this should be gradual to avoid indigestion or bloat.

Weaning
The weaning period is the time when lambs/kids stop feeding on liquid milk or milk
replacer. Decline of maternal antibodies and the stress of weaning appears to predispose
kids to respiratory infection. Retardation of

growth commonly known as „weaning Enterotoxaemia is caused by two strains of bacteria

shock‟ is common following weaning but
every effort should be made to reduce it
as excessive retardation might not be
compensated for at later stages.
Weaning typically takes place
between 4-6 months of age.
Although age is a good indicator
of weaning times, body weight is
the best indicator.
Young can be weaned successfully
called Clostridium perfringens – the strains are termed
types C and D.
These bacteria are normally found in low numbers in
the gastrointestinal tract of all sheep and goats;
“laying low” in the small and large intestine – that is,
they are present in relatively low numbers.
The change that triggers disease is often an increase
in the amount of grain, protein supplement, milk or
milk replacer (for lambs and kids), and/or grass that
the sheep or goat is ingesting. These feeds are rich in
102
 starch, sugar, and/or protein.
once the birth weight has When unusually high levels of these nutrients reach
increased 2.5 times. the intestine, Clostridium perfringens undergoes
After weaning, lambs/kids depend explosive growth. As the organism grows in number, it
releases very potent toxins (bacterial poisons) that
entirely on dry feed. This change
cause damage to the intestine as well as numerous
must be gradual to avoid losses other organs. This can result in fatalities, particularly
due to faulty feeding in the non-vaccinated animal or in the newborn lamb
management. Let kids try hay and or kid whose dam has not been vaccinated.

grains early in life to strengthen their stomachs.

 When kids/lambs start eating fodder they will suffer high worm infection so they need to
be dewormed after exposure.

 When given concentrates kids are likely to suffer Enterotoxiemia (see Textbox to right)
so you will need to vaccinate against these diseases.

Do not stop feeding milk suddenly but this should be gradual to avoid indigestion or bloat.

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104
GENDER IN LIVESTOCK
MANAGEMENT
GENDER ROLES AND THE DIVISION OF LABOR

Gender roles are the roles women and men fulfill in the society as defined by their virtue of being
female or male. In any society, men and women receive messages about their role and division of
labor from family, schools, media and society at large. Gender roles show society‟s rule for how
men and women are supposed to behave. These rules are sometimes called gender norms. They
dictate what is “normal” for men to think, feel and act and what is “normal” for women.

Many of these differences are constructed by society, and are not part of our nature or biological
make-up. Many expectations are completely fine and help us enjoy our identities as either a man or
a woman. However, some of these expectations limit us from using our full potentials as human
being.

For example: If and how a father is involved in child feeding and care is not linked exclusively to
biological characteristics. Rather, it depends on how they themselves and women and men in their
society are raised. If they are raised to believe that men can also take care of children, they will
probably participate and enjoy rearing their own children.

Both men and women play multiple roles in society. These roles can be broadly categorized into
three;

I) Productive roles: Tasks that contribute to the economic welfare of the household through
production of goods. Women‟s role as producers is usually undermined and undervalued.

II) Reproductive role: Activities performed for reproduction and caring for the household,
water & fuel wood collection, childcare health care, washing, cleaning etc.

III) Community management or socio-cultural activities: Activities primarily carried by men &
women to ensure the co-existence of themselves as well as their family in their social environment.
Examples of such activities include, iddir, mutual help among neighbors/ relatives, community
groups etc which boosts their social capital (FEMNET, 2006)

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Men commonly focus on filling the productive roles and play their multiple roles sequentially.
Women in contrast to men, must play their roles simultaneously, and balance competing on time for
each of them. Because of this, women are routinely overburdened with triple roles. There is a high
probability that they face time related constraints in providing adequate care for the children and
seeking health care.

GENDER ANALYSIS

Gender analysis is a systematic effort to identify and understand the roles, needs, opportunities and
life circumstances of men and women, in a changing socio- economic context.

It examines the differences in women's and men's lives, including those which lead to social
and economic inequity for women, and applies this understanding to policy development and service
delivery

It is concerned with the underlying causes of these inequities

It aims to achieve positive change for women(FAO, 1997))

There are different frameworks of gender analysis. These frameworks are applicable to different
situations based on the contexts since they have their unique features and relevance to specific
contexts.

The Harvard framework is one of the widely used gender analysis framework for collecting and
analysing data‟s on gender relations. This framework has four interrelated components:

Activity Profile (Who does what?): What men and women (adults, children, and elders) do,
and where and when these activities take place

Access and control Profile (Who has what?): Who has access to and control of resources
and services and services and decision-making, e.g. agricultural resources, extension services,
credit services etc

Analysis of factors and trends (What is the socio-economic context?): How activity,
access and control patterns are shaped by structural factors (demographic, economic, legal and
institutional) by cultural, religious and attitudinal ones

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 Program cycle analysis (What gender considerations are needed for the project:
Gender-sensitive project planning, design, implementation, and monitoring and post evaluation.

One of the manifestations of power imbalance between men and women in any society relates to
the disparity in access to and control over resources. This has implication on women‟s decision-
making power/ability both within the household as well as in community structures outside of the
household.

Access: to resources means having the opportunity to use resources without having the
authority to decide on the output and the exploitation methods

Control: over resources or benefits means having full right to use and authority to decide
what the outputs should be and how it should be used.

GENDER CONSIDERATIONS IN LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

I) Identification of women‟s role: as livestock owner, animal health care provider, feed
gatherer, birth attendant, and user of livestock products and support to their decision-making
capacity are central to the effective implementation of gender responsive interventions.

II) Women‟s safety: Gender roles in the provision of water and feed for livestock should be
considered. For instance, poor women and girls may not have equitable access to water, or they
could suffer exploitation or risk violent assault if they have to travel distances to fetch water.

III) Women as animal health care providers. Women (and girls) are often responsible for small
and/or young stock, including the diagnosis and treatment of livestock diseases. They should
therefore be involved in animal health interventions and training

IV) Women‟s workload: Although the position of women livestock keepers can be improved
through income-generating activities (i.e. processing and selling livestock products, trees and forage
products, and wildlife products), women‟s daily workload is already extremely heavy, leaving little
time to diversify or enhance their livelihoods. Consequently, labour- and time-saving opportunities
merit special attention.

V) Women‟s access to assets: Women‟s economic and social empowerment is linked to their
access to productive resources and basic assets (water, land, fuelwood, markets and knowledge),
their participation in small-scale dairying and their role in decision-making

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VI) Women and market: Women need to become more market-oriented and identify new
economic opportunities. Their role in community decision making needs to be
strengthened.

VII) Role of social networks: Women‟s status and decision-making role within the family
depends on their access to and control of land, livestock and income and on the
presence of social support networks
VIII) Role of farmers' organizations: It is important to increase women‟s negotiating power
and decision-making role in farmers' organizations. Women‟s organizations and the role of women
in farmers‟ organizations should receive special support

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KEY QUESTIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE GENDER PLAYS IN LIVESTOCK
MANAGEMENT

Which types of livestock do men and women own? What does ownership mean in your
home, community, culture, laws?
How does women‟s access to livestock affect their decision-making power?
Does owning land affect women‟s ability to own livestock?
Which activities do men and women carry out, with which animals, and which products
are they responsible?
What are the roles and responsibilities of men and women in the livestock system?
Do women control the income generated by production and marketing of livestock
products?
Does access to livestock affect women „access to other resources (such as credit,
pasture, water)?
Do women have access to veterinary services?

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