HIGH VOLTAGE TECHNICAL ASSIGNMENTS

By :
Fanda Lena A. M (201611176) kelas D

High Voltage Phenomenon: Lightning Phenomenon

The phenomenon of high pitch that often occurs is the corona charge and radio interference
caused by the lightning phenomenon. The phenomenon of lightning itself is a peak where the
charge is collected in the cloud to an adjacent cloud or to the ground (ground). Separation of
electrodes, i.e. cloud to cloud, or cloud to ground which is very far away, around 10 km or
more. The mechanism for the formation of a corona charge in the cloud and its release through
a complex and uncertain process. The following is a summary of the process and the theory:

A. The forming of particle in the clouds.

The factors that influence the forming or accumulation of charge in the cloud are numerous
and uncertain. But during a thunderstorm, positive and negative charges become separated
because of large air currents with ice crystals at the top and rain at the bottom of the cloud.
The separation of the charge depends on the height of the cloud, which ranges from 200 to
10,000 m, with the center of the charge likely to be at a distance of 300 to 2000 m. The
volume of the cloud participates in an uncertain lightning jump, but the charge in the cloud
may be 1 to 100C. Clouds may have a potential of 107 to 108 V with gradient fields ranging
from 100 V / cm with clouds of 10 kV / cm at the discharge starting point. The energy
associated with cloud discharge can be as much as 250 kWh. It is believed that the top of
the cloud is usually positively charged, while the bottom and base are dominated
negatively except the surrounding area, near the base and top, which is positive. The
maximum gradient achieved at ground level is caused by a cloud load of 300 V / cm, while
the gradient in sunny weather is around 1 V / cm. A charge distribution model in Fig.8.1
with a gradient plane related to ground.
Based on the Simpsons theory (Fig.8.2) there are three important areas in the cloud that
need to be considered for the formation of a charge. Under region A, air currents move
above 800 cm / s, and there is no rain. In region A, the air velocity is high enough to break
down the rain that is causing the positive charge to be splashed inside the clouds and the
negative charge in the air. Sparks are blown upwards, but as the air velocity decreases, the
positively charged water drops to rejoin its larger droplets and fall again. So region A,
eventually becomes positively charged dominance, whereas region B above, is negatively
charged due to air currents. At the top of the cloud, temepratur low (below freezing) and
there are only ice crystals. The impact of air on these crystals makes them negatively
charged, so the distribution of charge in the cloud is shown in Fig.8.2.
However, the above theory is old and the explanation is not satisfactory. Recently,
Reynolds and Mason proposed a change, based on lightning clouds that were developed at
an altitude of 1 to 2 km above ground level and may increase to 12 to 14 km above ground.
For lightning clouds and air flow charge formation, specific humidity and temperature
ranges are required. Air currents controlled by temperature gradients that move upward
bring moisture and water droplets. The temperature is 0oC at 4 km from the ground and
can reach -50oC at an altitude of 12 km. but the water droplets don't freeze immediately
after 0oC. They freeze below -40oC as solid particles whose ice crystal patterns expand
and expand. The greater the amount of the solid region or core, the higher the temperature
(> -40oC) where the ice crystal expands. So in clouds, the effective freeze temperature
range is -33oC to -40oC. Water droplets in lightning clouds are blown away by air currents
and become very cold above their altitude and temperature ranges. When freezing occurs,
the crystal becomes larger in mass and due to the weight and gravity of the gravity begins
to move downward. So, a thundercloud consists of droplets of supercooled water moving
upward and hail cubes moving downward.
As it moves upward, supercooled water droplets act on colder hail, it partially freezes, that
is, the outer layer of frozen water drops forms a shell with water inside. When the cooling
process extends into warmer water in the core, it expands, thus breaking and spraying
frozen ice shells. A good sized fraction moves up by air currents and carries a net positive
charge to the cloud's upper region. The falling hail stones bring a negative equivalent to
the area under the cloud and thus the negative charge increases on the lower side of the
cloud.
According to Mason, ice flakes should carry only positive charges. Water becomes ionic
in nature having concentrations of H + and OH- ions. The density of ions depends on the
temperature. Thus, in an ice sheet with top and bottom surfaces at temperatures T1 and T2
(T1 <T2), the ion concentration will be higher in the lower region. However, because H +
ions are lighter, they diffuse faster in all volumes. Therefore, the warmer bottom will have
a negative charge density, and because the upper part, that is, the cold region will have a
positive charge density. Therefore, it must be considered, that the outer shell of the frozen
water droplets associated with hail will be relatively cooler (than the initi-warm water part)
and therefore a positive charge is obtained. When the shell is split, the charge carried by it
to the top is positive. According to Reynold's theory, based on the results of his
experiments, hail is negatively charged when it comes to warmer ice crystals. When the
temperature conditions are reversed, the polarity of the charge reverses.
However, the rate of charge and consequently the rate of charge generation was found to
disagree with practical observations relating to lightning clouds. This type of phenomenon
also occurs in lightning clouds.
Lightning Cloud Filling Rate
Mason assumes lightning clouds consist of a uniform mixture of positive and negative
charges. Because hail cubes and air currents separate vertically. If λ is a factor that depends
on the conductivity of the medium, there will be resistive leakage of charge from the
electric field being built, and this is taken into consideration for cloud charging.
If E is the intensity of the electric field, v is the velocity of charge separation, and ρ of
charge density in the cloud. Then, the intensity of the electric field E becomes :

(8.1)
because,

(8.2)
This equation assumes the initial E = 0 at t = 0, the initial charge separation, i.e. there is
no initial separation.
For example Q, becomes a separate charge and Qg is the charge generated, then :

(8.3a)
dan

(8.3b)
where εo is the permissivity of the medium, A is the area of the cloud and h is the height
of the charge region.
From equation (8.2), on substitution

(8.4)
Where M = Qs.h = electrical moment from a thunderstorm. The average values observed
for lightning clouds are:
Time constant = 1 / λ = 20s
 Electric moment M = 110 C-km and
The time for the lightning bolt to appear, t = 20s
Load separation speed, v = 10 to 20 m / s.
By substituting value, it is obtained

Calculations using Mason's theory show that the displacement of a maximum charge of 3
x 10-3 T esu / cm2 from the contact surface for a period of 0.01 s, where T is the change
in temperature.
Theory and observations from Reynolds and others give a value of 5 x 10-9 esu per Crystal
impact for a temperature difference of 5oC. Mason's theory seems to give a higher value,
but it explains the phenomenon satisfactorily.

B. Lightning Struck Mechanism

The charge distribution in the cloud, in general at the top is occupied by positive charges,
while at the bottom of the cloud is occupied by negative charges. The strand will be
preceded by a channel of negative charge, towards the area that is positively induced. This
causes the strikes that occur generally are negative charge strikes from clouds to the
ground. Figure 1.1. The following shows the possible distribution of lightning cloud
charges that commonly occur.

The polarity of a cloud does not only affect the direction of the strike, but also affects the
magnitude of the flash current. The discharge of electric charge that occurs between the
cloud and the ground occurs because of the strong electric field between the cloud charge
and the induced charge on the ground surface whose polarity is opposite. The greater the
charge contained in the clouds, the greater the electric field that occurs. If the strength of
this field exceeds the strength of the translucent field, there will be an overload of clouds
to the ground. This charge overload event is called lightning or lightning.
Each lightning strike starts with a weak initial glow which is called a pilot streamer. This
pioneering outflow will determine the direction of propagation of cloud loads into the air.
This incident arises because the local electricity penetrated in the clouds, due to the strong
electric field formed by the negative majority charge with a positive minority charge at the
bottom of lightning. The current associated with this pioneering discharge is very small,
reaching only a few amperes.
This local translucency gives the opportunity for the charge to move and rub against water
vapor at high temperatures, thereby increasing the concentration of the negative charge in
the cloud. As a result, the concentration of the charge causes the breakdown voltage to
exceed its critical value so that a negative charge tongue is formed. This negatively charged
tongue is a symptom of partial discharge which is known as a stepped leader. The steps of
the pioneering streak are always followed by points of light that move down to earth and
jump up and down straight, but the direction of each jump step changes, so that the overall
path is not straight and broken.
As long as the charge center in the cloud can provide the charge to maintain the voltage
gradient at the tip of the pilot stroke and exceed the strength of the translucent air, then the
pilot stroke will continue to move down. Conversely, if the voltage gradient at the end of
a pioneering stroke is smaller in the air-penetrating field strength, then the next tongue will
not occur and the pioneering stroke will stop there and the time from the pioneering stroke
to the earth is approximately 20 milliseconds.
When this pioneer is near the earth, a positive charge channel will form from the earth that
rises to meet the decline of the pioneering strike. The confluence of these two canals will
cause the tip of the pioneering stroke to be briefly connected to the ground, so immediately
the wave of positive charge on the earth moves up towards the center of the cloud, moving
faster through the ionized channel. This event is known as a return stroke. This reversal is
the main current in a discharge due to the magnitude of between 20-100 kA moving at
speeds of 3,106 to 3,107m / s in one tenth of a second. The resulting current is in the form
of an impulse with a peak value that can be reached in micro seconds.
Figures 1.2 and 1.3 below show the stages of lightning strikes to the ground and the
impulse currents that they produce, and the stages of lightning strikes negatively charged
from clouds to the ground.
If the backflow current has stopped, and it turns out that in other parts of the cloud there is
still enough charge to start the next stroke, then a second pioneering stroke will occur.
These strains flow directly from the cloud to the ground at a speed of 3x108 m / s, through
a path that has been formed by the first pioneering strike, without experiencing branching.
This second pioneering strike is called dart leader, which is followed by a second back
stroke. The ground breaking pioneers and the backstrokes that follow are called multiple
strokes.

Where :
a. The trail of pioneers moves down towards the earth in a shifting direction.
b. A positive charge channel welcomes a pioneering strike.
c. A wave of positive charge from the earth goes to the center of the charge.
d. After releasing the first charge, the positive charge channel moves towards the next
charge center.
e. The release of charge between the charge centers in the cloud, followed by the second
pioneer moving towards the earth.
 f. A second flashback occurred.
This sequence of strikes generally occurs in strikes of negatively charged soil clouds.
Nearly 85% of ground cloud strikes are negative, followed by sequence strokes with an
average streak of 3 times. The characteristic feature of this sequence is the steepness of the
high current of the forehead.

C. Parameters and Lightning Structure Characteristics.

The parameters are the characteristics of a lightning strike that occurs, a single strike or
repetitive stroke. The characteristics of a lightning strike are obtained by taking
measurements directly in the field. By knowing the characteristics of lightning, the effect
on living things and electrical equipment can be known.
Lightning with positive or negative polaristas, in each stroke will flow the lightning current
that will cause damage or destruction of the object struck. The current component, often
expressed as a lightning parameter, is:
1. Lightning peak current; peak current or imax measured in amperes, this parameter
gives an influence on the increase in voltage vmax on the object struck, because the
object has a resistance or R, which is measured in ohms.
2. Lightning current charges; the charge of an electric current is Q in the amount of
energy given to a metal or object that is struck causes a flame and fuses the metal at
the point of strike. Has an amperdetic unit (As). The energy of a spark given depends
on the voltage of the flash point.
3. The specific energy of the lightning current, often called an impulse force that can
cause damage as a result of mounting as a result of the electrodynamic influence on a
metal or object, measured in units of Newton's seconds, or kilograms.
4. The steepness of the lightning current; di / dt in units of kA / μsec, is the amount that
affects the electro magnetic induction of metals or installations that have inductivity
and are located near the strike point, such as circular conductors, loops, coils and
others.
These four lightning current parameters determine the characteristics of lightning, and the
magnitude differs between the tropics and subtropics. Parameters are needed for the
purpose of maintaining and designing the lightning protection system.
D. Lightning Mathematical Model.
During the process of charge formation, the cloud might be considered a nonconductor.
Therefore, various potentials can be assumed in various parts of the cloud. If the filling
process is continued, it is probable that the gradients in certain parts of the area are charged
in excess of the strength of the air breakdown or moist air in the clouds. Therefore local
breakdown occurs in the cloud. This local discharge may eventually lead to a situation
where a large reservoir load involves a large mass of clouds hanging above the ground,
with the air between the cloud and the ground as dielectric. When the streamer discharge
appears to the ground with the first initial stroke, followed by the initial stroke with a large
enough current to flow, the lightning strike may be considered as a value of the Io current
source source with a source of Zo discharge impedance to the ground. If a strike strikes an
object impedance Z, the voltage arising above it may be considered as :

The source of impendation from the lightning channel is not clearly known, but it is
estimated to be around 1000 to 3000 Ohms. Interesting objects for electrical engineering,
namely transmission lines, and others have a wave impedance of less than 500 Ohms (300
to 500 Ohm air lines, 100 to 150 Ohm ground wires, towers of 10 to 50 Ohms, and so on).
Therefore the value of Z / Zo will usually be less than 0.1 and can therefore be ignored.
Therefore, the increase in line voltage, and so on can be taken around V = Io.Z, where Io
is the lightning current and the Z of the line impedance.
If a lightning strike current as low as 10,000 Amperes strikes a channel with an impedance
of 400 Ohms, this creates a large voltage of 4,000 kV. This is a large excess voltage and
causes a direct jump in the conductor line along the insulator line.
In the case of a direct hit occurring over an unprotected transmission line, the current wave
tries to divide into two branches and spreads on the other side of the channel. Therefore
the effective impedance wave on the channel as seen by the wave is Zo / 2 and takes the
example above, which is caused by an excess voltage of only 10,000 x (400/2) = 2,000
kV. If this channel becomes 132 kV a channel with eleven 10-inch disc insulator strings,
the density of the insulator string will take place, such as an impulse voltage jump from
the string around 950 kV for 2 μs in front of the impulse wave.
 The incidence of lightning strikes on the transmission line and substation is related to the
level of lightning storm activity. This is based on "thunderstorm days" known as
"Isokeraunic Levels" which are defined as the number of days in a year when lightning is
heard or recorded at a particular location. But this indication does not often distinguish
between ground strikes and cloud to cloud strikes. If a measure of ground jump density
(Ng) is obtained, the number of ground jumps can be calculated from the TD level. From
notes and past experience, found that Ng = (0.1 to 0.2) TD / strike / km2-year.
It is reported that TDs are between 5 and 15 in Britain, Europe and the Western Pacific
from North America, and are vulnerable to 30 to 50 in central and eastern USA. More
levels are reported from South Africa and South America. There is no literature available
for regional differences in India, but values from 30 to 50 can be used for coastal and
central parts of India.

Factors affecting corona:

Radio interference (interference radio), the implication of the symptoms of corona with the
onset of interference in radio waves. The existence of harmonics frequencies with large
amplitude in high voltage channels will affect radio and television communications, because
the channel will function as a transmitter with harmonics frequencies. This disturbance must
be suppressed with a harmonic filter so that the harmonics are filtered out.

Source :

1. https://www.scribd.com/doc/184328541/High-Voltage-Engineering-Von-M-S-Naidu-
V-Kamaraju#download