EVOLUTION OF LIFE

 INTRODUCTION OF EVOLUTON OF LIFE:

 EVOLUTION: The diversity of life on Earth in the present day is the outcome of
evolution. Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms acquire and pass on
novel traits from generation to generation. The Evolutionary process gives rise to diversity at
every biological organization level.
 BIG BANG THEORY: The Big Bang hypothesis states that:
All of the current and past matter in the Universe came into existence at the same time, roughly
13.8 billion years ago. At this time, all matter was compressed into a very small ball with endless
density and extreme heat called
a Singularity. Suddenly, the
Singularity began expanding
and the universe as we know it
began. A cosmologist named
Georges Lemaitre states that
the expanding universe could
be traced back in time to an
originating single point. As the
time passing the temperature of
universe is falling and
large particle accelerators can
duplicate the conditions that
prevailed after the early
moments of the universe. The
first subatomic particles to be formed with the 1st three minutes after big bang are protons,
electrons and neutrons.
 THEORY OF EVOLUTION ON EARTH:
The Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago from the swirling dust and gas remnants of an
old star’s supernova explosion. As the molten mass settled and cooled, a solid crust soon formed,
probably within as little as about 150 million years, along with a rudimentary atmosphere
composed largely of carbon dioxide, water vapors and nitrogen. Liquid water is considered
essential to the initial development of life because many chemicals dissolve easily in water
allowing them to mix together and react.
On earth life began at least 4 billion years ago and it has been evolving every year and due to this
diversity of life observed. In the starting all living things on earth were single celled organism
lacking a nucleus or cell membrane which are now termed as Prokaryotes, after several years
multicellular organism evolved after that diversity in life on earth increased day by day.

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The early Earth was populated by Anaerobes because oxygen is not present at that time.
Cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae), one of the earliest types of prokaryotic bacteria,
formed into colonies or mats called Stromatolites, and fossilized remains of these have been found
in Australia dating back to between 3.4 and 2.8 billion years ago.

The early Cyanobacteria were considered to be the 1st oxygen producing bacteria, evolving and
phototrophic organisms which were responsible for the initial oxygenation of the Earth’s
atmosphere. Photosynthesizing plants evolved later and continued this process, leading to the
buildup of increasing levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, as well as the release of nitrogen into
the atmosphere as the oxygen reacted with ammonia. Eventually, a layer of ozone (an allotrope of
oxygen) formed in the atmosphere, which better protected early life forms from ultraviolet
radiation. While oxygen was apparently not needed for the origination of life on Earth (indeed it is
thought by many that the absence of oxygen was a necessary condition), the rapid explosion
of life began only after oxygen became abundant.
The first eukaryotic cells (organisms with one or more complex cells, each of which contains a
nucleus and is surrounded by a membrane that holds the cell’s genetic material) evolved
sometime between 2.5 and 1.7 billion years ago, perhaps coincident with the rise in atmospheric
oxygen to a level able to support this more complex life. The nucleus in these cells was able to
hold and protect complex molecules such as RNA and DNA.

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 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE:

ERA TIME IMPORTANT EVENTS

 This period involves the advent of modern

 Present time human with respected environment
 Less than 0.1  An ice age (a long period of reduction in the
Cenozoic million years ago temperature of the Earth’s surface resulting
 Around 2.4 million in the presence or expansion of apical
years ago glaciers.)

 141 million ago  1st flowering plant observed

Mesozoic  195 million ago  1st bird evolve from reptiles
 245 million ago  1st dinosaur observed

 340 million ago  1st reptile appear

 360 million ago  1st insects appear
Paleozoic  1st amphibian appears
 370 million ago
 420 million ago  Plant colonize land

 700 million ago  Simple multicellular organisms evolved

 2100 million ago  1st eukaryotic organisms observed
Precambrian 
 2500 million ago Oxygen begins to accumulate in atmosphere
 3500 million ago  Single celled organisms (bacteria & archea)

The major theories related to evolution of life were discussed below:

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 ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY:
Endosymbiotic theory is a theory on the origin of eukaryotic cell, mitochondria and chloroplast.
There are many differences between Eukaryotic cell and Prokaryotic cell in size, complexity,
internal compartments. However, there is a curious similarity between Prokaryotic cell and the
organelles of Eukaryotic cells. The Endosymbiotic theory states that:
“Some of the organelles in today’s eukaryotic cells were once prokaryotic microbes.”
The Endosymbiotic theory was 1st postulated by Lynn Margulies in 1967. She was doing
research on the origin of Eukaryotic cells. She explained the similarities between Prokaryotes
and organelles by Endosymbiosis. Her hypothesis originally proposed that:
 Mitochondria are the results of endocytosis of aerobic bacteria.
 Chloroplasts are the results of endocytosis of photosynthetic bacteria.

She proposed that aerobic bacteria (that acquire oxygen) were ingested by anaerobic bacteria. In
Endosymbiosis, the cells are engulfed but not digested; both cells live together in a mutually
benefiting relationship or symbiosis and get benefits from each other. The aerobic bacteria would
have handled the oxygen that is toxic for anaerobic bacteria and anaerobic bacteria ingested food
and protected the aerobic bacteria. The result is in a cell with a double membrane bound
organelle. The inner lipid bilayer would have been the bacterial cell’s plasma membrane ant the
outer lipid bilayer came from the cell that engulfed it.
SIMILARITIES B/W PROKARYOTES, CHLOROPLAST AND
MITOCHONDRIA:
o Chloroplast and mitochondria have their own DNA that is circular not linear.
o Mitochondria and chloroplast have their own Ribosomes that are 30S and 50S subunits not
40S and 60S.
o Mitochondria and chloroplast are the same size as prokaryotic cells and they divide by binary
fission.
The evidence proves that the mitochondria and chloroplast in eukaryotic cells were once separate
prokaryotic microbes.

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 LAMARCKISM’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION:

INTRODUCTION:
Jean Baptiste Lamarck was the French biologist (1744-1829 AD) gave the theory of evolution
also known as Theory of inheritance of acquired characters or Lamarckism. He described this
theory in his famous book “Philosphic Zoologique”.

In this theory he described the changes which occur with the change of time or you can say
evolution take place in different organisms and their environment. This theory is about Variation
which occurs in body of any organism due to change in their respective environment and is
transmitted to their offspring. He said that the change occur due to use or disuse of any organ of
the body and stressed upon this statement that these changes is
due to evolutionary modifications.

POSTULATES OF LAMARCK’S THEORY:

There are four main postulates of Lamarck’s theory:

1) Use and disuse of organs

2) Effect of environment
3) Increase or decrease in size of any organ
4) Development of organs according to need

EXPLAINATION OF POSTULATES:
Every organism is found in different environment, due to the
change in environment the need of organisms changes and
when need changes the organism start to acquire new
characteristics to adjust in any environment either it start using
its body part or organ more or stop using it. When any
organism acquires any new characteristics it is usually transmitted to its offspring.

Some common examples or evidences which prove this theory are as follow:

a. It is said that giraffes had small neck but when they migrated to any other environment
they had nothing to eat such as small plants or bushes except some long high trees due to
which they tried to reach the trees to fulfill their need, so because of this need or hunger
they stretched their neck high up to reach the trees. This continuous stretching was then
transferred to their offspring and the new generations of giraffes have long necks.
b. Another evidence is flightless birds such as ostrich, because they stop using their wings
because they don’t have to fly in search of food or anything else, everything was
available in their respective environment within their reach.

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 DARWINISM (DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION):

INTRODUCTION:
Charles Darwin an English naturalist, was the most foremost character among the biologists of
the 19th century. He made broad study of nature for over 20 years. He collected the observations
on animal distribution and the relationship between living and dead animals. He found that
existing living forms share similarities to varying points not only between themselves but also
with the life forms that existed millions of years ago, some of which have become dead.

Darwin explained his theory of evolution in a book entitled “On the Origin of Species by means
of Natural Selection”.

NATURAL SELECTION:
He stated that the organisms are able to adapt to their environment and become better suited to
survive and reproduce. Thus the organisms that are not able to adapt will struggle to survive in
their environments and eventually will die. Natural selection has been said to be the main process
that has made evolution within species happen. To explain this theory Darwin proposed few
postulates of evolution.

POSTULATES OF DARWIN’S THEORY:

 Limited food and space.
 Struggle for existence.
 Variations.
 Survival of the fittest.

EXPLANATION OF POSTULATES:
Darwin stated that due to the rapid multiplication the population is increasing geometrically but
the food are increases arithmetically. Limited food and space together do not allow a population
to grow indefinitely which are nearly stable in size except for seasonal fluctuations. This starts an
everlasting competition between individuals having similar requirements. In this competition,
every living organism desires to have an upper hand over others. This struggle is intraspecific
(between the members of same species) e.g. two dogs are fighting over a piece of meat and
interspecific (between the members of different species) e.g. between predator and prey. This
everlasting competition between the organisms has forced them to change according to the
conditions to utilize the natural resources and can survive successfully. The variations are
generally of two types continuous and discontinuous variations. On the basis of their effect on
the survival chances of living organisms, the variations may be neutral, harmful and useful. He
stated that nature selects only those individuals out of the population which are with useful

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continuous variations and are best adapted to the environment while the unfit individuals are
rejected by it. He believed that the selected individuals pass their useful continuous variations to
their offspring so that they are born fit to the changed environment.

These favorable Variations accumulate over generation after generation and lead to speciation.
So natural selection operates through interactions between the environment and natural
variability in the population.

 MUTATION THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY HUGO DE

VRIES:
Hugo de vries was a Dutch botanist, put forward a theory of evolution called mutation. He also
met some of the objections found in Darwin’s theory.

According to him new species are not formed by continuous variations but by sudden appearance
of variations which he named as mutations. Hugo de vries stated that “Mutations are heritable
and continue in successive generations.”

EXPERIMENT CONDUCTED BY HUGO DE VRIES:

Hugo de vries conducted his experiments on Oenothera
Lamarckian (evening primrose) and found several different
types. When plant self-pollinated and its seeds were allowed to
grow, majority of F1 plants were similar to their parents but a
few were different plants. The different plants were also self-
pollinated and when their seeds were sown the majority of
plants were similar to the parents while a few were still more
different plants and this continued generation after generation.
These plants appeared to be new species .De vries suggested
from his experiment that new types of inherited characteristics
may appear suddenly without any previous indications of their
presence in the race.

Hugo de vreis believes that mutation causes evolution and not

the minor heritable variation which was mentioned by Darwin.
Mutations are random and direction less. According to Darwin
evolution is gradual while de vries believes that mutation
caused species formation and hence known as saltation (single
step large mutation).

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SALIENT POINTS OF MUTATION THEORY:

 Mutations or discontinuous variations are the raw material of evolution.
 Mutations appear all of a sudden.
 Mutations do not revolve around the mean or normal character of the species.
 The same type of mutations can appear in a number of individuals of a species
 All mutations are inheritable.
 Mutations appear in all conceivable directions
 Useful mutations are selected by nature while destructive mutations are eliminated
 Accumulation of variations produces new species. Sometimes a new species is produced
from a single mutation.
 Evolution is an abrupt and discontinuous process.

REFERENCES:

i. A, G. (2017, FEB 5). The Impact of Lamarck's Theory of Evolution Before Darwin's
Theory. 53-70.

ii. Charlesworth. (2017). Evolution: A very short Introduction. Journal of Mammalogy, 610-
611.

iii. IH, s. (1999). hugo de vries on heredity, statistics,mendelian laws,pangenes mutation.

iv. Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf, M. S. (2015, december 12). Biology and evolution of life
science. saudi journal of biological science, 81-85.

v. Richard W. Burkhardt, J. (2013). Lamarck, Evolution, and the Inheritance of Acquired

Characters. GENETICS.

vi. S Blair Hedges, J. E. (2004, january 28). A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution
and the rise of complex multicellular life. BMC Evolutionary Biology.

vii. william F martin, s. g. (n.d.). Endosymbiotic theories for eukaryote origin. eukaryotic
origins: progress and challenges.

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