A LEVEL Biology

2. Biological Molecules

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3 Cholera is a disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The disease symptoms are For
caused by a toxin, produced by the bacterium, interacting with proteins in the cell surface Examiner’s
membranes of epithelial cells in the human intestine. Use

The cholera toxin is a protein and is composed of two subunits, A and B. Subunit A is made
from one polypeptide and subunit B is made from five identical polypeptides.

Fig. 3.1 shows the structure of the cholera toxin.

subunit A

subunit B

Fig. 3.1

(a) Name:

(i) the level of structure that is only shown by a protein that has more than one
polypeptide chain

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) the part labelled S.

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1 (b) As shown in Fig. 1.1, liver cells contain many storage granules of glycogen. For
Examiner’s
Describe the molecular structure of glycogen and explain how this structure makes it Use

suitable for storage.

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[Total: 10]

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1 (d) In Fig. 1.1, starch granules are visible within the chloroplasts. Starch is the most common
storage compound of plants. It is composed of amylopectin and amylose.

(i) Describe the structural differences between amylopectin and amylose.

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(ii) State one role of magnesium ions within chloroplasts.

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[Total: 10]
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4 Polysaccharides are synthesised by condensation reactions between monosaccharide or
disaccharide subunits (monomers).

(a) Name the type of bond formed when polysaccharides are synthesised.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Disaccharides are formed following synthesis from monosaccharides or as a result of

polysaccharide hydrolysis.

Cellobiose, maltose, sucrose and trehalose are four different disaccharides found in
nature. Fig. 4.1 shows the molecular structure of these disaccharides.

Identify the disaccharides, labelled A to D, using the information below.

• The disaccharide cellobiose is formed from the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide

cellulose.

• When cellobiose is hydrolysed, two β-glucose molecules are produced.

• One of the disaccharides is sucrose.

• Trehalose is a disaccharide that is synthesised from two α-glucose molecules.

• The disaccharide maltose is formed from the hydrolysis of amylose, a

component of starch.

Write the name of the disaccharides in the spaces provided on Fig. 4.1.

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CH2OH H OH For
Examiner’s
O Use
H H H H
H OH H
OH H O HOH2C
OH OH
O
H OH H
A .........................................................

CH2OH CH2OH
O O
H H H H
H H
OH H O OH H
OH OH

H OH H OH
B .........................................................

CH2OH CH2OH
O O
H H OH
H H
O
OH H OH H
OH H H

H OH H OH
C .........................................................

CH2OH
O CH2OH O
H H H
H
OH H O H HO
OH CH2OH

H OH OH H
D .........................................................
[3]
Fig. 4.1

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2 Keratin and chitin are two important biological molecules. Keratin is found in hair, fur and skin. For
Chitin is a modified polysaccharide found in a number of different organisms, for example in Examiner’s
fungal cell walls and the hard outer skeletons of insects. Use

(a) Features of chitin and keratin are shown in the boxes in Fig. 2.1.

Keratin and chitin are

insoluble in water

example: cellulose
triglyceride
amylopectin
collagen

Keratin and chitin have Keratin is a fibrous protein

structural functions

The monomers of chitin Keratin and chitin contain

are β-1,4 linked nitrogen

Fig. 2.1

Write, in each box, the biological molecules from the list below that have the same
feature.

Each box may contain one, or more than one, biological molecule. The first box has
been completed as an example.

amylopectin
cellulose
collagen
haemoglobin
mRNA
triglyceride
[5]

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5 (a) Describe the structure of a cellulose molecule and explain how cellulose is a suitable For
material for the cell walls of plants. Examiner’s
Use
description

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explanation

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3 Starch is composed of two polysaccharides, amylose and amylopectin.

Fig. 3.1 shows a molecule of α-glucose before being added to the end of a molecule of
amylose.

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O O
H H H H H H H H H H H H

..... O OH H O OH H O OH H OH H
OH HO OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH

Fig. 3.1

(a) (i) Complete Fig. 3.1 to show how a molecule of α-glucose is added to the amylose.
[3]

(ii) Name the bond that forms between glucose molecules in polysaccharides, such as
amylose.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Glycogen and cellulose are two other polysaccharides.

Complete Table 3.1 to compare glycogen and cellulose with amylose.

Table 3.1

feature amylose glycogen cellulose

monomer α-glucose

branched or
unbranched unbranched
molecule

role in
energy storage
organisms

[3]

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(d) Water, containing dissolved mineral ions such as magnesium, enters spinach leaf cells.

(i) State two ways that water is used in the leaf cell.

1. ........................................................................................................................................

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2. ........................................................................................................................................

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[2]

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9700/23/M/J/14 Answer all the questions.

1 Fig. 1.1 shows the structures of four biological molecules A, B, C and D.

H O

H C O C
1
O

H C O C
O

H C O C
2
H
A

CH2OH H
O H
NH2
O C C N
N N H H HO H
H
–
CH
O OH H
N N HO OH H3C CH2
O P O CH2
O
O– CH3
H H H OH
H
OH OH
B C D

Fig. 1.1

(a) Give the letter, A to D, of the molecule in Fig. 1.1 which:

(i) is a nucleotide ...........................

(ii) can form peptide bonds ...........................

(iii) contains ester bonds. ........................... [3]

(b) Some of the molecules in Fig. 1.1 can form polymers.

(i) Name a polymer which can be formed only from many molecules of C.

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(ii) State one way, visible in Fig. 1.1, in which the part labelled 1 of molecule A differs from
the part labelled 2.

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(iii) Molecule D can form macromolecules with other similar monomers.

These macromolecules have three dimensional shapes held in place by interactions or

bonds other than those between adjacent monomers.

Name two of these interactions or bonds.

1. ........................................................................................................................................

2. ........................................................................................................................................
[2]

[Total: 7]

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3 There are many types of amino acids, but only twenty that are polymerised to make polypeptides
and proteins in animals.

(a) Name the type of chemical reaction that occurs when two amino acids form a dipeptide.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Fig. 3.1 shows two amino acids, glycine and valine. Use the space below to make a drawing
to show what happens when these two molecules join together to form a dipeptide.

glycine valine

H H O H H O
N C C N C C
H H O H H CH O H
H3C CH3

Fig. 3.1
[4]

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3 (b) Fig. 3.1 is a diagram that highlights the tertiary and quaternary structure of a haemoglobin
molecule.

haem groups

Fig. 3.1

Explain how the tertiary and quaternary levels of protein structure of the haemoglobin
molecule contribute to its role in the transport of oxygen.

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2 Fig. 2.2a shows a pond skater walking on the surface of the water.

Fig. 2.2b shows a northern pike.

These are not shown to the same scale.

a b

Fig. 2.2

Both animals live in northern countries of the world, where temperatures often drop below 0 °C.

(d) Describe the importance of water as an environment for the pond skater and the northern
pike.

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9700/21/M/J/15 Answer all the questions.

1 A student investigated growth in the roots of broad bean, Vicia faba. The student cut sections of
the root tip of this plant and viewed them with a light microscope.

Fig. 1.1 is a photomicrograph of one of the sections. The cell labelled D is in interphase.

H A

F C

Fig. 1.1 D
(a) Complete the table below by:
• naming the stages of mitosis in the correct sequence following interphase
• identifying one example from the cells labelled A to H that is in each stage of mitosis that
you have named.

stage of mitosis label from Fig. 1.1

[5]

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(b) In animal cells, centrioles are responsible for assembling microtubules to make the spindle at
the beginning of mitosis.

Describe the role of the spindle during mitosis.

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(c) State two roles of mitosis in plants and animals other than growth.

1 ................................................................................................................................................

2 ............................................................................................................................................[2]

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4 (b) Carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme that is found in blood, liver and kidneys.
Fig. 4.2 shows a molecular model of this enzyme.

Fig. 4.2

(i) With reference to Fig. 4.2 and the parts labelled P and Q, explain the term secondary
structure.

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5 Fig. 5.1 shows a diagram of the molecular structures of tristearin (a triglyceride) and
phosphatidylcholine (a phospholipid).

H CH3

H C N+ CH3

H C H CH3

O P O–

H H H H H O

H C C C H H C C C H

O O O O O H

C OC OC O C OC O

tristearin
phosphatidylcholine

Fig. 5.1

(a) Table 5.1 shows a structural difference between the two molecules shown in Fig. 5.1.

Complete Table 5.1 with two further structural differences other than in numbers of different
types of atoms.

Table 5.1

structural feature tristearin phosphatidylcholine

length of fatty acid chains all the same length different lengths

[2]

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(c) Water has many significant roles to play in cells and living organisms.

Complete Table 5.2 below by stating the property of water that allows each of the following to
take place.

Table 5.2

role of water property of water

solvent for glucose and ions

movement in xylem

helps to decrease body

temperature in mammals

[3]

[Total: 9]

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4 Many microorganisms can digest cellulose by using a group of enzymes collectively known as
cellulases. Cellobiose is the disaccharide produced during cellulose digestion.

The cellulase known as β-glucosidase completes the digestion of cellulose by hydrolysing the
cellobiose molecule to produce two β-glucose molecules.

(a) Draw the ring structure of one β-glucose molecule in the space provided.

[2]

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1 (c) (iii) Microtubules are composed of a globular protein known as tubulin.

Explain how the terms monomer and macromolecule can be applied to tubulin.

monomer ...........................................................................................................................

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macromolecule ..................................................................................................................

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(c) The parenchyma cells in Fig. 2.1 are packed with starch granules, which are used as energy
stores for the plant. The starch granules are not clearly visible in the section shown.

(i) Name the solution that can be used:

• to make the starch granules more visible
• to confirm that the granules are composed of starch.

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(ii) Describe how the structure of starch makes it suitable for its function.

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[Total: 10]

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9700/22/F/M/16 Answer all the questions.

1 Statements A to E relate to biological molecules.

For each statement, identify the most appropriate term that matches the description.

A The molecule formed from a condensation reaction between fructose and glucose.

...................................................................................................................................................

B The name of the bond broken when two amino acids are separated by hydrolysis.

...................................................................................................................................................

C The unbranched polymer consisting only of β-glucose molecules.

...................................................................................................................................................

D The reagent used to test for the presence of proteins.

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E The molecule produced, in addition to fatty acids, when a triglyceride is hydrolysed.

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[5]

[Total: 5]

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6 One of the enzymes involved in glycogen synthesis is glycogen synthase. The monomer of the
glycogen polymer is α-glucose.

(a) (i) Draw the ring form of α-glucose in the space provided.

[2]

(ii) Glycogen synthase catalyses the formation of a covalent bond between two α-glucose
molecules during glycogen synthesis.

Name the type of bond formed.

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

(iii) Glycogen branching enzyme is another enzyme that is required for glycogen synthesis.

Suggest why glycogen branching enzyme is needed in addition to glycogen synthase.

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2 (b) Explain how hydrogen bonding is involved in the movement of water through the xylem.

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3 Fig. 3.1 shows the structure of the enzyme lysozyme.

Asn Tyr Arg

Asp Gly Tyr
Ser
Leu Leu
Gly
Gly Asn
Trp
His Val
Gln Val Asp Cys
Arg Ala Thr Ala

ss
Trp Gly Ala
Lys Lys
Lys
Met Ile Cys
Arg Phe
Ala Arg
Asn Glu
Ala Gly
Ala Cys Arg Ser
Arg Leu
Leu Trp

s
Asn
Glu

s
Cys Ala
Phe
Arg Val Asn
Gly Trp Thr
Phe
Lys Val Ala
Gln
Ser Asp Gly Asp Asn
Val Gly Met Ala
Ile
Lys Thr
Asn
Lys Ser
Arg Gly Arg
Asn
Ala Pro
Leu Asn
Cys ss Cys
Thr
Thr
Asn Arg
Asn Asp
Val Gly
Gly
Ser Ile
Asn Ser
Ala Pro Asp Thr
Thr Cys ss Cys Asp
Ile Ser Trp Tyr
Asp Ala Trp Gly
Ser
Leu Arg
Ser Leu Ile
Ser Leu
Asn Ile Gln

Fig. 3.1

(a) (i) Name the two types of covalent bond in the structure in Fig. 3.1.

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

(ii) The primary structure of lysozyme is shown in Fig. 3.1.

Explain the meaning of the term primary structure.

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(b) Lysozyme hydrolyses the β-1,4 glycosidic bonds present in compounds found in bacterial cell
walls.

(i) State what is meant by the term hydrolysis.

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(ii) Suggest the type of biological molecule which is the substrate for lysozyme.

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2 (c) Amino acids synthesised in the mesophyll cells of leaves are also transported in phloem sap
to other locations where they are used to synthesise polypeptides.

Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form the polypeptides.

Two amino acids are shown below. Describe the formation of a peptide bond between these
two amino acids. You may use the space below.

R R
H O H O
N C C N C C
H OH H OH
H H

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3 High fructose corn syrup, made from maize, can be used as a replacement for sucrose to sweeten
food and drink products.

Commercial production of high fructose corn syrup involves the enzyme glucose isomerase,
extracted from bacteria.

(a) Fructose and sucrose are both sugars.

State two structural differences between fructose and sucrose.

1 ................................................................................................................................................

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2 ................................................................................................................................................

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4 (d) Blood plasma contains approximately 90% water. Many of the properties of water are due to
its ability to form hydrogen bonds.

Outline how the properties of water make it ideal as the largest component of plasma.

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1 (a) Table 1.1 shows some features of four biological molecules that are all polymers.

Complete Table 1.1 by using a tick (3) to indicate the features that apply to each polymer.

Table 1.1

feature amylopectin cellulose RNA polypeptide

synthesised from
amino acid monomers
contains glycosidic
bonds
polymer is branched

contains nitrogen

can be found in both

animal and plant cells
[4]

(b) Fig. 1.1 is a simple diagram of a phospholipid molecule.

Explain how the structure of a phospholipid molecule makes it suitable for its function in cell
membranes. You may label and annotate Fig. 1.1 as part of your answer.

Fig. 1.1

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2 The symptoms of cholera are caused by choleragen, a toxin released by the bacterium.

Choleragen is a protein made up of six polypeptides:

• a single copy of a polypeptide known as the A subunit that includes an extended alpha
helix
• five polypeptides that together make the B subunit.

The B subunit of choleragen binds to a cell surface membrane component, known as GM1, of an
intestinal epithelial cell. The complete choleragen protein then enters the cell by endocytosis. Once
inside the cell, the A subunit of the protein acts as an enzyme, disrupting the normal functioning of
the cell.

(c) List the levels of protein structure present in choleragen.

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.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

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3 Fig. 3.1 is a diagram that shows the structure of an antibody molecule.

variable region variable region

constant region

Fig. 3.1

(a) State why the antibody molecule shown in Fig. 3.1 has quaternary structure.

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6 As a result of transcription and translation, a polypeptide chain is produced. Proteins with

quaternary structure contain two or more polypeptide chains.

An antibody molecule and a haemoglobin molecule both show quaternary structure.

(a) Table 6.1 shows some features of an antibody molecule and a haemoglobin molecule.

Complete Table 6.1 to produce a summary of the features of the two molecules.

Table 6.1

feature antibody haemoglobin

fibrous or globular

number and names of

two heavy and two light chains
polypeptide chains

type of bond holding

ionic
polypeptide chains together

[3]

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4 (a) Complete Table 4.1 by using a tick (3) to indicate which statements apply to each of the
molecules. Use a cross (7) for statements that do not apply.

Some of the boxes have been completed for you.

Table 4.1

statement ATP cellulose haemoglobin phospholipid

contains phosphorus 3 7

found in plants

contains iron 7

has a structural role

[4]

(b) Fig. 4.1 shows two amino acids.

Complete Fig. 4.1 to show how a peptide bond forms between these two amino acids.

H CH3
H O H O
N C C N C C
H OH H OH
H H

Fig. 4.1
[3]

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6 (a) In the space below, draw a diagram to show a hydrogen bond between two water molecules.

[3]

(b) (i) Movement of water in xylem depends on the force of attraction between water molecules
as a result of hydrogen bonding.

State the name given to this force of attraction.

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

(ii) State the property of water that results in a cooling effect as water evaporates from the
surface of organisms.

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[Total: 5]

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4 (b) Many proteins that contain the amino acids shown in Fig. 4.1 are globular.

Describe how the three R groups in Fig. 4.1 can contribute to the globular structure of a
protein.

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(c) An example of a globular protein is the enzyme starch phosphorylase. This enzyme catalyses
the conversion of starch to glucose-1-phosphate.

Name the type of bond that is broken when starch is converted to glucose-1-phosphate.

...............................................................................................................................................[1]

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2 Triglycerides and phospholipids are types of lipid.

Fig. 2.1 shows the structure of one type of phospholipid known as phosphatidylcholine.
F1 and F2 are fatty acid residues.

CH3

H 3C N+ CH3 choline
CH2
CH2
O
O P O–
O

H 2C CH CH2
O O

O C C O

F1 F2

Fig. 2.1

(a) Phospholipase is an enzyme that can break down phospholipids. This enzyme is found in the
venom of some insects, such as bees.

Bee venom can destroy red blood cells, a condition known as haemolysis.

Suggest how bee venom destroys red blood cells.

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(b) Compare, stating similarities and differences, the structure of the phosphatidylcholine shown
in Fig. 2.1 with the structure of a triglyceride molecule.

similarities .................................................................................................................................

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differences ................................................................................................................................

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4 In very severe cases of cholera, antibiotics are also prescribed. The preferred antibiotic for
treatment of cholera is a single dose of doxycycline, a form of tetracycline antibiotic.

(d) Tetracycline binds to a ribosomal subunit.

Suggest what effect this will have on the metabolism of V. cholerae.

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...............................................................................................................................................[1]

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3 The unicellular fungus Kluyveromyces lactis is found in dairy products. It is a safe microorganism
to culture for the extraction of the enzyme lactase. Lactase catalyses the breakdown of lactose, a
sugar found in milk.

The reaction catalysed by lactase is summarised in Fig. 3.1.

CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH O CH2OH O
H H H H
O H O H
OH OH OH
H O OH H lactase H OH H
OH + R + OH OH
OH H OH H
H H H H
H OH H OH
H OH H OH product S
lactose galactose

Fig. 3.1

(a) Describe the reaction that is catalysed by lactase. Use Fig. 3.1 to help you.

In your answer, identify R and product S.

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2 (a) Sucrose is a disaccharide.

Fig. 2.1 shows how sucrose is broken down in a reaction with hydrochloric acid.
CH2OH
O O
H H HOCH2 H
H
OH H O H HO
HO CH2OH

H OH OH H
+H2O

CH2OH
O O
H H HOCH2 H
H
OH H H HO
HO OH HO CH2OH

H OH OH H
A B

Fig. 2.1

(i) Name the products, A and B, of the reaction shown in Fig. 2.1.

A ........................................................................................................................................

B ........................................................................................................................................
[2]
(ii) Name the type of bond that is broken in the reaction shown in Fig. 2.1.

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

(iii) State the type of reaction shown in Fig. 2.1.

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

(b) When Benedict’s solution is added to a sucrose solution and put into a boiling water-bath, no
change in colour is observed.

State why no colour change is observed.

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...............................................................................................................................................[2]

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4 Fig. 4.1 is a ribbon model of a molecule of haemoglobin.

E
A chemical group that is
not made from amino acids.

F
A form of secondary structure
found in the polypeptides in
haemoglobin.

G
Each polypeptide is folded
to form a complex
three-dimensional shape.

H
Each polypeptide is made
of a sequence of amino acids.
J
Each haemoglobin molecule
is composed of four polypeptides,
shown here by different shading.
Fig. 4.1

(a) State the term that matches each of the descriptions given in boxes E, F, G, H and J in
Fig. 4.1.

E ...............................................................................................................................................

F ...............................................................................................................................................

G ...............................................................................................................................................

H ...............................................................................................................................................

J ................................................................................................................................................
[5]

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3 Bacteria may be classified according to differences in cell wall structure. The differences are
shown by using the Gram stain.

• A Gram-positive bacterium has a cell wall mainly composed of a thick layer of peptidoglycan
(murein).
• A Gram-negative bacterium has a more complex cell wall. This wall is composed of a much
thinner layer of peptidoglycan and an outer layer known as the outer membrane.

Escherichia coli is a Gram-negative bacterium.

Fig. 3.1 is a diagram through the cell surface membrane and the cell wall of E. coli.

external environment
lipopolysaccharide

O antigen
(O polysaccharide)

outer
membrane
core polysaccharide
cell wall

lipid A
porin

peptidoglycan periplasm
(watery fluid
containing proteins)

cell surface
membrane

cytoplasm

Fig. 3.1

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(a) The antibiotic penicillin kills bacteria by causing them to lyse (burst). It is more effective in
treating diseases caused by Gram-positive bacteria than diseases caused by Gram-negative
bacteria.

Outline how penicillin acts on bacteria and use Fig. 3.1 to suggest why penicillin has little or
no effect at treating diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria, such as some strains of
E. coli.

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(c) Fig. 3.1 shows that the outer membrane of the cell wall of E. coli contains lipopolysaccharides.
These are not present in the cell surface membrane. Each lipopolysaccharide (LPS) consists
of a lipid and a polysaccharide portion.

The O antigen is the outer part of the polysaccharide portion of the LPS. It faces the aqueous
external environment.

(i) Define the term polysaccharide.

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2 (c) Adipocytes synthesise triglyceride lipase (ATGL), an enzyme that catalyses the formation or
breakdown of triglycerides, as shown in Fig. 2.1.

lipase
triglyceride fatty acids + glycerol

Fig. 2.1

The balance between triglyceride formation and breakdown is controlled by hormones.

Fig. 2.2 is a summary of events occurring in an adipocyte when glycogen energy stores have
been used up.

tissue hormone
fluid

cell surface
membrane

ATP second messenger

molecule
cytoplasm

inactive enzyme active enzyme

inactive ATGL active ATGL

triglyceride fatty acids + glycerol

Fig. 2.2

(i) Name the type of bond broken by active ATGL to produce fatty acids and glycerol.

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

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2 Fig. 2.1 shows the disaccharide lactose, which is found in milk.

CH2OH CH2OH
OH O H O H
H H
OH H O OH H
H H OH
H OH H OH

Fig. 2.1

(a) Name the type of bond that joins the two monosaccharides in lactose.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) The enzyme lactase catalyses the breakage of the bond between the two monosaccharides
in lactose.

(i) Name the type of reaction that breaks this bond.

...................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Some people do not produce the enzyme lactase, so cannot digest lactose.

The presence of lactose in the lumen of the intestine reduces the volume of water
absorbed into the blood, resulting in diarrhoea.

Suggest why the presence of lactose in the intestine reduces the volume of water
absorbed.

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6 (a) Haemoglobin is a globular protein which is able to transport oxygen and is soluble in water.

(i) Explain how the structure of a haemoglobin molecule makes it able to transport oxygen
efficiently.

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...................................................................................................................................... [3]

(ii) Explain how the structure of a haemoglobin molecule allows it to be soluble in water.

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2 (a) Proteins are macromolecules composed of many amino acids.

(i) Two amino acids are represented in the diagram in Fig. 2.1.

Complete the diagram to show how the two amino acids react together to form a
dipeptide.

R1 R2
H O H O
N C C + N C C
H H OH H H OH

Fig. 2.1
[3]

(ii) State what is represented by R1 and R2 in Fig. 2.1.

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(b) Amylose and cellulose are polysaccharides.

Fig. 2.2 shows the structure of part of a cellulose molecule.

H OH CH2OH H OH CH2OH
H H O H H O
O O O O O
H O H H O H
CH2OH H OH CH2OH H OH

Fig. 2.2

With reference to Fig. 2.2, state how the structure of a cellulose molecule differs from the
structure of an amylose molecule.

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(c) Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls.

Explain why cellulose is suitable as a component of plant cell walls.

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(c) A ribbon structure of a molecule of carbonic anhydrase is shown in Fig. 2.2. The zinc ion is
associated with the active site of the enzyme and is essential for the enzyme to function.

zinc ion

Fig. 2.2
The molecule of carbonic anhydrase has primary, secondary and tertiary structure.

Explain the extent to which Fig. 2.2 shows the primary, secondary and tertiary structure of
carbonic anhydrase.

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5 Human prolactin (hPRL) is a globular protein. It is a single polypeptide composed of 199 amino
acids. The protein is transported in the bloodstream and has an effect only on cells that have a cell
surface membrane protein known as PRLR.

One effect of hPRL is to stimulate cells in the mammary glands to produce breast milk. Cells that
have been stimulated by hPRL need more glucose and therefore the passive uptake of glucose
increases.

(a) State one reason why the cells in the mammary glands that have been stimulated by hPRL
need more glucose.

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...................................................................................................................................................

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(b) An experiment was carried out to investigate the movement of glucose and hPRL across
Visking tubing membrane.

• A short section of Visking tubing, tied at both ends and containing distilled water,
was placed into a beaker containing a solution of glucose and hPRL.
• After 20 minutes, separate samples of the solution in the Visking tubing and the
solution in the beaker were each tested for the presence of protein and reducing
sugar.

A summary of the methods used, the experimental results and the deductions made are
shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1

sample method used colour obtained after testing deduction

solution
protein absent from
in Visking
biuret solution solution in Visking tubing
tubing
added to
solution in sample protein present in
beaker solution in beaker

solution Benedict’s
reducing sugar present in
in Visking solution
solution in Visking tubing
tubing added to
sample and
solution in mixture reducing sugar present in
beaker heated in a solution in beaker
water-bath

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Answer all questions.

1 (a) Antibody molecules are proteins that show primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary
structure and quaternary structure.

Fig. 1.1 shows a ribbon diagram of an antibody molecule.

Fig. 1.1

Describe how Fig. 1.1 shows the secondary structure and tertiary structure of the antibody
molecule.

secondary structure ..................................................................................................................

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tertiary structure ........................................................................................................................

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[3]

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2 Linoleic acid is an unsaturated fatty acid that is found in some triglycerides and some phospholipids.

Phospholipids are components of cell membranes.

Fig. 2.1 shows a molecule of linoleic acid.

H
O
O C

H C H

H C H

H C H

H C H
H C H

H C H

H C H

H C

H C
H C H
H H H
C H H
H
H C C C C
C C
H H H H
H H

Fig. 2.1

(a) The composition of cell membranes of plants changes in response to changes in temperature.

At the start of the cold season there is an increase in the proportion of phospholipids with
unsaturated fatty acids in the chickpea, Cicer arietinum. Chickpea plants that do not make
this change do not survive.

Suggest how the increase in the proportion of phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acids
helps plants, such as chickpea, survive decreases in temperature.

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(b) (i) State why triglycerides and phospholipids cannot be described as polymers.

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..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) State two differences in the structure of triglycerides and phospholipids.

1 ........................................................................................................................................

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2 ........................................................................................................................................

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[2]

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5 Cells contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.

(a) Fig. 5.1 is a list of biological molecules, some of which are components of larger molecules.

cellulose
thymine nucleotide
α-glucose
β-glucose
messenger RNA
glycogen
glycine
α-globin

Fig. 5.1

Complete Table 5.1 by using only the molecules listed in Fig. 5.1.

• Each example can be written under one or more correct headings.

• All the examples in Fig. 5.1 should appear at least once in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1

examples
monomers polymers monosaccharides polysaccharides

[5]

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(b) Explain how the structure of phospholipids allows the formation of the phospholipid bilayer of
cell membranes.

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[Total: 8]

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