Construction Method &

Equipment
Group 4:
Nastia Siti D. W.
Sulthan Ridansyah A.
Dian Ratri Cahyani
Rayhan Mustofa K.
Rizky Rahardi Pramono
 Chapter 11: Finishing
Equipment
Outline 03
Finishing operations follow closely behind
excavation operations or compation of
embankments.
Chapter 2: Fundamental
Concept of Equipment
Economics
A correct and complete understanding of
the costs that result from equipment
ownership and operation.
01 02
Chapter 9: Excavator
Hydraulic power is the key to versatility of
many excavators.
Chapter 2
Fundamental Concept of
Equipment Economics
Important Questions
1. How much does it cost to operate a machine on a project?
2. What is the optimum economic life and the optimum manner to secure a machine?
3. How much is the productivity of the machine?
Equipment Requirements in a Project
General conditions in equipment selection:

1. A machine that has been proven as reliable

2. A machine that has a reputable brand
3. A machine that refers to specifications
4. Service is guaranteed
5. A machine that has tool kit, manual book, spare parts
Relationship of P/F and F/P
What is commonly referred to as the time value of money that must be paid if one borrows some money
for use today and returns the money at some future date. Many take this charge for granted. This rent or
added charge is called interest.

P = a present single amount of money

F = a future single amount of money, after n periods of time

A = annual cost

i = the rate of interest per period of time (usually 1 yr)

n = the number of time periods

Finding the Value of Present, Future, and Annual
Cost
Equation for Single Payments
● Future single amount of present single amount

● Present single amount of future single amount

Example
Formulas for a Uniform Series of Payment
Often payments or receipts occur at regular intervals, and such uniform
values can be handled by the use of additional formulas.

A = uniform end-of-period payments or receipts continuing for a

duration of n periods, annual cost
Cost of Capital
● the cost of capital is a collection of loans, initial sales costs, and personal initial capital, which later
the interest will be the value that must be paid by the company
● many argue that interest also includes the cost of capital that must be calculated, many also
misunderstand that taxes and insurance include in the cost of capital
● the purchase, rental, or replacement of equipment is financial investment
Discounted Present Worth Analysis
A discounted present worth analysis involves calculating the equivalent present worth or present value
of all the dollar amounts involved in each of the individual alternates to determine the present worth of
the proposed alternates.

The present worth is discounted at a predetermined rate of interest, often termed the minimum
attractive rate of return (MARR)
Example
Answer
*Contractor’s MARR is 8% Alternative A :

* Calculate each NPW of each

alternative using 8% interest rate

*Choose the least costly alternative

Alternative B :
Alternative C :

The least costly alternative is C

Elements of Ownership Cost
Ownership cost is the cumulative result of those cash flows an owner experiences whether or not the
machine is productively employed on a job. The most significant cash flows affecting ownership cost are:

1. Purchase expense
2. Salvage value
3. Tax saving from depreciation
4. Major repairs and overhauls
5. Property taxes
6. Insurance
7. Storage and miscellanous
Elements of ● The cash outflow the firm experiences
in acquiring ownership of a machine
Ownership Cost ● It is the total delivered cost, including
amounts for all options, shipping, and
taxes.
● The firm has exchanged money, a
liquid asset, for a machine, a fixed
asset with which the company hopes
Purchase Expense to generate profit.
Elements of ● The cash inflow a firm receives if a
machine still has value at the time of
Ownership Cost its disposal. The revenue will occur at
a future date.
● Machine condition, the movement of
new machine prices, and the
machine’s possible secondary service
applications affect the amount an
Salvage Value owner can expect to receive.
Elements of ● The tax savings from depreciation are
a phenomenon of the tax system in
Ownership Cost ●
the US.
Under the current tax laws, tax
depreciation accounting no longer
requires the assumption of a
machine’s future salvage value and
useful life.
Tax Savings from Depreciation
Elements of ● Major repairs and overhauls are
included under ownership cost
Ownership Cost because they result in an extension of
a machine’s service life.
● Can be considered as an investment in
a new machine.

Major Repairs and Overhauls

Elements of ● Taxes refer to those equipment
ownership taxes that are charged by
Ownership Cost ●
any government subdivision.
They are commonly assessed at a
percentage rate applied against the
book value of the machine.

Taxes
Elements of ● Includes the cost to cover fire, theft,
and damage to the equipment.
Ownership Cost ● This cost can be actual premium
payments to insurance companies, or
it can represent allocations to a
self-insurance fund maintained by the
equipment owner.

Insurance
Elements of ● A company will require storage
facilities for its equipment. The cost of
Ownership Cost maintaining storage yards and
facilities should be prorated to those
machines that require such
harborage.
● Typical expenses include space rental,
utilities, and the wages for laborers or
Storage and Miscellaneous watchmen.
Elements of Operating Cost
Operating cost is the sum of those expenses an owner experiences by working a machine on a project.
Typical expenses include:

1. Fuel
2. Lubricants, filters, and grease
3. Repairs
4. Tires
5. Replacement of high-wear items
Elements of ● Fuel expense is best determined by
measurement on the job. Accurate
Operating Cost service records tell the owner how
many gallons of fuel a machine
consume over what period of time and
under what job conditions.

Fuel
 ● The cost of lube oils, filters, and
grease will depend on the
maintenance practices of the

Elements of company and the conditions of the

work location.
Operating Cost ● Many manufacturers provide quick
cost estimating tables or rules for
determining the cost of these items.

Lubricants: Lube Oils, Filters, and

Grease
Elements of ● As referred to here, mean normal
maintenance-type repairs.
Operating Cost ● These are the repair incurred on the
job site where the machine is
operated and would include the costs
of parts and labor.
● Major repairs and overhauls are an
ownership cost.
Repairs
Elements of ● Tires for wheel-type equipment are a
major operating cost because they
Operating Cost have a short life in relation to the iron
of a machine.
● Tire cost will include repair and
replacement charges.
● These costs are very difficult to
estimate due to the variability in the
Tires tire wear with project site conditions
and operator skill.
Elements of ● The cost of replacing those items that
have very short service lives in
Operating Cost relation to machine service life can be
a critical operating cost.
● These items will differ depending on
the type of machine, but typical items
include cutting edges, ripper tips,
bucket teeth, body liners, and cables.
Replacement of High-Wear Items
 Depreciation - Time Value Method
Given: Answer:
Cost capital rate = 8% The cost of buying equipment =
Initial cost = $300.000 $300.000 - $45.000 = $225.000
Life time = 4 years Calculating the annual value to replace a present
Utilization time = 2.500 hr/yr value =
Tires cost = $45.000
Salvage value = $50.000
Calculate the depreciation portion of
Calculating future salvage value =
the ownership cost for the machine
using the time value method

Hourly depreciation portion of the machine’s

ownership =
Depreciation - Average Annual Investment Method
Example : Using the same machine and company
information from example before, calculate the
depreciation using AAI method!
P = Purchase price less the cost of the tires
S = Estimated salvage value Ans :
N = Expected life in years
Depreciation - Average Annual Investment Method
Total ownership depreciation using AAI method :
$5.700/hr + $20.500 = $26.200/hr
Taxes, Insurance, and Storage
To calculate the taxes, insurance and storage, the Answer:
common practice is to apply a percentage value to Total percentage of tax : 1%+2%+0.75% = 3.75%
either the machine’s book value or its AAI amount. From the previous example, the value of AAI is
$178,125/yr
Example :
Using the previous problem, calculate the hourly Taxes, Insurance and Storage Expense :
owning expense with taxes, insurance and
storage. The company pays taxes of : 1% for
equipment, 2% for insurance, and 0.75% for
storage.
Operating Cost: Fuel
Fuel is usually offered with a time of delivery price. Example
The supplier will agree to supply the fuel of a
project but the price will not be guaranteed for
the duration of the work. Therefore we must
create an assessment of future price.

To calculate hourly fuel expense, consumption

rate is multiplied by the fuel’s unit price.
Operating Cost: Fuel
Answer
Fuel consumption diesel engine 0.04 gal per fwhp-hr
Operating Cost: Repairs
The machines are need to be repaired when the
time comes, because machines are always
operated in the site.
Repairs expenses increase with machine age.
An average is usually calculated by dividing the
total expected repair cost, for the planned service
life of the machine, by the planned operating
hours.
Operating Cost: Tires
Consider as a major cost because they have a
short life in relation to the iron of a machine

Include repair and replacement charges

Cost For Bidding
Selecting a type of machine for use in construction
project is necessary, and we should choose with
the lowest cost but with good quality.
Ownership Cost
Expenses of purchasing a machine and the inflow Tax depreciation has nothing to do with
of money in the future are two most significant consumption of the asset.
components of ownership cost.

The machine’s value is declining across time

Using depreciation to measure for purchase

expense at time zero and salvage value after a
defined period of time
Example
Answer (1st approach)
Depreciation - Average Annual Investment
Method (2nd approach)
Using Average Annual Investment (AAI)
Rent and Lease
● When an asset is given on a lease; the responsibility of maintenance lies on the lessee.

That means when a business takes an asset on a lease, the responsibility of

maintenance lies in the business.

● On the other hand, when an asset is rented; the responsibility of maintenance lies on

the person who rents the asset or the property.

Chapter 9
Excavator
Hydraulic Excavators
1. Front Shovels
2. Hoes
3. Loaders
4. Specialty Excavators
Hydraulic ● Different options in types,
attachments, and sized for individual
Excavators ●
job applications are available
Hydraulic front shovels: Used
predominantly for hard digging above
track level for loading haul units
● Hydraulic hoe-type: to excavate
below the natural surface of the
ground on which the machine rests
Hydraulic ● Hydraulic control of machine
components provides:
Excavators ○
○
Faster cycle times
Positive control of attachments
○ Precise control of attachments
○ High overall efficiency
○ Smoothness and ease of operations
Hydraulic
Excavators

Digging motion of hydraulic excavators

 1. Obtain the heaped bucket load

Hydraulic volume from the manufacturer’s data

sheet → loose volume (lcy) volum

Excavators 2. Apply a bucket fill factor based on the

type of machine and class of material
being excavated
3. Estimate a peak cycle time
4. Apply an efficiency factor
5. Conform the production units to the
desired volume or weights units (lcy
Production rate to bcy or tons)
6. Calculate production rate
(Excavator considered as an independent
machine)
Hydraulic
Excavators

Production rate

(Excavator considered as an independent

machine)
Hydraulic
Excavators

Production rate

(Excavator production process)

Hydraulic Excavator Accidents
Common causes of injury:

● Being struck by the moving machine, swinging booms, or other machine components
● Being struck by quick-disconnect excavator buckets that unexpectedly detach from the stick
● Rollovers, electrocutions, and machined sliding into trenched after cave-ins

Safe Practices:

● Operators keep machine attachments at a safe distance from workers at all times
● Workers are trained regarding safe practices when working in close proximity to heavy equipment
● Supervisors consider alternative working methods that eliminate the need to place workers in
close proximity to heavy equipment.
Front Shovels
● Used predominantly for hard digging above track level and for loading haul units
● Shovels are capable of developing high breakout force with their buckets but the material being
excavated should be such that it will stand as a vertical bank
● The size of a shovel is indicated by the size of the bucket
● Fill factors for front shovel buckets

● Struck capacity: volume actually enclosed by the bucket with no allowance for the bucket teeth
● Heaped capacity: angle of repose for heaped bucket capacity
Selecting a Front Shovel
2 fundamental factors that should be taken into account:

● Cost per cubic yard of material excavated

● Job conditions under which the shovel will operate
 1. The size of the job

Selecting a Front
a. A job involving a large quantity of material
may justify the higher O&O and
mobilization costs of a larger shovel
Shovel 2. The cost of mobilizing/transporting
the machine to the project
3. The combined cost of drilling, blasting,
and excavating
 Elements in the Production Cycle of a Shovel

Calculating Shovel 1. Load bucket 7-9 sec

Production 2.
3.
Swing with load 4-6 sec
Dump load 2-4 sec
4. Return swing 4-5 sec

Typical cycle element times under average

conditions for 3- to 5-cy-size shovels
 Factors affecting the actual production of a

Calculating Shovel shovel

Production 1.
2.
Class of material
Height of cut
3. Angle of swing
4. Operator skill
5. Condition of the shovel
6. Haul-unit exchange
7. Size of hauling units
8. Handling of oversize material
9. Cleanup of loading area
 ● A loose, flowing material will fill a

Height of Cut digging bucket in a shorter sweep up

the embankment than will chunky

Effect of Shovel ●
material
If the face against which a shovel is
Production excavating material does not have
sufficient height, it will be difficult of
impossible to fill the bucket in one
pass up the face.
Height of Cut
Effect of Shovel
Production

Factors for the height of cut and angle of

swing effect of shovel production
Height of Cut
Effect of Shovel
Production

Example question
Height of Cut
Effect of Shovel
Production

Example question
Hoes
● Primarily used to excavate below the natural surface of the ground on which the machine rests
● Other names: backhoe or back shovel
● Adept at excavating trenches and pits for basements and the smaller machines can handle general
grading work
Basic parts and
operating ranges of
hydraulic hoe

A: dumping height

B: digging reach

C: maximum digging depth

Representative dimensions, loading clearance,
and lifting capacity hydraulic crawler hoes
Arrangement of a hoe’s hydraulic cylinders to
develop digging forces
Fill Factors for
Hydraulic Hoe
Buckets
Selecting a Hoe 1.
2.
Maximum excavation depth required
Maximum working radius required for
digging and dumping
3. Maximum dumping height required
4. Hoisting capability required
Multipurpose Tool Hydraulic hoe has evolved from a
single-purpose excavating machine into a
Platfrom versatile, multipurpose tool platform
designed for literally hundreds of
applications:

1. Hydraulic hoe with land-clearing

grapple
2. Hydraulic ram attachment (impact
hammers)
3. Special round-bottom hoe bucket
4. Wheel-mounted hydraulic hoe with
clamshell bucket
Calculating Hoe ● Have the same elements that affect
shovel excavation production
Production ● Hoe cycle times are 20% longer in
duration than those of a similar-size
shovel because the hoisting distance
is greater as the boom and stick must
be fully extended to dump the bucket
Calculating Hoe
Production

Formula
Excavation cycle times for
hydraulic crawler hoes under
average conditions
Calculating Hoe
Production

Example Question
Loaders
Are used in construction work to handle and transport bulk material, such as earth and rock. Also to load
trucks, excavate earth, and to change aggregate bins
Types and Sizes

Track-type loader Wheel-tractor loader

Loader Buckets
Buckets are attached to the tractor by a push frame and lift arms.

General Purpose : It is made of heavy duty, all-welded steel. The

replaceable cutting edges are bolted onto the bucket proper.
Usually equipped with replaceable teeth that bolt onto the
cutting edge.

Multipurpose : Often referred to as four in one buckets because

they can be used to dig.
Rock : Is of one piece, heavy duty construction, having a protruding
V- Shaped cutting edge. It can be used for prying up and loosening
shot rock

Side-Dump: Allows versatility for working in confined areas, along

roads in traffic, and filling trucks. There are both left and right hand
dumping buckets

Forklift: Can be attached to the loader in place of a bucket.

Bucket fill factors

The fill factor correction for

a loader bucket adjust
capacity based on the type
of material being handled
and the type of loader
Operating Loads
When the bucket volumetric is determined, a check must be made of payload weight. Example: A wheel
loader is limited to an operating load by weight that is less than 50% rated full turn static tipping.
Operating Specifications
 Loader Production Rates
There are two critical factors to be considered in Wheel loaders work in repetitive cycle. The production
choosing a loader: rate for a wheel loader will depend on the:

1. The type of material 1. Fixed cycle time required to load the bucket
2. The volume of material to be handled 2. Time required to travel from the loading to
dumping
3. Time required to return to the loading position
4. Volume of material
Fixed cycle times for loaders
Chapter 11
Finishing Equipment
Graders
Are multipurpose machines used for: The primary purpose of grader’s is cutting and
moving material with moldboard. A grader can
1. Finishing move small amounts of material but cannot
2. Shaping perform dozer type work.
3. Bank sloping
4. Ditching Graders are capable of progressively cutting
5. Mixing ditches to a depth of 3ft .
6. Spreading
7. Leveling
Components of Grader

There are:

1. Moldboard
2. Rotating circle
3. Scarifier
Moldboard
Commonly referred to as the blade. A rotating circle carries the moldboard. Moldboard can be placed
into many positions.
Moldboard Angle
Moldboard can be positioned at almost any angle to the line of travel.
Scarifier
Used to cut material that is too hard. It is an attachment hung between the front axle and the moldboard.
It is composed of a scarifier log with removable teeth.
Grader Operations
Planing Surfaces
A grader is often used to plane or smooth off fill or cut surfaces. To do this the moldboard is set an angle to
surface with high material being scrapped off and used to fill low spots.

Moving Windrows
When a grader makes a cut, a windrow will form between the heel of the moldboard and rear wheel. This
widrow will impart a side draft force.
Spreading
Graders are often used to spread and mix dumped loads. Because of their mechanical structure and
operating characteristics, graders can only be effective spreading and mixing free flowing materials. The
general formula for figuring grader spreading and mixing production is:
Proper Working Speeds
Graders should be operated at full throttle in each gear. If less speed is required, it is better to use a lower
gear.
Turns
When making a number of passes over short distance (less than 1000 ft), backing the grader to the starting
point is normally more efficient than turning it around and continuing the work from the far end.

Number of Passes
Grader efficiency is in direct proportion to the number of passes made. For example, if 4 passes will complete a
job, every additional pass increases the time and cost of the job
Tire Inflation
Overinflated tires cause less contact between the tires and road surfaces. To achieve good results it is
necessary to always keep tires properly inflated.
Time Estimates
Example
Fine Grading Production
Example
Grader Safety
In order to keep workers and construction equipment safe. Cause by many fatalities are happened inside
the working project area by the machines that are moving in reverse
Sight Lines Adjoining Activities
Operators of heavy vehicle are not Many projects involves work along or
able to see directly behind them. work that crosses railroad tracks

Fleet managers are beginning to

employ rear-vision cameras on grader
and other machines
Safety Rules
1. All graders should be equipped with accident prevention signs and tags as per the OSHA standards
29 CFR 1926.145 “Specification for accident prevention signs and tags” and slow-moving vehicle
emblems per 1910.145(d)(10)
2. When operating a grader slowly on a highway or roadway, display a red flag or flashing light on a
staff at least 6 ft above the left rear wheel
3. Never allow other personal to ride on the tandem, moldboard, or rear of the grader
4. Keep the moldboard angled well under the machine when not in use
Gradalls
Is a utility machine that combines the operating features of the hoe, dragline, and motor grader
Trimmers
● Produce accurate trimming than a grader
● One dual-lane trimmer is equal with four to six graders
● Automatic trimmers enable to grade control to closer tolerances
Grade Control
Automatic trimmers use a sensor control system that establishes the elevation and cross-slope of its
cutting teeth, based on input from either an arm riding on a grade wire or a ski riding on an established
grade