1Soils vary in physical and chemical composition.

The average handful of soil contains billions of

different living organisms that carry out various functions to help facilitate plant health, regardless of
the soils property. Organisms include larger creatures like earthworms and nematodes, to
microscopic organisms including, bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa. These organisms play a critical
role in maintaining soil health and fertility.

Compost Held in Man's HandsPlants have thrived without human intervention for millions of years.
However, to maximize growth and crop yields plants typically need a combination of three basic
macro-nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. In addition, plants require a slew of other
nutrients throughout their growth cycle.

The majority of a plant’s nutrients are derived from beneficial organisms working in the soil
surrounding the plant’s roots; this process is known as the soil foodweb . In addition to supplying
nutrients to plants, organisms benefit plants in a variety of other ways, including:

Retain nutrients in the soil, preventing them from leaching

Compete with, inhibit and consume diseases

Decompose plant residue, toxic materials and pollutants that kill plant roots

Form soil aggregates that improve water infiltration, root penetration and water-holding capacity of
the soil

Once the nutrients are available, soil organism’s aid in a process known as mineralization, which is
where nutrients are broken down and returned to their mineral forms. This allows the plant to take
in the nutrients as needed.

3Microplastics are increasingly seen as an environmental problem of global proportions. While the
focus to date has been on microplastics in the ocean and their effects on marine life, microplastics in
soils have largely been overlooked. Researchers are concerned about the lack of knowledge
regarding potential consequences of microplastics in agricultural landscapes from application of
sewage sludge.

Tb pg 97 blue box

5pg216 tb

Orangutan Conservation

Both species of orangutans are in danger of becoming extinct which is why you will find so many
conservation efforts in place to help them. One of the main efforts involves educating the public
about what is taking place. That way they will have a desire to get involved and to help with such
efforts. Too many people simply have no idea that the future is so risky for the orangutans.
One of the biggest threats to these animals has to do with the destruction of their natural habitat.
Huge sections of the rainforests where they live continue to be taken away. They are destroyed due
to burning so that they can be cleared for building and for roads to be made. They are also
destroyed due to the thriving logging business in many of these regions.

Mining for various types of minerals is also a reason that the natural habitat of the orangutans
continues to be a problem. The push for humans to use Biodiesel is also affecting the orangutans.
The can be taken from palm oil but in order to get it, the areas of the rainforest have to be taken
down and destroyed. So in one way we are helping to reduce the amount of damage to the
environment but we are also destroying the homes of the orangutans at the same time.

Illegal poaching of orangutans is a common problem as well. Even though these animals are
protected in some areas this continues. Finding better ways to enforce the protection of them is
vital. It can be very hard to catch poachers though. Orangutans aren’t always killed though but
trapped and taken as well.

BEHAVIOR

Orangutans are solitary creatures. Adult males live primarily alone and only come together with
females to mate. Adult females live with their young. Occasionally, adults will live with other adults
for short periods in small temporary groups.

Orangutans spend most of their lives in a "home range" of 0.4 to 3.7 square miles. Females have a
smaller home range than males. Sometimes the home ranges of individual orangutans overlap.

They feed mainly on fruits, especially wild figs. They also eat other kinds of vegetation, insects, small
vertebrates and birds eggs.

Habitat

An Orangutan's normal habitat is the tropical rainforest that is dominated by trees of the family
Dipterocarpaceae, which interestingly enough, is also becoming endangered in parts of the world.

In Sumatra, Orangutans are entirely arboreal because of large predators (such as tigers, leopards)
patrol the forest floor. The islands of Borneo contains fewer large predators so males will travel
Terrestrially and feed on the ground, but females will remain in the trees because of their smaller
size. In traveling through trees, Orangutans have shown intelligence by using common routes and
showing the ability to back track to their original route if need be. Orangutans are slow and
deliberate animals and their movement in the trees reflects this. It has also been seen that
Orangutans can occupy peat swamp forest in addition to tropical forest (2). Their habitat mainly
reflects areas where the greatest majority of food is located and areas that will give them the most
protection.
2Red soil is a type of soil that develops in a warm, temperate, moist climate under deciduous or
mixed forest, having thin organic and organic-mineral layers overlying a yellowish-brown leached
layer resting on an illuvium red layer. Red soils are generally derived from crystalline rock. They are
usually poor growing soils, low in nutrients and humus and difficult to cultivate because of its low
water holding capacity. Red soils denote the third largest soil group of India covering an area of
about 3.5 lakhs sq. km (10.6% of India's area) over the Peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the south to
Bundelkhand in the north and Rajmahal hills in the east to Katchch in the west. They surround the
red soils on their south, east and north.

The texture of red soil varies from sand to clay, the majority being loam. Their other characteristics
include porous and friable structure, absence of lime, kankar and free carbonates, and small
quantity of soluble salts. Their chemical composition include non-soluble material 90.47%, iron
3.61%, aluminium 2.92%, organic matter 1.01%, magnesium 0.70%, lime 0.56%, carbon dioxide
0.30%, potash[clarification needed] 0.24%, soda[disambiguation needed] 0.12%, phosphorus 0.09%
and nitrogen 0.08%. However significant regional differences are observed in the chemical
composition.

In general these soils are deficient in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen, humus and
potash[clarification needed]. Intense leaching is a menace to these soils. On the uplands, they are
thin, poor and gravelly, sandy, or stony and porous, light-colored soils on which food crops like bajra
can be grown.

Crops grown are cotton, wheat, pulses, tobacco, jowar, linseed, millet, potatoes and fruits. These are
also characterized by stunted forest growth and are suited to dry farming.

Characteristics of Alluvial Soils

They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin.

Most of the soil is Sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon.

Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are present in some regions
along the river terraces.

The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay) nature.

Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favorable for agriculture.

These soils are constantly replenished by the recurrent floods.

The crops that can be grown in alluvial soils include wheat, rice, barley, maize, bajra, jowar, pea,
pigeon pea, chickpea, black gram, green gram, soyabean, groundnut, mustard, linseed, sesame,
sugarcane, jute, cotton and tobacco.

4pg 214plants growing on the canopy of tropical evergreen frsts recieve high amount of water
due to rainfall. This rain does not toch the ground
the upper……………………………………………………………………………dry

The forests………..water