BUILDING MATERIALS IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING
CH-1 BRICK

➔ Standard size or modular size of Brick = 19 × 9 × 9cm

➔ Nominal size of Brick = 20 × 10 × 10cm
➔ When the brick is placed in Masonary, the size become 20 × 10 × 10cm known
as Nominal size of Modular Brick.
➔ Dimensions of Frog = 100 × 40 mm & 10-20 mm dip from
top surface
➔ Purpose of Providing Frog in upper Face of Brick is for providing key joint b/w
brick & mortar.

NOTE:- Traditional size or Country size of Brick = 230 × 114 × 76mm.

Classification of Bricks

1) On basis of water Absorption Test

W1 = dry wt of brick
(i) Class 1 brick
• The water absorption of 1st class brick should net to more than 20% of its dry
weight (≯20%).
• Crushing strength/compressive strength ≥ 10.5N/mm2.
Use → In exterior brick work for load bearing walls.

(ii) Class 2 brick

• % water Absorption ≯ 22%
• Crushing strength ≥ 7N/mm2
Use → In interior brick work, load bearing walls etc.

(iii) Class 3 brick

• % water absorption ≯ 24-25%.
Use → In interior brickwork such as partition, cavity wall & sleeper walls for non
load bearing wall construction.

As per Is/077:1976, the min compressive strength for building construction shall
be 3.5N/mm2.

NOTE:- Class 4 brick (overburn brick) (or Jhama Brick) – They have compressive strength
around 40N/mm2 which is used in filling purpose.

2) On basis of strength (IS 3102).

S.No. Class of Compressive Tolerance in Water

2
Brick Strength (N/mm ) dimension (%) Absorption (%)
1 H I 44 ± 3% 5%
2 H II 44 ± 8% 5%
3 F I 17.5 ± 3% 12%
4 F II 17.5 ± 8% 12%
5 M I 7.0 ± 3% 20%
6 M II 7.0 ± 8% 20%
7 L I 3.5 ± 3% 25%
8 L II 3.5 ± 8% 25%
Components of Bricks TRICK – SALIM

Raw Content % Use

Silica (SiO2) 50-60% Work for better shape of brick & provide
cohesion b/w ingredients. It also prevents
the shrinkage, cracking & warping.
Excess→It silica get excess, the cohesion
less & brick become brittle.
Alumina (Al2O3) 20-30% Alumina impart in plasticity nature during
the water mixing.
Excess→Crack will occur on surface during
burning.
Lime (CaO) ≯ 5% Work as Flux Material, help in fusion of
other ingredients during burning.
Excess→Brick loss its shape in burning.
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 5-6% Help in color formation & provide strength
Excess→It is get excess, the dark blue
color will form.
Magnesia (MgO) < 1% Little influence in color formation & also
Undesirable Contents help in offering of back.
1) Sulphur content
2) Nitrogenous content
3) Sodium content

Steps of Manufacturing of Brick

1) Selection of site
2) Preparation of Brick earth
I. Unsoiling – Top 100 to 200 layer is eliminated as waste soil.
 II. Excavation
III. Weathering & cleaning
IV. Blending – Spread the reduced content over surface & mix it vertically.
V. Tampering – Desired amount of water added in soil & kneaded or pressed under
the foot of man’s or cattle for well mixing.
VI. If mixing is done by mechanical machine (Pugging). Operation is known as
Pugging.

3) Moulding
Moulding

Hand Moulding Machine Moulding

Ground table

1st class brick comes from here

The size of mould is greater than standard size of Brick.

Drying
Drying

Natural Artificial
(10-12 days)
Hot floor Hot Tunnel
(Not preferred) (Best method) (time – 1 to 2 days)
(fan is used so that equal drying can take place)

Burning
➔ 400-6500C → Dehydration
➔ 650-9000C → Oxidation zone
➔ 9000-12500C → Verification

Verification – The whole mass converts into glass like substance

For soft clay (low melting clay), the temp range is 900-1000C
for Hard Melting clay, the temp. range is 1100-12500C.

Clamp & Kiln

Clamp is preferred in rural area over kilns because of it has less initial cost.

Difference b/w Hoffman & Ball Trench Kiln

S.No. Property Goffman kiln Bull Trench Kiln

1 No. of bricks About 40 lacks bricks in About 3 to 4 Lakhs bricks
one season
2 Cost of Fuel It consume less fuel It consume more fuel
3 Drying space It takes less space for It takes tests of space
drying
4 Continuity of working It runs throughout the year It do not work during
Monsoon season
st
5 Quality of brick It gives 1 class brick It gives average strength
brick
6 Initial cost It is costly It is Economical

Testing of Brick

1) Compressive Strength Test

Take 5 No. of brick as sample

Place them in water for 1 day.

Remove them out & purpose a cement Mortar having ratio 1:3 & fill the Frog & covered
the brick with damp jute bag for 3 days.

Place the brick in wear again for 24 hours. Then, remoud all of them & place in Testing
Machine. One-by-one.

Apply the load of 14N/mm2 till the fracture does not occur on surface.
 Load
Compressive Strength =
Cross section Area

The average of 5 specimen compressive strength is the resultant compressive strength.

2) Dimension Test IS-1077

Take 20 numbers brick.

Dimension 1 brick 20 brick Tolerance(in mm)

Length 190 mm 3800 mm ± 80mm
Height 90 mm 1800 mm ± 40mm
Width 90 mm 1800 mm ± 40mm

3) Water Absorption Test IS 3495 PART-2

i. 24 hours Test – IS code Recommended

ii. 5 hours Test – CPWD (not recommended by IS code)
4) Warpage Test IS-495 PART-4

Special Type of Brick

1) Heavy Duty Bricks

• The brick which has compressive strength more than 40 to 45 N/mm2 (class 40
or class 45) known as Heavy Duty Brick.
 • Water Absorption of these bricks is ≯ 10% in 24 hours testing.
• They are used in Heavy Engineering structure works eg. Bridge.

2) Perforated Brick

• They are lighter in weight but having same dimension.

• Use → In Govt. structures for heat transfer & heat insulation.

3) Refectory Bricks

• These bricks can stand in High Temp. around 17000C without losing its
engineering property.
• They also resist dampness & acid attack.
Compositions
It consists 55-75% silica, 20-35% Alumina & 2-5% Iron Oxide & 1% of lime
magnesia & other content.

4) Autoclave calcium silicate Brick

• The raw material of this brick its calcium silicate mixed mixes with Lime and
Quartz.
 • This brick has low water content & can be made in different variety of color.
• It is also known as Fly ash or Sand Lime Brick

Defect in Brick masonry

1) Over burring
2) Under burning
3) Crack on Surface
4) Warpage
5) Efflorescence– White film on masonry wall after construction.
6) Chiffs – Undulation on surface due to attack of rainwater drop on green moulded brick
7) Black core – The black color surface of brick due to presence of Bituminous content.
8) Blistering – Swelling mass on brick surface known as Blistering.

CH -2 BRICK MASONARY
For construction of brick masonary, 2 things are important Brick and Mortar.
Mortar

Mortar = Binding Material + Fine Aggregate

+ Water
Classification of Mortar

1) On the basis of Binding Material

i. Gypsum Mortar
ii. Lime Mortar – Setting time = 120 min
iii. Cement Mortar – Setting time = 30 min
iv. Gauged Mortar (Lime Cement Mortar) – 1:6 – 1:8
To enhance the strength of lime Mortar, Cement is added in ration of 1:6 to 1:8
, known as Lime cement Mortar or Gauged Mortar.
2) On the basis of Bulk density (rt)

.rw
G+se
rt =
1+e

rt > 15KN/m3 ⇒ Heavy Mortar

rt < 15KN/m3 ⇒ Low Mortar

3) On the basis of Use

i) Brick Laying Mortar - For wall construction
ii) Finishing mortar - For plaster

Compressive Strength Test of Mortar

Prepare a Mortar of cement mortar is 1:3 ratio when added water in it. ( +3) %, where
𝑃
4

P = Percentage amount of water to achieve standard consistency.

Fill 6 numbers of cube with this paste which has dimension 70.3 mm (surface area =
50cm2).
Place this cube in an open atmosphere for 24 hours after casting & after that place
them in water.
3 cubs tested in 7 days
3 cubs tested in 28 days

To find out the compressive strength, apply the load of 350 Kg/cm2/min till the failure
does not occur.

Applied load
Compressive strength =
Cross sectional area

Nature of Work & cement Mortar Ratio

S.No. Nature of Work Cement Mortar Ratio
1 Construction in waterlogged area 1:3
2 Damp Proof course 1:2
 3 Plaster Work 1:3 – 1:4
4 Normal brick Work 1:3 – 1:4
5 Reinforce brick work 1:3
6 Lining of Canal 1:2 – 1:3

Bricks on the basis of shape

1) Full Bat
2) Half bat
𝟗
3) bat
𝟒
4) Queen closure
(Queen closure half)
5) Queen closure Quarter
⇒ First cutted longitudinally than half.
6) King closure
It is a portion of brick which is cut in such a way that length & width of adjoining faces
at one end is half of another end. It means it has half header & half stretcher face.
7) Bevelled Brick
8)Mittred brick
Bond
Arranging the bricks in masonry in diff. style known as Bond.
1) Stretcher Bond
 → It has facing dimension 19 × 9 & the thickness of this bond is not more than
1
2

brick.
Use → Used in partition wall, cavity walls & other non-load bearing walls.

2) Header Bond

→ It has facing dimension 9 × 9 cm where the thickness is 1 brick wall.

Use → Used in construction of furnace lining.

3) Flemish Bond

This bond have alteration of stretchers & Header course in each layer. It is also known
as.

Comparison b/w English and Flemish Bond

1. English Bond is considered to be strongest bond.
2. Construction with English bond is easier than Flemish bond.
3. Expert labour is required for construction with Flemish bond.
 4. Appearance of Flemish Bond is better than English bond.
5. Broken bricks can be used in Flemish bond, but the mortar consumption will be
more.

Types of Flemish Bond

Single Flemish Bond

→ Single Flemish bond has facing of Flemish bond whereas backing of English bond.
→ Thickness of the bond is not less than 1 Brick wall.
1
2

Double Flemish Bond

Double Flemish Bond has backing & facing both appearance same & this bond has
thickness of 2 brick wall.
Strength of Brick Masonary

The strength of Brick Masonary depends on:

i. Class of brick
ii. Proportion of mortar
iii. Slenderness ration

Slenderness Ratio

L = Length of wall

t = Thickness of wall
H = Height of wall

𝐿 𝐻
⋋wall = min or
𝑡 𝑡

No. of Storey Cement – mortar (Max ⋋) Lime – mortar (Max ⋋)

< 2 27 20
> 2 27 13
CH -3 Aggregate & Water
Mortar → Binding Material + Fine Aggregates + water

Concrete → Binding Material + Fine Aggregate + coarse Aggregate + Water + Admixture

Filler (70-80%)

• Aggregate are the material work as filler, it has high strength, durability & less
cost than cement.
• In concrete construction, aggregate occupy 70-80% volume in concrete.

Classification of Aggregate

i) On the basis of sieve analysis

Sieve size > 4.75 → Coarse Aggregate

Sieve size < 4.75 mm → Fine Aggregate

2) On the basis of shape & Texture

i) Circular (rounded) Aggregate

→ They are usually obtained from river or seashore.

→ It consume less cement paste on surface & provide weak bond. But the workability
is more.
→ Voids are almost 32% (approx..)
ii) Angular Aggregate

They are sharp ended rough aggregate surface which consume more cement but provide
better bond strength. And the workability is low as compared to rounded aggregate.

iii) Elongated or Hanky Aggregate

→ The least lateral dimension of Flaky aggregate should be less than 0.6 times of
mean diameter of sample.
→ They are light in height & than surface & compliably avoided in construction
purpose.

Fineness Modulus of Aggregate

80mm X
40mm 𝑥1 → 𝑥1 𝑥1
× 100
𝑥

20mm 𝑥2 → 𝑥1 +→ 𝑥2
𝑥1+ 𝑥2
× 100
𝑥

12.5mm X
10mm 𝑥3 → 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
𝑥1+ 𝑥2+𝑥3
× 100
𝑥

4.75mm 𝑥4 → 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4
𝑥1+ 𝑥2+𝑥3+𝑥
× 100
4
𝑥

2.36mm X
118𝜇m X
600 𝜇m 𝑥5 → 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5
𝑥1+ 𝑥2+𝑥3+𝑥 +𝑥5
× 100
4
𝑥

300 𝜇m 𝑥6 → 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 +
𝑥1+ 𝑥2+𝑥3+𝑥 +𝑥5+𝑥
4
× 100
6
𝑥5 + 𝑥6 𝑥
 150 𝜇m X 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
100

The value will lie b/w 1-11

Fineness modulus is defined as sum of cumulative percentage retained on diff. sieve

divided by 100. It is the numerical index of fineness which gives idea about mean.

Size of Particle.

eg. ➀ FM3 represents 3rd no. sieve from bottom i.e.

eg. ➁ FM 5 has a stress of 2.36 mm.

eg. ➂ FM 9 has mean the particle is 20mm

10+4.75
eg. ➃ FM 65 has size ⇒ = 7.367mm
2

If FM is less than 6 → Fine Aggregate

If FM is 6 or more than 6 → Coarse aggregate

If FM value is too much lower, than form uneconomical mix concrete.

If FM value is so higher, then the mixture is harsh & lean.

WATER

PH + POH = 14

PH = 7 → Neutral

PH > 7 → Basic

PH < 7 → Acidic solution

PH of water used in concrete should be b/w 6 to 75.

If oil is mixes in water work as surfactant which reduce the charges & decrease bond
strength.

If sugar , gypsum is added in mixture, then it works as Retarder

CH - 4. CEMENT
➔ Cement is a material which has cohesion & Adhesion property when mixes with
water.
➔ Cement is obtained by pulverizing the clinker formed by calcinations of raw
material such as time, silica, Alumina, Iron oxide, magnesia etc.

Raw Component Average % Exact % Use

Lime (Cao) 60-62% 63% It provides strength & control the
soundness.
Excess→Reduce strength &
unsoundness occur
Silica (SiO2) 17-25% 20% Help in controlling strength.
Excess→ If silica get excess, then
setting time increases.
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8% 6% Responsible for quick setting
Excess→ Lowers the strength.
Iron Oxide(Fe2O3) 0.5-6% 3% Formation of color & help in fusion
of ingredients.
Excess→ Discolor effect will occur
Magnesia(MgO) 0.5-4% 2% Responsible for hardening
Excess→ Makes cement unsound

S. Undesirable content
No.
1 Trioxide (SO3) 1-5% 1.5% Help in soundness but excess
of Sulphur gives efflorescence
effect.
2 Soda or Potash 0.5-1% 1% It is residue material which
fours the strength & gives
efflorescence
 → The principal compound of cement is Lime, silica and Alumina.
→ When these all raw ingredients mixes together in a kiln, the new compound
formed is known as Bouge compound. These are such as : C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF.

Symbol Scientific Name Chemical formula Chemical Name

C3S Aelltie 3CaO.SiO2 Tricalcium silicate
C2S Bellite 2CaO.SiO2 Di Calcium Silicate
C3A Cellite 3CaO.Al2O3 Tricalcium
Aluminate
C4AF Fellite 4CaO.AlFe2O3 Tetra Calcium
Alumino Ferrite

Hydration Process

• Cement is a chemical compound, when mixed mixes with water, chemical reaction
start, known as hydration. This chemical reaction is Exothermic in which heat is
liberated & this heat is known as Heat of Hydration.
• For Hydration of cement, 23% water by weight of cement is added at initial level
which forms C-S-H gel. 15% extra water is added to fill the gel pores & complete
hydration. It means 38% water is req. in hydration process.

To hydrate the 500 kg cement, amount of water needed:

Complete Hydration Partially/Initially hydration
500×0.8= 190kg 500×0.25 = 125Kg.

C3S ⇒ (25-40%) (Exact -40%)

It is considered as best cementing material which has property of increase hardness &
strength at initial days (from 1 day to 14 days) Heat of Hydration is 500J/g.

C2S ⇒ (25-40%) (exact -32%)

This compound is responsible for later days or Ultimate strength (From 14 to 28 days,
1 months, 6 months, 1 year……….).
Heat of Hydration = 240 J/g

NOTE: Due to less heat of hydration, the chances of acid & sulphate attack is less.

C3A ⇒ (5-11%) (Exact -10.5%)

It is responsible for flash setting & strength (5mm, 30min, 1hr, 6hr, 10hr.
Heat of Hydration = 863J/g.

NOTE: If C3A increases beyond the limit, the chances of sulphate & acid attack is more.

C4AF ⇒ (5-10%) (Exact – 9%)

It is considered as poorest cementing material, but it is responsible for flash set but no
strength contribution.

Types of Cement

1) OPC – Ordinary Portland Cement

It comes in 3 grade : 33 XX
43 mostly used
53 Precast construction
Compressive strength in 28 days

2) Rapid Hardening Cement (IS-8041)

It has more C3S & less C2S as compared to OPC, it is also more finely
grinded.
Its 1day strength = 3day strength of OPC.
Use → Where the rapid construction goes on & rapid strength is desired.
3) Extra Raped Hardening cement or Ultra Rapid Hardening Cement
2% CaCl2 is added I Rapid Hardening cement which work as accelerator. After
mixing water, only 20 min remains for transporting, placing & compaction
purpose.

Its 1-day strength = 25% more than OPC’s 1 day strength.

7-day strength = 20% more than OPC’s & day strength.
Use → Specially for Repairing works in cold region areas.

4) High Alumina Cement (IS- 6452)

Bauxite → 40%
Lime → 40%
Iron oxide → 15%
other ingredients → 5%
As C3A is not present, it means it has better resistnce of sulphate & Acid attack.
Its 1-day strength = 30N/mm2 &
3-day strength = 30N/mm2
Use → It is preferred in pre-cast construction.

5) Low Heat Cement (IS – 12600)

It has more C2S & less C3S and C3A as compared to OPC. As C2S percentage is more,
Hydration will be slowly. It has good resistance of suphate attack.
Initial setting time ≮ 1 hour
Final setting time = 10 hour
Use → In mass concreting (Such as Gravity Dam).

6) Quick setting cement

→ Gypsum is eliminated from this cement
→ Initial setting time = 5 min.
Final setting Time = 30 min.
 Use → Under water construction, running water construction.

7) Color Cement or white Cement

→ This cement is free from Iron oxide & white chalk is added. Which forms white
cement.
→ It is strength = 90% strength of OPC which is achieved by sodium Alumina
Ferrite.
→ If desired color pigment is added, then color cement is formed.
Use → In flooring purpose, decoration purpose, ornamental works etc.

8) Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement

Use → It is recommended for sea water construction, coastal areas etc.

9) Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Portland clinker is mixes with Pozzolana (fly ash 30-35%), form PPC.

Use → It is preferred in normal construction, marine works etc.

EXTRA

TYPES OF CEMENT

PORTLAND CEMENT
• Portland cement normal setting cements ordinary cement.
• Resemblance in its color after setting, to a variety of sandstone which is found in
abundance in Portland England.
• Ordinary Portland cement has be classified as:
a) OPC - 33 Grade. (IS : 269 -1989)
b) OPC – 43 Grade. (IS : 8112-1989)
c) OPC – 53 Grade. (IS : 12669 – 1987)
• Physical requirements of all these three types of cement are almost same except for
compressive strength.
• Advantage of using high grade cements are:
i) Due to high fineness, the workability of concrete increases
IS : 10262 OPC grade-wise from A to F 28-day compressive strength

Category Strength (Mpa)

A 32.5 -37.5
B 37.5 – 42.5
C 42.5 – 47.5
D 47.5 – 52.5
E 52.5 – 57.5
F 57.5 – 62.5

Note: According to above table 33,43 and 53 grade of cement corresponds to

categories A, C and E respectively. But, most of the 43 grade cements available in
market fall in category D and that 53-grade cements in category F.

Rapid hardening cement (IS: 8041)

• has more C3S less C2S.
• This cement must not be-used for mass concrete because due to large quantity of
heat of hydration, the temperature inside the concrete increases, leading to formation
of undesirable crack on cooling.
• 1 day which an ordinary cement attains in 3 days with the same water cement ratio.
• Subjected to large shrinkage water requirement for workability is more.
• Cost of 10 per cent-more than the ordinary cement.
• It contains more C3S and less C2S less C2S than the OPC.
• Repair of roads, bridges and in structures.

Extra Rapid Hardening Portland cement (ERHC) or Ultra Rapid hardening Portland
cement.
• 2% Cacl2 and rapid hardening Portland cement.
• Maximum time of 10 minutes is available for mixing, transporting and placing the
concrete.
• Additions of CaCl2 ensure quick setting and hardening properties repair works.
• Not used in prestressed concrete.
• Higher percentage of CaCl2 causes excessive shrinkage.
• 1 day in is 25% more and 7 days is = 20% more than OPC.
• Calcium chloride cement.
High Alumina Cement (IS: 6452)
• Bauxite 40% limes to no 40%, 15% iron oxide.
• As Since CA is not present, suitable to sea and under-water work.
• It’s rapid hardening properties arises due to Al2O3.CaO. For setting and hardening
there is not free hydrated lime as in the case of OPC.
• Final setting 600 minutes.
• One day strength is 30N/mm2 and 3 day is 35N/mm2.
• Not be used in places where temperature exceeds 180C.
• Fineness ≥ 225 m2/Kg.
• Expansion ≤ 5mm.
• Used widely for pre-casting.
Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRPC) (IS: 12330)
• It contains very low C3A.
• Expansion of cement is limited to 10 mm and 0.8 per cent, when tested by Le-
chatelier method and autoclave test, respectively.
• Setting times are same as that for ordinary Portland cement.
• Fineness of 400 m2/kg.
• Initial setting time ≤ 30 minutes and final setting time ≥ 600 minutes.
• Strongly recommended for structures in sea water.

Portland slag Cement (IS: 455: 1989)

• Made by intergrading Portland cement clinker, (≮35%) and granulated blast furnace
slag and gypsum.
• Slag contains oxide of lime, silica and alumina.
• Slag content in the cement varies between 25 to 65 per cent of the total mass of
mixture.
• Expansion of the cement should not be more than 10 min and 0.8 per cent.
• Initial and Final setting times for 33 grade OPC.
• Due to its low heat of hydration it can also be used for mass concreting, e.g., dams,
foundations, etc.

Super Sulphated Portland Cement (IS : 6909)

• 80 to 85% of granulated slag with 10 to 15% of calcium sulphate 5% of Portland
cement clinker to.
• In this cement C3A, which is susceptible to sulphates is limited to less than 3.5%.
• Used in place with temperature is below 400C.
• It is useful for mass concrete work.
• Fineness of 400 m2/kg.
• Expansion ≤ 5mm.
• Initial setting time ≥ 30 minutes, setting time ≤ 600 minutes.
• Is highly resistant to seawater.

Low Heat Portland Cement (IS: 12600)

• Lower contents of the more hydrating compounds, C3S and C3A and more contents
of C2S.
• Desirable in mass concreting of gravity dam.
• Possesses less compressive strength having initial setting time is about 1-hour final
setting time is about 10 hours.
• 272 and 314 k/J/kg at the end of 7 and 28 days.
• 10mm and 0.8%.
Portland Pozzolana Cement (IS: 1489 Part I)
• Portland cement clinker and pozzolana (usually fly ash 10 to 30% by mass of PPC.
• The average compressive strength of mortar cube, (area of face 50 cm2) composed
of 1:3 by mass and ( ) + 3%.
𝑃
4

• Initial time = 30 minute and final setting time= 600 minute.

• Drying shrinkage should not be more than 0.15%.
• Fineness should not be less than 300 m2/kg.
• Is used in the paces of mass concrete such as dams.

Quick Setting Portland Cement

• Ground much finer than OPC.
• Sets quickly but does not harden quickly.
• Initial setting time = 5 minutes.
• Final setting time = 30 minutes.
• When concrete is to be laid under water or in running water.

Masonry Cement (IS: 3466)

• Portland cement clinker is ground and mixed intimately with pozzolanic material or
non-pozzolanic waste materials gypsum and air entraining plasticizer,
• Good workability reduces shrinkage and water retentivity.
• Used for masonry works, plaster work.
• Not be used for concrete work.
• Physical requirements of masonry cement are as follows:
1. Fineness: Residue on 45-micron (15)
a) Initial, Min (90min)
b) Final, Max (10mm)
3. Soundness:
a) Le-Chatelier expansion, Max (90mm)
b) Autoclave expansion, Max (1 per cent)
4. Compressive Strength
 7 days (2.5 MPa)
28 days (5 MPa)

White and Colored Portland Cement (IS: 8042)

• Manufactured from pure white chalk and china clay free from iron oxide.
• Greyish color of cement issued to iron oxide, iron oxide limited below 1 per cent.
• Colored cements 5 to 10 per cent coloring pigments.
• Sodium alumina ferrite (cryolite) Na3ALF6 is added during burning which acts as a
catalyst in place of iron oxide.
• Hunter scale whiteness of white cement.
• Compressive and transverse strength of the cement is 90 per cent of that 33 grade
OPC:
(i) Chromium oxides gives green colour.
(ii) Cobalt imparts blue colour.
(iii) Manganese dioxide imparts black or brown.
(iv) Iron oxide gives brown colour.
• Used for making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of walls ornamental works.

Water Repellent Cement (IS: 8043) or Hydrophobic cement.

• Manufactured by grinding OPC clinker with 0.1 to 0.4% of oleic acid, stearic acid
or pentachlorophenol.
• This addition forms water repellent film around each particular of cement.
• Hydrophobic cement also features greater water resistance and water impermeability.

3 day ± 1 hour 15.69 N/mm2

7 day ± 2 hour 21.57 N/mm2
28 day ± 4 hour 30.40 N/mm2

• Small strength gain during the initial period but its 28-day strength is equal to OPC.
• Most suitable for basements and for making watertight concrete.
Type Of Cements along with codes.

I. Ordinary Portland Cement

II. Rapid Hardening Cement- IS : 8041 -1990
III. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement
IV. Low Heat Portland Cement – IS: 12600-1989
V. Portland Slag Cement – IS : 455-1989
VI. Portland Pozzolana Cement- IS 1489-1991 (Part 1 And 20
VII. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement – IS : 12330-1988
VIII. White Portland Cement – IS : 8042-1989
IX. Colored Portland Cement – IS : 8042-1989
X. Hydrophobic Cement – IS : 8043-1991
XI. High Alumina Cement – IS : 6452-1989
XII. Super Sulphated Cement – IS 6909-1990
XIII. special cements
a) masonry cement
b) Air Entraining cement
c) Expansive cement
d) Oil well cement

Field tests for cements.

• Color: Grey color with a light greenish shade.
• Physical properties: cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.
• If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, it should sink and
should and should not float on the surface.
• Presence of lumps: cement should be free from lumps.
 • Permissible limits for impurities in water
Impurity Permissible Limits
Organic 200 mg/L
Inorganic 3000 mg/L
Sulphates (SO3) 400 mg/L
Chlorides (CI) 2000 mg/L for plain concrete work,
500 mg/L for reinforced concrete work
Suspended matter 2000 mg/L

Laboratory tests for cements

1. Chemical composition test

• Ratio of percentage of lime to percentage of silica, alumina and iron oxide
known as lime saturation factor (LSF), when calculated
𝐶𝑎𝑂−0.7𝑆𝑂3
by the formula shall not be greater than 1.02 and
2.8 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 +1.2𝐴𝐼2 𝑂3 +0.65𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3
not less than 0.66.
• Ratio of percentage of alumina (AI2O3) to that of iron oxide (Fe2O3) shall not be
less than 0.66
• Weight of insoluble residue shall not be more than 4 per cent.
• Weight of magnesia shall not be more than 6 per cent.
• Total loss on ignition shall not be more than 5 per cent.
• Total sulphur content calculated as sulphuric anhydride shall not be more than
2.5% when C3A is 5% or less and shall not be more than 3% when C3A is
more than 5%

Manufacturing of Cement

1) Dry Process
2) Wet Process

Dry Process
 Calcareous Argillaceous Material
Material

Crushing Crushing

Grinding in Ball mill Grinding in Ball mill

Mixing Chamber

Correction Silos

Preheating @ 8000C by exhaust gas

Mixing Chamber

Fed in Rotary Kiln

Clinker Form Here

Grinding the Clinker

Cement

Packing Yard

Dry Process is adopted when the raw materials are quite hard & about 14% water is
added, in mixing chamber for finding of raw ingredients.
Wet Process

Calcareous Argillaceous Water

Material Material

Crushing Washing

Grinding in Ball Wet Grinding

mill

Raw Slurry

Fill into Elevator

Fill in Rotary Kiln

Clinker Form here

Grinder the clinker

Cement

Packing Yard

Wet process is adopted when the raw constant is soft in nature Around 40% water is
added for making of raw slurry.

Comparison B/w Dry Process

1) In dry process, material are hard then wet process.

2) Dry process is considered to be economical because in wet process longer kilns are
used which consume more fuel.

Testing of Cement

1) Field Test

→ Color – Greenish Grey

→ Cement is smooth material, feel cool when hand inserted in cement bag.
→ If handful cement is thrown in bucket full of water. It must float for while than
sink.
→ Weight of a cement bag = 50 kg
Volume of a cement bag = 0.035m3 or 35L
Density of a cement bag = 1440 kg/m3
Specific Gravity a cement bag = 3.15 (by Le- chattier flask)

2) Lab test

i) Consistency Test

This test is to ultimate the quantity of water to form a cement paste having plastic
nature.
Normal consistency is defined as the percentage of water required for cement paste in
which Vicat plunger can penetrate 3-5mm or up to 7mm up from bottom. To achieve
this penetration level, mixed amount of water is the consistency of cement.

Time of Testing = Within 5-7 min after mixing of water

NOTE: Normal consistency of OPC cement is equal to 30%.

ii) Setting time test

Initial setting time

Cement → 200g - 300g

Stop clock  water → 85% by wt. of cement
Normal consistency of cement paste = 0.85P

A cement paste is prepared by mixing of water 0.85 times of cement which has
consistency 0.85P. Stop clock is started with mixing of water & when the penetration of
square needle remains 30-35mm from top level, stop the clock at this penetration &
consider the time, known as Initial setting Time of Cement.

NOTE: O.P.C. → 30mm

Quick setting Cement → 5 min
Low Heat cement → ≮ 1 hour
Final Setting Time

Attachment is replaced with annular callar (dia-5mm) with same cement mould. Continue
the stop clock & pinch up by annular collar with gap duration. When the annular collar
penetration is only up to 0.50mm, note down that time considered as Final setting time
of cement.

NOTE: Final setting time of

OPC → 10h
Quick setting cement → 30min
Low Heat Cement → 10h

iii) Soundness Test

Purpose of this test is to detect the change in volume of cement after setting.
Unsoundness property is because of excess lime & excess magnesia content. These
are 2 methods is detecting the unsoundness.
a) Le-Chattier Test
b) Autoclave

NOTE: Le- chattier detect the expansion due to excess time whereas Autoclave Method
detect the expansion duet to Lime & Magnesia both.
a) Le-Chattier Test

It consists of a small split cylinder of brass metal. It’s dia is 30mm & height is 30mm.
Cement is mixes with water & the consistency is 0.78P. The mould is covered with
glass plate at top & bottom. And measure the gap b/w indicator arms after 24 hours of
mixing of water. Then submerged the mould in water & heat this water up to boiling
point & place this mould for 3 hour. Then, remove the mould from water & let is cool
down for half an hour. Then, again measure the gap b/w indicator arm.

The difference b/w these two measurement should the expansion of cement
NOTE:-
i) For OPC, PPC, Low Heat cement, Rapid Hardening Cement, the expansion limit is
10mm.
ii) For High Alumina Cement & Super sulphated cement, the expansion is 5mm.

b) Autoclave Test
A 25 × 25 × 250mm specimen is made by cement paste & place this specimen at
open atmosphere for 24 hours. Then, measure the length of specimen.
Place this specimen in Autoclave & start steam saturation in rate of that absolute
pressure 1.2N/mm2 – 2.1 N/mm2 reaches at this level within hour. Then, remove the
1
2
specimen from Autoclave & place it in water (900C) for hour again. Then, again remove
1
2
the mould from hot water & let it cool down. Measure the length of member once again.
The percentage length change should the expansion of cement.
For all type of cement, the expansion should not be more than 0.8%

iv) Strength Test

Compressive strength Test
9 no. of cube is casted ( 7.06cm or 70.6mm) (Surface area= 50cm2). Complete
procedure is the Mortar (done earlier).

Time OPC33 OPC43 OPC53 Low Heat Cement

3 days 16 N/mm2 23 27 10 N/mm2
7 days 22 N/mm2 33 37 16 N/mm2
28 days 33 N/mm2 43 N/mm2 53 N/mm2 35 N/mm2

Tensile strength Test

→ Tensile strength is determined by Briquette Test or Split Tensile strength Test.
→ The approximate Tensile strength of cement is 10-15% of compressive strength.

NOTE: Tensile strength test is especially performed for rapid Hardening cement.

(v) Fineness Test

Sieve Analysis
Fineness Test Air permeability Test → Blane & Nurse Method
Sedimentation Test →Wanger Turbidity meter method
NOTE:
Sieve Method measure the grain size of particle whereas air permeability & sedimentation
test gives information about surface area of cement.

Sieve Analysis
100g sample of cement is taken as sample 90𝜇(9nos. sieve) is used for sieve analysis
which must be shake for 15 min. That gives information about Fineness of cement.

Type of cement % residue after Surface area (m2/kg)

OPC 10% 225
Rapid Hardening cement 5% 325
PPC 5% 300
Compressive Strength Test
Brick → 5 no.
Mortar → 6 no.
Cement → 9 no.
CH-5 – CONCRETE
Binding material; + Fine aggregate + Coarse aggregate + Water + Admixture

Concrete is a composite mixture of Binding material, Fine Aggregate, coarse aggregate,

water & admixture.

Types of Concrete

1) On the basis of Binding Material

i) Cement concrete
ii) Lime Concrete
iii) Mud concrete

2) On the basis of proportion

M5 - 1 : 5 : 10
M7.5 - 1 : 4 : 8 Low strength concrete
M15 - 1 : 2 : 4
M20 - 1 : 1.5 : 3
M25 - 1 : 1 : 2 Medium strength concrete
M40 -
M80 - High strength concrete

3) On the basis of place of casting

i) In situ concrete
ii) Precast concrete

In situ concrete
When concrete is prepared on site by establishing the plant is known as in-situ concrete.

4) On the basis of Bulk Density

 Type of concrete Bulk Density
Extra light concrete < 500 kg/m3
Light concrete 500-1800 kg/m3
Medium concrete 1800-2500 kg/m3
High concrete > 2500 kg/m3

Manufacturing step of concrete

1) Batching
→ To weigh the Raw content which is going to be used in manufacturing of concrete.
Batching

Volume wise Weight wise

Small scale construction Large scale construction

2) Mixing

Hand Mixing Machine mixing → 20 revolutions.

→ In hand mixing, 10% extra cement is added as compared to machine mixing.

→ The mixing time in mixing chamber is 2 to 3 minute or in rotator,
20 no. of revolution is enough. Otherwise, segregation will occur.

3) Transporting
Transporting of fresh concrete must b/w 30 min (initial setting lime of cement)
Tools - Pan, power, Buggies and elevator, Tower crane, Boam pressure, chute
pipe ( Galvanized iron).
→ (600mm, 900m) (L Shape, straight , & T shape
→ (35mm -90mm)

4) Placing
Free fall limit of concrete as per IS 456 should not be more than 1.5m.

5) Compaction
 The purpose of compaction is to remove the air void & manufacture a uniform
concrete.

Tools - Hand steel rod, Mechanical vibrators - Needle vibrator (35mm-60mm 𝜃) &
- Foam Vibrator, Surface vibrator - for pavement construction (road roller)

NOTE:
If 1% air voids remains in concrete, it reduces 5% strength of concrete.

6) Curing
The purpose of curing is to present the water of concrete which is present in 3
forms:
i) Capillary water
ii) Gel water
iii) Surface & bond water
As the hydration process start, concrete loose its capillary water, then start losing Gel
water. This is harmful for concrete, so we apply watering on the surface.

Method of Curing
1. Sprinkling of water
2. Wet hessian cloth
3. Ponding method
4. Curing compound
5. Steam curing
Objective → If a member is cured for 7 days then its strength is 50% more than
dry member.
→ If a member is cured for 1 month, then its strength is twice of dry
member.

Period of curing → 7 to 10 days

Temperature → 50C to 320C

7) Finishing
i) Screeding – Striking of extra concrete is known as screeding.
 ii) Floating - A wooden or Aluminum flatter is used for same mortar paste on
concrete surface.
iii) Troweling – It smoothens the surface with steel conical members.

Testing of Concrete

1) Strength Test
i) Compressive strength Test
Indian

→ 24hr open atmosphere

Water dipping
3 cube → 7days
3 cube → 28 days

load
Strength =
cross sectional area

7-day cube strength = 2/3 times of 28 days cube strength.

Load rate = 14N/mm2/min till failure does not occur
 This cube strength is 1.25 times of cylinder strength.

cylinder strength 1
= = 0.80
cube strength 1.25

At specific load if the area decreases, then strength will be more.

ii) Modulus of Rupture Test or Flexural Tensile strength Test

Load rate → 0.7N/mm2/min ↑↑↑

iii) Split Tensile strength Test

 The load Rate on cylinder is 1.2 N/mm2/min & upto 2.4 N/mm2

NOTE: Generally the tensile strength of concrete is 10-12% of compressive strength.

All strength test is used for up to 20mm dia aggregate.

2) Workability Test

Workability means case of work in concrete by which a concrete can be mixed, transport
& placed easily. It has a relation with water cement ration and other factors. For testing
of workability, there are diff. methods.

i) Slump test
 → The slump value of concrete is the difference b/w height of mould & peak of final
subsidal concrete.
→ True slump has cohesive nature whereas shear slump is non cohesive nature.
→ The height of shear slump is half of height of True slump.
Type of work Slump value (mm)
Road construction 30 - 40 mm
Parapet wall 40 - 50 mm
Canal lining 70 – 80 mm
50-120 mm
Mass concrete 25-50 mm
Vibrated concrete 10/25mm

Intimation → The slump value test can be done if the aggregate size is less than
38mm.

1) Compacting Factor Test

Mass of partially compacted concrete

C.F =
Mass off fully compacted concrete
⇒ Range is 0-1
⇒ Minimum is 0.65 & Maximum is 1

Workability Consistency Slump Value C.F. Use

Nature Nature (mm)
Extremely low Moist earth 0mm 0.65-0.7 Precast
member
Very Low Very dry 0-25mm 0.7-0.8 Road
workable construction
Low workable Dry 25-50mm 0.8-0.95 Mass concrete
Medium Plastic 50-100mm 0.85-0.95 General RCC
workable work
Highly workable Semi-fluid 100-175mm 0.95-1 Where the
heavy

Water- cement Ratio

As per Abram’s law, strength of concrete is inversely proportional to water cement Ratio.

1
Strength of concrete ×
water cement ratio

The practical limit of water content on site is in range of 0.35-0.65

factors affecting the strength of concrete
1). water cement ratio
2). age of cement

Age Strength
Fresh 100%
3 month 80%
6 month 70%
1 year 60%
 >1year 50%

3). compaction & air void

4). curing
5). shape of aggregate
6). cement – aggregate Ratio – a fixed proportion gives adequate strength
7). fineness of cement

Factors affecting the workability

1). water cement ratio
2). amount of cement ➔ cement ( inc.) workability ( decreases).
3). compaction & air void
4). shape & texture of aggregate ➔ 000 → workability more
5). grading of aggregate ➔ proper proportion of aggregate improve the workability
whereas uneconomical proportion reduce the workability
6). Grade of design mix ➔ in diff grade the amount of water per 50kg cement is diff
which control the workability.
7). time of transit ➔ in transporting

Nominal mix

Grade Wt of [FA + C.A] Proportion of Wt. of water (kg)

Per 50kg cement (FA+CA) Per 50kg cement
M5 800KG 1:2 60Kg
M47.5 625KG 1:2 45kg
M10 480KG 1:2 34kg
M15 330KG 1:2 32kg
M20 250KG 1:2 30kg
Physical properties of concrete

1). modulus of Elasticity

As per IS 1976 ➔ Es = 5700√𝑓ck

EC = 5000√fck → as per IS : 456-2000
fck = characteristic strength of concrete in 28days test
long term modulus of elasticity ➔ Ece = Ec
1+ϴ

ϴ = creep coefficient factor is the function of age of concrete

age ϴ

7 day 1.2
28 day 1.6
1 year 1.1

the range of nodules of elasticity = 14 x 103 to 40x103 N/mm2

2). Poisson ratio

m = Lateral strain
Longitudinal strain

m = 0.1 -0.3
For dynamic test ➔ m = 0.25

Admixture
Admixture are the material used in the man manufacturing of concrete which control the
water cement ratio and increase or decrease the hydration rate & work for strength ,
they are present in powder & fluid form
Types of admixture
1). Accelerator
They increase the rate of hydration and speed up the chemical reaction by which setting
time comes earlier
eg. CaCl2 ( most famous)
Less famous → Na2SO4,NaOH, Na2CO3 etc.

2). retarder
They slow down the rate of hydration by which setting time comes later.
eg. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
Less famous → sugar cellulose, alcohol, oil etc

3). Air entrained

→ an air entraining agent add in concrete in the form of air bubbles which increase the
workability of concrete but reduce the strength.
➔ it control the bleeding and segregation
eg. sop bubbles, vinsol resin

4). plasticizer (water Reducer)

To control the water cement ratio & improve the plastic nature & workability, they are
added in concrete
eg. hydroxylated carboxylic acid with sodium solution. dose → 200 ml-450ml per 100 kg
cement

Defect in concrete
1). crack
2). efflorescence
→ white mass patches on concrete surface
➔ because of Sulphur attach & alkalis in water or acid curing.
3). Segregation → separation of coarse aggregate from fine aggregate because of
excuses compaction, extra time of mixing & wrong placing.

4). Bleeding → percolation of water from diff layer of fresh concrete.

Aerated concrete
Cement + F.A + water + admixture (Air – entraining)
 the composition of Aerated concrete is cement, fine aggregate, water & admixture
(air-entrained).
 The amount of cement is more than siliceous material. they are light weighted
but have proper strength & use in filling of sunken portion in building constriction.

Timber
Structure of tree

Pith or medulla
➔ It is the innermost position of timber.
➔ it is considered as dead member

Heartwood or true wood

➔ it work as phloem member.
➔ it do not active participate in growth of three & considered as dead member also.
Sapwood
➔ it work as xylem & participate in growth of timber, considered as active part.
➔ sapwood consist b/w hardwood & cambium layer

Cambium layer
➔ cambium layer consist b/w sapwood & inner bark
➔ The lignin compound present on cambium layer surface.

Inner and outer bark

➔ Inner bark protect the cambium layer & lignin compound.
➔ Outer bark is the outermost portion of any tiruber which protect the all inner
layers from injuries.

Modularly rays.
➔ these are thin fibre rays which run from pith to cambium layer.
➔ They hold the annular rings at their proper place.
➔ Age of any timber can be detected by counting th3e no of annular rings.
➔ slower the rate of growth, stronger & denser the member

Defect in timber
1). Defect due to natural forces.
i). knot
:- when branch section is eliminated from parsent stem, unequal surface & spot
remains at cutting place known as knot.

ii). Shake – crack

a). Star shake

➔ these are radial split crack start from bark section & sun toward inside portion
➔ These are wider at circumference & diminish (narrow)
inwards because of direct contact of sunlight

b). Radial shake

it is same as star shake, only the crack properties differ.
c). Heart shake
• cracks start from pith & run toward sapwood.
• cracks are wider at pith & diminish outward because of over maturity of timber.

d). Cup shake

• the cracks on circumference on annular rings at partially portion.
• because of direct sun contact or non uniform growth

e). Ring shake

iii). Foxiness
yellow or red color stains on timber surface because of placing of timber in non
ventilated area or something due to aver maturity.

iv). Droopiness
White spot on surface because of fungi attach on cellulose portion.

2). defect due to finger & bacteria

• If moisture content in a timber is more than 18-20%, then the chances of fungi
& bacteria attack is more.
• Bacteria do not cause any serious damage. it call fungi Which is harmful for
surface
I. Brown rot
If fungi attack on cellulose & hemicelluloses & left the brown color on surface
known as brown rot.

II. Dry Roy

• fungi breakdown the sap wood & convert it into dry powder form.
• it is because of placing of timber in non-ventilated area, damp area etc.

III. White rot

• Fungi kills the cellulose & eat it completely & left white spot.
IV. Wet rot
• When fungi chemically us decompose the timber & left grayish brown color on
surface known as wet rot
• It is because of alternate dry & wet condition in open placing of timber

Prevention of timber

1). seasoning of timber (IS-1141)

As per FRI (forest research institute), the moisture content in a good timber is in range
of 10-12%. At this moisture level. Member considered as strong & durable & chances
of bacteria & fungi attack is less.

Method of seasoning

Compartment kiln
But in compartment kiln, different compartment is filled with static batch which is best
method of seesawing.

 for 25 cm dia, seasoning time is 2 hours.

As dia increases, seasoning tune also increases.

B). Electrical seasoning

❖ it is quickest method of seasoning but costly.
 ❖ Cathode & anode place either side of timber & supply the alternating current.
❖ Time → 5 min

C). Running Water Seasoning

place the timber in running water where running water attack on sap wood & leach it
out from another end, then do the natural seasoning.

D). Chemical seasoning (salt seasoning)

❖ Place the timber in Na solution & its concentration must be high
❖ Osmosis process acts here by which all the sapwood leach out then do the
normal seasoning.
❖ Because of Na solution, yellow stain remain on surface.

1). Prevention due to chemical Process

I. creosote oil → Petrol, Diesel, kerosene, Bitumen soln

II. Water soluble chemical

❖ Gamma benzene hexachloride (BHC)
❖ Tri chlorophenol (T.C.P)
❖ copper & zinc naphthenate

III. As-Cu treatment

1 : 3 : 4

Arsenic copper potassium

Penta oxide sulphate Dichromate

It is best method of timber prevention

Method of applying of preservative
1. Spray the surface
2. Paint the surface
3. Immersion
4. Fagging
5. Butcheries Process – It is an example of surface application

Fire prevention of timber

To make the timber fire resistant by using of borax solution of Na & 2-3% of
Antipyrines. But this paste is not so effective.

Sir abele’s Process

Clean the surface of timber

Sodium silicate parte apply on surface

Slake lime paste apply on surface

Sodium silicate paste apply on surface

Now, Timber is fire Resistant

Example of Refectory timber ➔ Sal & teak

Example of non – refectory Timber → deodar, chirr,

Note : - Fiber saturation point (F.S.P)

During the seasoning when only 25-30% moisture content remain, this limit is known
as fiber saturation limit at this milt, only bound water remains in call wall & free
water eliminate from call cavity.
Physical properties of timber
1). Colors
Dark in center & lighter outside

2). Obour
Pleasant smell.

3). Water permeability

Along the timber is more. Along the longitudinal direction { vertical direction}

4). sound
When 2 timber struck together, ringing sound create

5). Weight & density

It is measured when timber has moisture content 10-12%

6). modulus of elasticity

Timber must be elastic in nature. Value of modulus of elasticity of timber
E= 0.5 x 104 to 1 x 1 x 104 N/mm2

7). Specific gravity

Specific gravity < 1 & depends on species

Mechanical properties of timber

1). compressive strength
Compressive strength if more along the timber (grain) as compared to across the
timer.
2). Tensile strength
→ Tensile strength is more along the timber (grain) as compared to across the
timber.
➔ Tensile strength along the grain = 2-4 times the compressive strength along the
grain
3). Shear strength
With less effort for max cutting , a timer should cut such as that it make 45o angle with
horizontal

Wooden product
1). veneer
➢ these are thin shat having thickness around 3 mm which is abstained by stating
the timber against sharp ratany cutter.
➢ These are flexible in nature & can be easily bend in desired shape.

2). plywood
when 2 or more veneers glued together, form a ply and if 2 or more ply added together
forms plywood.
It is fixing such as the successive layer of ply make right angle to each other.

Note:- Plywood has better strength in both (along & across) direction.

Minimum thickness of plywood = 10 mm

Timber Category Use

Babool hard Agriculture equipment

Bamboo Endogenous Scaffolding
Benteak Hard Boat construction
Deodar soft Railway sleepers, railway boogies
Mahogany Hard Furniture, ornamental works, fancy goods.
Mulberry soft playing equipments
Willow soft Cricket bat
English
Kashmir
Rosewood or Hard Furniture, doors & window etc.
Blackwood
Mango hard Door & window panel
Teak Hard ship construction
Sandal soft Beauty products, artificial
fancy box
CH-7 Rock & stones
Rock

Geological Physical Chemical

Igneous sedimentary metamorphic stratified unstratified foliated siliceous calcareous argillaceous

Stones has been defined as a specific structure which is obtained from rock. rock is the
portion of earth which present in crust portion.

Classification of rock
1). Geological classification
I. Igneous rock
➢ These are primary unstratified rock which is formed due to volcanic eruption &
solidification of magma.
➢ They are hard in nature.
➢ They are hard in nature
a). if magma comes out & dandifies over the ground surface known as effusive rock eg.
basalt & trap.

b). if magma solidifies at shallow depth below the ground surface, is known as hypabyssal
rock eg. Dolerite

c). if magma solidifies at deep depth from ground surface is known as deep seated
plutonic rock eg. Granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro etc.

II. Sedimentary rock

➢ these are stratified rocks which is aqueous in nature.
➢ It is form due to transportation of sediments because of weathering agecy
(wind rain)
➢ Example → sandstone, dolomite, diatomite, majestic.

III. Metamorphic rock

➢ they are achieved from igneous & sedimentary rock because of metamorphic
action such as earth pressure, earth movement, liquid pressure, air pressure etc.
Original rock Metamorphic rock
Granite Gneiss
Syenite Gneiss
Sandstone Quartzite
Limestone marble
Shall slate
dolerite & basalt ` schist
Mudstone slate

2). Physical classification

1). stratified
They are soft in nature & can be easily split.
eq sandstone, dolomite, diatomite, magnesite, limestone, Tripoli, tufas etc (all examples
same as sedimentary)

ii). unstratified
they are hard in nature & cannot be easily split
Eg. granite, syenite, etc (ALL egs same as igneous)

iii). Foliated
They are granular structure rock & all the metamorphic rocks (except quartzite & marble)
are example of foliated rock.

3). chemical classification

I. Siliceous rocks
Principal component – silica (S1O2).
eg sandstone, granite, basalt, trap, syenite etc

II. Calcareous
Principal component – lime
eg. limestone, marble, dolomite etc.

III. Argillaceous
Principal component – alumina (clay)
eg. State, laterite etc

Quarrying of stone
Open part of any mountain from which stone is achieved knows as quarry. And the
action of achieving stone from mountain is known as quarrying.

tools of quarrying
1). Wedge.
2). pin
3). hammer
4). crew bar
5). jumper
6). dipper

Method of quarrying
1). excavation
2). drilling
3). Wedging
4). heat the surface
5). blasting

Blasting is the easiest method in which diff compound is used.

eg.
Gun powder ➔ saturated cotton in nitric acid
Dynamite ➔ nitroglycerine with sand paste
cordite ➔ nitroglycerine + nitro cellulose

Dressing of stone
➔ fresh quarried stone do not have any fixed shape which Crete problem in
transporting.
➔ to provide a definite structure in stone is known as dressing of stone.
Tools ➔ Hammer, mesh hammer, chisel, knife, axe (punch axe, saw axe)

Seasoning of stone
Quarrying → dressing → seasoning

to remove the moisture content from the stone is known as seasoning of stone.
Period → 2 month to 6 months

Testing of stone
1). durability test
I. smith test
Place the fresh chips of stone in normal water in a boucle shake it for well mixing. after
½ hour, if the color of water change, it means acid is present in chip & stone is not
durable.

II. Acid test

Place the fresh chips in HCl {%} or H2So4 {5%} solution. after ½ hour
if sharp edge of chip gets melted, it means stone is not durable
III. Frets & crystalline test
IV. place the fresh stone in boil water for 24 hour then place it in cool place (temp
– 12oC) for 24 hour. if the nature of stone is some in both condition it means
member is durable.

2). strength test

Crushing test

1} 3 specimen of 40 x 40 x 40 each

2} Place in water for 75h

3} 5 mm pop layer on surface
4} 13.72 N/mm2/min

Compressive strength = Load

Cross sectional area

Note: - the min crushing strength in common building stone is in range of 100-110
N/mm2

3). Impact test

→ place the stone in mould & fall the hammer from 305mm height. it the member do
not crack then increase the height of fall by 1 cm & again fall the hammer.
➔ The blow at which the specimen break down is note & if it is nth then impact
index, stronger is the member.

4). Water absorption test

Stone sample --. 50g/100g

[Place it in oven @ 104oC for ½ hr]
Remove the stone from oven
w1 = dry wt of stone
[Place in water for 24 hour] Temp = 20 – 30oC

Remove stone from water

W2 = wet wt after 24h

Change in wt = w2-w1

%water absorption = w2-w1

x 100
w1

Note : -
for good building stones, max percentage of water absorption is not more than 5%

Attrition test

6cm = 60mm dia specimen → 5 kg

Attrition deval’s testing Machine

30 r.p.m per 5h

1.5 mm sieve analysis

% of wear = loss in wt
x 100
Initial wt.
Note: - for the railway ballast, max percentage of wear is 3 %

Classification of rock on the basis of hardness

1). very hard rock

eg. Granite, trap, taconite etc.

2). Hard rock

eg. Basalt, quartile etc

3). medium rock

eg. Dolomite & limestone

4). soft rock

eq. Sandstone, gypsum

Stone specific gravity Use

Granite 2.64 – 2.75 → igneous rock
→ Minerals → quartz, felspar, mica
→Composition ➔ 60 – 80% silica
→ crushing strength ➔ 1000 – 1400
kg/cm2
→use ➔ in construction of railway piers

Sandstone 2.65 – 2.95 → sedimentary rock

→mineral ➔ Quartz
→Crushing strength ➔ 650 kg/cm2
➔use ➔ building stone, flooring & walls

Basalt 3 → Igneous rock

→mineral ➔ feldspar
→composition ➔ 40 – 60% silve

Limestone 2-2.75 → different forms ➔ compact limestone

granular limestone,
marble, kankar
→Use ➔ Flooring , mortar constriction. etc
→crushing strength ➔ 550-750 kg/cm2

❖ Limestone
Water absorption for limestone – 40% fire proofing temp ⋍ 800oc for limestone

1). Marble
Category of limestone
Specific gravity → 2.72
Water absorption → 1-3%
Generally white in color but diff. shade of grey, green, brown, pink also there crushing
strength → 300 and 500 kg.cm2 crystalline structure
use – table, floorings, slabs, ornament work

Note → Green marble → Baroda,

white marble → Ajmer

2. Slate
metamorphic rock
specific gravity → 2.8
Good insulator of heat and electricity
water absorption → 0.5 – 1%
colour → dark grey, reddish, blues black
Crushing strength → 240 – 360 kg/cm2
Use → water proofing, electrical boards

3). Quartzite
Metamorphic rock
Crushing strength → 750 kg/cm2
Water absorption → 4%
Difficult to weather and dress
Specific gratuity → 2.65
Use → aggregate of conc., paving martial

Requirement of good building stone

 1. Crushing strength
2. fire resistive
3. Workability → can give diff. shapes
4. Appearance → force from crack
5. Durability
6. Texture → close grained structure
7. porous

→specific gravity of most of stone = 2.5 to 3.0

➔ for rubble masonary construction, hard & strong stone is preferred.
➔ For retaining wall construction, weighted stone is preferred.
 LIME

Lime is a building material obtained from limestone (diff category)

Type of lime

1). Fat lime

→ this is abstained from burning of limestone (seashell).
it has 95% CaO &5% impurity (silica).
➔ due to heavy amount of CaO, if is known as rich lime, pure lime or white lime.
➔ When it is mixed with water & after slaking process, it expands its volume to 2-
2.5 times, so known as fat lime

CaCO3 → CAO + CO2

CaO + CO2 --> CaCO3
(PPT)

Properties
1). it is used in white whish preparation because it do not contribute in strength.
2). it is soluble in water
3). it gives white appearance.

2). hydraulic lime(CaOH2

→ Hydraulic lime is achieved from burring of kantar in which 5-30% impurity is
present which gives light yellow appearance
→ During slaking time, it do not expand its volume.

Merits
1). use in making of mortar.
2). because of no expansion in volume, it gives strength
 3). poor lime
→ it is obtained from granular limestone in which imparity percentage is more than
30%
➔ it do not contribute in strength & sieves yellow color on surface

Note :- 1). mortar making with hydraulic lime has an initial setting time is 100-120min
and final setting time is 16-48 hrs.
2). if lime mortar use in brick masonry, for strength purpose the proportion is 1;2.
 Steel

Iron ore

Electric Reduction Furnace

Pig iron

Puddle furnace electric furnace cupola furnace

Or & L.D Process
Reverberating furnace

Wrought iron Steel cast iron

Wrought iron
1). it is the purest form of iron in which percentage of carbon is 0.15% to , 1.25%
2). wrought iron is strong in tension.

steel
1). the percentage of carbon is in range of 0.25 – 1.75%
If carbon percent is upto 0.25% → Low carbon steel (Mild steel)
If carbon percent is 0.25-0.70% → medium carbon steel
if carbon percent is 0.7 – 1.75% → high carbon steel(HYSD)

Cast IRON
1). the percentage of carbon Is 2-4%
2). the member is strong in compression.
Comparison b/W mild steel and hard steel

Property mild steel Hard steel

Specific gravity 7.8 7.9
o
meting point 1400 C 1300oC
Compressive strength 8-12t/Cm2 14-20 t/cm2 t = Ton
2 2
Tensile strength 6-9 t/cm 11-12t/cm
use Reinforcement, Reinforcement, slab,
pipes, building mechanical shop
construction work equipment

Impurities in steel

Impurity max%
Sulphur 0.1%
phosphorous 0.12%
silicon 0.2 – 0.4%
Manganese 1.5%

Note:
Percentage of carton increases; ductility decreases but strength & hardness increases
Paints

Base
➔ if is solid substance which is fine divided in a paint.
➔ If work for opaque nature in paint film.
eg. white lead, red lead iron oxide, aluminum powder, zinc powder etc.

Pigment
➔ it gives desire color to the point film.
➔ they are liquid or in metal form.

Vehicle or carrier
 they are liquid substance which helps in mixing of other ingredients to form paint.
 eg. Linseed oil , Nut oil

Plasticizer & Drier

➢ They are metallic compound which added in point to accelerate the dry rate.
➢ The amount of drier in a point is 8 – 10%
eg. Manganese dioxide
Manufacturing of oil paint

Base pigment drier & thinner Vehicle or carrier

4th floor Mixing chamber

3rd floor wet grinding for thinning

2nd floor Thinning tank  Add more thinner here

Quality control department

1st floor paint form here

supply & packing yard

Water paint
It has 3 types : - whitewash, color wash & distemper.

White wash & color wash

 fat lime mixes with water in a tub during the slaking process it expands its volume
& rest on surface. With the help of mechanical steerers mix fat lime in water
properly & then screen it with fine cloth. the paste come out from scrolling, add
glue such as fevicol) mixes in pester to form whitewash

 if color pigment is added, then form color wash

use
1). it work as primary layer on surface.
2). Lime is a toxic agent which kills all germs on surface & give white appearance.

Distemper

It has white chalk as base mixes in water as vehicle or thinner & the diff pigment
is added glue is added to form effective layer of point
Use
1). its appearance is better than whitewash but not better than oil point.
2). Its durability is more than whitewash but less then oil point
3). it is cheaper than oil paint but costlier than white wash

Varnish
➔ varnish is homogeneous solution of oil alcohol, naphtha spirit etc. it mixes with
paint for soluble property.
➔ if it is applying on surface, it increase the durability 7 provided glossy appearance.
types of varnish

➔ 1). oil varnish

Linseed – oil or turpentine oil solution

2). Spirit varnish

Made of solution of spirit.

3). water varnish

Hot water is added in paint to form water varnish
 Method of applying of paint on surface

1). wall surface

Whitewash < POP (2-3 layers)

Rubbing the surface with sandpaper

Then,
1st layer of paint ➔ 2nd layer of paint → final (finish layer)
(horizontal form) Vertical form

2). steel surface

Corrosion remove with steel bar brush ➔ apply primer
Then 1 layer of paint then Final layer of paint

3). wooden member

Defect remove (knot remove)

Primer & varnish

1-layer paint

Final layer paint

Defects in paint film

1). defect due to background
→ dampness → moisture on paint surface because of wet plaster surface or continuously
contact with water penetration.

2). defect due to atmosphere

➔ blistering & peeling – if swelling occur on local surface of paint film because of loss
of cohesion b/w paint layer or air entrain from plaster surface.

Blistering is in oil paint

Peeling is in water paint

➔ Cracking – crack on local surface & in small region is known as cracking. it the
crack size is large is known as Crocodilian. It is because of poor plaster or poor
paint quality.
➔ flaking – Detachment of paint film from paint surface because of excess dries in
paint or long-term contact with moisture.
➔ Chalking – paint convert in the powder form because of long term moisture content
or poor ingredient in paint.
➔ Milky surface – disappearing of actual color from paint film after some time known
as milky surface. if is because of excess sun contact & poor quality of pigment
or base.

some special types of paints

point Base Use

Enamel paint Zinc oxide as a base mixed It is useful for wooden
with varnish solution. surface, make it acid
resistant, waterproof &
increased durability
Emulsion paint It consist polyvinyl acetate It is helpful for steel
mixes with varnish. member & wall masonry.
Aluminum paint Aluminum powder as a They are highly heat &
base mixes with varnish light. reflective. it is used in
steel machinery, electric
 poles & some time in aero
plane.
Anticorrosive paint Red lead, zinc oxide, iron It is used in steel member
oxide mixes with turpentine surface, also used to
oil. present the leakage in steel
members
Bituminous Point Bitumen mixes with spirit It is used in inner surface
varnish, alcohol varnish. of water tank & also
prevent the leakage.
Asbestos paint Asbestos finally grinded It prevent the leakage of
with varnish metal roof & work as fire
proof paint
Cement paint Cement mixes with water & For flowing work, tiles work
some thinner & it prevent the dampness
on surface
Plastic paint Thermosetting plastic such It can stand in high temp &
as vinyl acetate mixes with use in decorating work. its
pigment & varnish durability is more than oil
paint.
Glass

Glass is a member which is transparent or translucent. it is a mixture of fusion of silica

with varying proportion of oxides of sodium, potassium, column, magnesia etc.
Formula of glass

aX20.by0.6siO2

a & b = no of molecules
X = atom of metal such as sodium, potassium
Y = atom of bivalent metal such as calcium & lead

Type of Glass

1). Soda – Lime Glass

Na2o . Cao. 6sio2

 it is known as soda glass or soft glass which is mixture of silicate of sodium with
silicate of calcium
 Use ➔ highly heat attain apparatus (such as test tube), bullet proof glass

3). Potash lead glass

K2o.Pbo.6Sio2
➔ it is known as flint glass.
➔ it is the mixture of silicate of potash with lead
Use ➔ Electric bulb, tube lights, telescope, lenses, prism & ornamental works.

4). Common glass

it is the mixture of silicate of sodium, calcium & iron it color pigment is added form
color glass.

use ➔ medicine bottles

Merits of glass
1). they protect from heat & light
2). it reduce the weight of panel.
3). the melting temp of generally glass is 173oC.

Bullet proof glass

1). it is prepared by silicate mixes with vinyl resin of plastic (thermosetting plastic)
2). it comes in category of hard glass
3). thickness = 15mm to 75mm.
PLASTIC

Plastic is a mixture of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen & other element together by the
polymerization action.

there are 2 types of plastic on basis of temp hardness

1). thermosetting plastic

❖ these plastic set into permanent shape by high temp
❖ Reheating process cannot change their shape.
❖ this plastic set at temp of 127oC – 143oC
❖ example – plastic point, phenol formaldehyde, P.V.C flooring (PU) (polymerized
units)

2). thermoplastic
❖ Thermoplastic becomes soft when heated and if cool down then fix their shape.
❖ Heat treatment process can happen lot of times.
❖ it fix at temp of 50oC
❖ Example – polythene bags, plastic bottles, PVC pipes, PVC sheets

Use of plastic in building construction

Door & windows, flooring, Panels, roof set, point, water tank, PVC pipes & decorating
members.

Properties of plastic
1. specific gravity ➔ 1.30 – 1.40
2. plastic should be acid resistant
3. It must stand in high temp (more than 50oC)
STAIRCASE
Recommendation About staircase

1). width of staircase

Domestic staircase ➔ 0.9 m = 900 mm
public staircase -> 1.5m = 1500 mm

2). width of landing

Width of landing = width of staircase
if there is 2 flight b/w 1 floor, no of landing is 1.

3). flight
Length of flight depends on no of steps.
Minimum no of steps in a flight = 3
Maximum no of steps in a flight = 12
Angle of light with horizontal = 30o, 45o, 60o
For best appearance & comfort ability, 45o angle is best

4). Dimension of steps

Going → ≠ 25cm
for better comfort ==. 30cm
Nosing ➔ 10-25 mm
riser ➔ height of Riser in domestic building = 15 cm
 Height of riser in public building = 10cm
Riser + going → 400 – 450 mm
riser + tread ➔ 500 – 550 mm