GROUP TECHNOLOGY

By:
Prof. Afzal Alad
Mechanical Engineering Dept.
 INTRODUCTION
 “A manufacturing philosophy in which similar parts are identified and grouped
together to take advantage of their similarities in design and production”

 Group technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy that seeks to

improve productivity by grouping parts and products with similar
characteristics into families and forming production cells with a group of
dissimilar machines and processes.

 “Group Technology is the realization that many problems are similar, and
that by grouping similar problems, a single solution can be found to a set
of problems thus saving time and effort.” (Solaja 73)
Conti…
 It was first proposed and developed in Russia by Mitrofanov in 1966 and
originally translated as ‘family planning’ during his studies, Mitrofanov
classified different parts based on their similarity of shapes in to several
group cells (part families)
 OVER VIEW OG GROUP TECHNOLOGY
 Parts in the medium production quantity range are usually made
in batches.
 GT can be implemented by manual or automated techniques
 When automated, the term flexible manufacturing system is often
applied.
 An approach to manufacturing in which similar parts are identified
and grouped together in order to take advantage of their
similarities in design and production.
Conti…
Similarities among parts permit them to be classified into part
families.
In each part family, processing steps are similar.
The improvement is typically achieved by organizing the
production facilities into manufacturing cells that specialize in
production of certain part families.
Conti…
Conti…
PROCESS-TYPE LAYOUT
CELLULAR LAYOUT
 PART FAMILY
 “Part family is collection of parts which are similar because of geometric
shape and size, or in the processing steps used in their manufacturing”
 The group of similar parts is known as part family and the group of
machines used to process an individual part family is known as machine
cell.
 Part families are a central feature of group technology.
 There are always differences among parts in a family.
 But the similarities are close enough that the parts can be grouped
into the same family.
Conti…
 Two parts that are identical in shape and size but quite different in
manufacturing:
 (a) 1,000,000 units/yr, tolerance = + or - 0.010 inch, 1015 CR steel,
nickel plate;
 (b) 100/yr, tolerance = + or - 0.001 inch, 18-8 stainless steel

Fig : (A) Fig : (B)

 Conti…
 Ten parts are different in size, shape, and material, but quite similar in terms
of manufacturing.
 All parts are machined from cylindrical stock by turning; some parts require
drilling and/or milling
 PART FAMILY method
 There are three general methods for solving this problem.
 All three methods are time consuming and involve the analysis of
much data by properly trained personal
 The three methods are:
 Visual Inspection
 Production Flow Analysis (PFA)
 Parts Classification and coding system
Conti…
 Visual Inspection:
 The visual inspection is the least sophisticated and least expensive method.
 It involves the classification of parts into families by looking at their the physical
parts or Drawing (photographs) and arranging them into similar grouping.
 Visual Inspection is used design point of view or the processing point of view.
 This method is fast and simple and is useful when the part mix is not complex.
Conti…
 Part Classification & Coding:
 Part Classification is the process of separating the parts into groups or families
depending on the characteristics attributes based on set of rules or principles.
 Coding is the process of providing a symbol to the component.
 This is the method by which grouping and classifying parts into family is made
by examining and analyzing the design and/or manufacturing attributes of
each parts.
 The basic principle is that numerical or alphabet values that reflects similarity
could be assigned to parts and some advantages can be obtained from these
similarities.
 Two activities of part classification and coding.
1. Part classification system
2. Part coding system
Conti…
 Part Classification system
 Part Design attributes
 Part Manufacturing attributes
 Both design & Manufacturing attributes
 Part Design Attributes
 External Shape
 Internal Shape
 Length/Diameter ratio
 Material Type
 Tolerances
 Major Dimension
 Minor Dimensions
 Conti…
 Part Manufacturing Attributes
 Major Process
 Operation Sequence
 Surface Finish
 Machine Tool
 Production Time
 Cutting Tools
 Part Coding System
 A part coding system consists of a sequence of symbols that identify parts design &
manufacturing attributes.
 Symbols : Numeric, Alphabetic & Combination of Numeric and Alphabetic
 Most of the standard coding system use only Numbers.
 Conti…
 There are three types of part coding system used in Group technology application.
 Hierarchical Code or Monocode
 Polycode, or Attribute Code, or Chain type code
 Hybrid Code, or Mixed Code
 Hierarchical Code or Monocode
 In this type of code structure, each code number is qualified by the preceding digits
(characters).
 If the first digits define the type of material used, such as steel, the second digits will
define a feature related to steel (like carbon constraint).
 The next digit will define a feature related to the feature defined in the second digit
and so on.
 A typical hierarchical code structure is shown in figure.
Conti…
 it was shown in the diagram, each digit is directly related to the preceding
digits.
 Thus the second digits “2” may define a power unit of the work part, the digit in
the third position may then define the type of power system (i.e. weather it is
mechanical, hydraulic, or electric).
Conti…
 In the fourth position if a digit “1” is preceded by “1”, then it may define the sub
unit of the driving system that is a rotational part, or if it is proceeded by “3” it
might have totally different meaning.
 Advantages
 It is also works well in a manual system.
 Hierarchical code is good for design retrieval.
 The code system can represent a large amount of information with very
few code positions.
 Limitations
 Complex and relatively difficult to develop. .
 HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE

32XX

321X 323X
Mechanical

Transmission
3231 3233
322X
UNF thread 3232

3221 3223
3222
 Conti…
 Polycode , or Attribute code, or Chain type code
 The Polycode is not structure like logic tree.
 The meaning of each character in an attribute code is independent of all other digit.
 The interpretation of each symbol in the sequence is fixed and represents one
feature.
 The value of any given digits (or position) within the code does not depend on the
preceding digits. Another name of this type of symbol is poly-code.
 The problem associated with poly-code is that the code tends to be relatively long.
 The use of poly-code allows for convenient identification of specific part attribute.
 This can be helpful in recognizing parts with similar processing requirements.
Conti…
 Table shows, each digit and each value in the specific digit has a specific
meaning.
 Thus, for example, the first digit may always describe external shape of the
part.
 The second digit describe internal shape, the third digit describe there is
internal hole, the fourth digit describe the type of hole and so on.
 Conti…
 Advantages
 Easy to formulate.
 Limitations
 Less information is stored per digit; therefore to get a meaningful comparison
of, say, shape, very long codes will be required.
 Comparison of coded parts (to check for similarity) requires
 Hybrid Code or Mixed code
 Most of the commercial parts coding system in industries are a combination of the
two pure structure (i.e. poly codes and mono codes).
 The hybrid is an attempt to achieve the best feature of both poly-codes and mono-
codes.
 Hybrid codes are typically constructed as a series of short poly codes.
 Conti…
 Within each of these shorter chains, the digits are independent, but one or more of
symbols in the complete code number are used to classify the part population into
groups, as in the hierarchical structure.
 This hybrid coding seems to best serve the need of both design and production.
Conti…

Fig: Grouping many different parts into several different group

cells based on the similarity of shape
CODING & CLASSIFICATION

Fig: Parts Coding & Classification

 CODING & CLASSIFICATION system
 OPTIZ System
 CODE System
 BRISCH System
 KK-3 System
 MICLASS System
 DCLASS System
 COFORM System
 TOSHIBA System
 Conti…
OPTIZ System
 The most common and widely used coding system is that developed by
professor H OPTIZ in 1979 at Aachen technical University in west
Germany.
 The coding system use the following digital sequence;
12345 6789 ABCD
 The basic code consists of nine digits that can be extended by
additional four digits.
 The first five digits are called the form code and indicate the design
or the general appearance of the part and hence assist in design
retrieval.
 4 more digits were added to the coding scheme, in order to increase
the manufacturing information of the specific work part. These last
four digits are also called supplementary code.
Conti…
 All four are integers, and respectively represent: Dimensions,
Material, Original shape of raw stock, and Accuracy of the
work part.
 The extra four digits, A, B, C, and D, called the secondary
code, are used by the specific organization to include those
characters that are specific to the organization.
 1st Digit
FORM CODE
5th Digit Supplim-
part class 3rd Digit 4th Digit entary
2nd Digit additional
main shape rotational plane surface holes teeth & code
Positions
with a 0 machining matching forming
Digit
digit External Internal Machining 6 7 8 9
1 shape shape of plane Other holes
element element surfaces and teeth

Original shape of raw materials

Rotational

2
Machining Other holes
3 Main shape Rotational teeth and
of plane
machining forming
surfaces
4

5 Special Main shape

Dimensions

Accuracy
Material
6
Non-rotational

Main bore Machining Other holes

7 Main shape & rotational of plane teeth and
machining surfaces forming
8
Main shape
9 Special
Optiz coding and classification system.
MICLASS System
 The name MICLASS stands for Metal Institute Classification System,
developed by the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific
Research (TNO) of Holland in 1969.
 After being implemented and applied in different manufacturing
industries of Europe, it had been introduced to North America around
1974. Like Opitz classification system, MICLASS is also be made by using
design and manufacturing attributes of the work part.
 The system was developed in such a way that to standardize a number of
different design, manufacturing and management function.
 This will includes, standardization of engineering drawings easy of
retrieval drawings based on their classification code, standardize process
routing, automate process planning, selection of parts for processing on a
particular machine groups and machine tool investment analysis.
Conti…
 The total number of digits used in MICLASS classification system
may vary from 12 to 30 digits.
 The digits can be divided into two parts.
 The first twelve digits are a universal nature and can be applied to
any work part.
 The other 18 digits which is called supplemental codes can be
used for data that are specific to the particular company.
 Those supplemental digits provide a flexibility to accommodate
broad applications. Such as lot size, cost data, and operation
sequence.
Conti…
 The design attributes used in the first twelve digits of MICLASS classification
are as follows
 1st digit : Main Shape
 2nd & 3rd digit : Shape Element
 4th digit : Position of Shape Element
 5th & 6th digit : : Main Dimension
 7th digit : Dimension Ratio
 8th digit : Auxiliary Dimension
 9th & 10th digit : Tolerance code
 11th & 12 digit : Material code
 DCLASS System
 This classification system was developed by Del Allen, Brigham
University.
 It is decision-making and classification system.
 It is a tree- structured system that generates codes for components,
materials, processes, machines, and tools.
 The code is a numerical code of constant length and is divided into
two groups of six digits each.

 The general code gives a general description of the part, the type of
operation it performs, and other specifications that uniquely identify
the product.
 The specific code gives us a more detailed description about a part by
classifying it into subclasses.
 Some parts do not needs all 12 digits.
 CODE System
 Developed by Manufacturing Data Systems Incorporated (MDSI). Use of
an eight-digit code similar to Optiz system.
 It has a mixed code structure in which each digit is represented by a
hexadecimal value that allows more information to be represented with
the same number of digits.
 production flow analysis
 Production flow analysis (PFA) is a method for identifying part
families based on the sequence of operation and machine routing
needed to produce the part.
 PFA uses manufacturing attributes rather than design attributes to
identify and form part families.

Procedure in Production Flow Analysis

1. Data Collection: The minimum data needed in the analysis are the
part number and operation sequence, which is contained in shop
documents called route sheets.
2. Sorting of process routings: Parts are arrange into groups
according to their similarity of their process routings.
3. PFA Chart: It is tabulation of the process or machine code numbers
for all part pack.
 PFA chart also known as part-machine incidence matrix.
4. Cluster Analysis: From the pattern of data in the PFA chart, related
grouping are identified and rearranged into new pattern that brings
together parts with similar machine sequence.
 Rank Order Clustering
 ROC technique is first specified by king (1979-80), is specially
applicable in PFA.
 It is efficient & easy to use algorithm for grouping machines into cell.

 Step-1: For each row of part-machine incidence matrix, assign binary

weights and calculate decimal equivalents.
 Step-2 : Arranging rows by sorting the decimal weight in decreasing
order .
 Machine order: 1 – 5 – 7 – 4 – 3 – 6 - 2
 Step – 3: Repeat step 1 & 2 for columns results in the matrix.

Part Order: A – H – D – B – F – G – I – C - E
 Step – 4: Repeat above steps until there no further change in position of
each element in each row & column.

There is no change in row & column position in further iterations.

 Hollier Method
 It is Method to organize the machines into the most logical
arrangement once part-machine groupings have been identified
by rank order clustering.
 Two Methods are used
 Hoolier Method-1
 Hoolier Method-2
Hoolier Method-2
1. Develop the From—To chart.
2. Determine the From/To ratio for each machine.
3. Arrange machines in order of decreasing From/To ratio.
Prob: Five machines constitute a GT cell. The from/to data for the
machines are shown in the table below. (a) Determine the most
logical sequence of machine for this data, and construct the network
diagram, showing where and how many parts enter and exit the
system. (b) compute the percentages of in-sequence moves,
bypassing moves, and back tracking moves in the solution.

To
From 1 2 3 4 5
1 0 10 80 0 0
2 0 0 0 85 0
3 0 0 0 0 0
4 70 0 20 0 0
5 0 75 0 20 0
 FACTORY FLOW ANALYSIS
 If the group technology & FFA are combined during the plant
lay out, efficient manufacturing routes can be established and
maintained, as long as there is no change in design of the part.
 This method require very through knowledge of the part spectrum
which can be grouped together, and the available processes.
 DIRECT CLUSTERING METHOD
Step 1 : Count the number of entries 1(x) in each column & row. Record these
numbers.
 Step 2: Rearrange the matrix with column with decreasing order
& rows in increasing order.
 Step 3: Take the first column of the new matrix and move all
rows that have an entry 1(x) in this column to the top. Repeat this
procedure with succeeding columns until all rows are rearranged.
 Step 4 : If the current matrix & the one that preceded it are
identical, go to 7; other wise go to step 5.
 Step 5 : Take the first row of the new matrix and move all
columns that have an entry 1(x) in this row to the left most
position. Repeat this procedure with succeeding rows until all
columns are rearranged.
 Step 6 : If the current matrix & the one that preceded it are
identical, go to 7; other wise go to step 3.
 Step 7 : Stop
 COMPOSITE PART
 The composite part for a given part family is a hypothetical
part that includes all of the design and manufacturing
attributes of the family.
 An individual part in the family have some of the features that
characterize the family, but not all of them.
Design Feature Operation
External Cylinder Turning
Face of Cylinder Facing
Cylindrical step Turning
Smooth surface Cylindrical grinding
Axial hole Drilling
Counter bore Counter boring
Internal threads Tapping
Composite part consisting all seven
design and manufacturing
attributes
 A machine cell designed for the part family would include
those machines required to make the composite part.
 Such a cell would be capable of producing any member of the
family, simply by omitting those operations corresponding to
feature possessed by the particular part.
 The cell would be design to allow for size variation within the
family as well as feature variation
 MACHINE CELL
 In group technology production machines are grouped into machine
cells, each machine cell specializes in the production of one family
called cellular manufacturing.
 Cellular machine is an application of group technology in which
dissimilar machines or processes are arranged into cells, each of
which is dedicated to production of a part family

Manned Unmanned
 Types of Machine Cell

 Single Machine cell

 Group machine cell with manual Handling
 Group machine cell with mechanized handling
 Flexible manufacturing cell
 Flexible manufacturing system
 Single Machine Cell
 The single machine cell consists of one machine with
supporting fixture, tooling and skilled operator, suitable for
production one or more part families.
 The example of single machine cell :Turret lathe ,CNC lathe,
CNC milling machine etc.
 Group Machine cell with manual handling

 A group machine cell with manual handling consists of more

than one machine equipped with fixture, tooling and skill
operator, suitable for producing one or more part families.
 The material handling is done manually by operator.
Group Machine cell with mechanized handling

Flexible Manufacturing Cell

Flexible Manufacturing System
 A highly automated GT machine cell, consisting of a group of
processing stations (usually CNC machine tools),
interconnected by an automated material handling and storage
system, and controlled by an integrated computer system.
 Objective of cellular manufacturing
 To reduce manufacturing lead time
 To reduce work in process inventory
 To reduce set up time
 To improve quality
 To simplify production scheduling
 To reduce work part handling
 To reduce process variation
 Reduce no. of individual tools required as well as the time
to change tooling between the parts
Programmable Logic Controllers

Afzal Alad
 Introduction
It is
“digital electronic apparatus”
with a “programmable memory”
for
storing instruction to implement specific function,
such as
 logic,
 sequencing,
 timing,
 counting,
and arithmetic functions to control machines and processes.
- NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturer Association-USA)
PLC Architecture
 Processor: It is the CPU of the programmable controller.
Provides intelligence to command and govern the
activities of the entire PLC systems.
 PLC memory (EEPROM/RAM): Unit is connected with
processor, which contains the program of logic, sequencing, and
I/O operations.
 Programming Device: Used to enter the desired program that
will determine the sequence of operation and control of process
equipment or driven machine.
It is detachable from the PLC cabinet so that it can be shared
among different controller.
 Power Supply: The power supply convert 230V A.C into 24 OR
48 V Direct Current.
 I/O Module: purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the
various signals received from or sent to the external input and
output devices.
o Input modules converts signals from discrete or analog input
devices to logic levels acceptable to PLC’s processor.
o Output modules converts signal from the processor to levels
capable of driving the connected discrete or analog output
devices.
 Relay
 In General, Relays Transform a Control Signal into a Control
Action
 Relays Provide:
 Isolation Between Input and Output
 Leverage (Small Signal Can Control Large Action)
 Automation (Minimize Human Interaction with a Control
Process)
Relay Symbol use for
ladder diagram
 Counter
 Counter Relays must “Count” a pre-determined number
of events before changing contact status.
 Three types of counters are available.
UP Counter
DOWN Counter
UP-DOWN Counter
 UP Counter
 The up counter can be used to signal when a count has
reached a maximum value (Pre-set).
 DOWN Counter
 The down counter can be used to signal when a count has
reached zero, on counting down from a pre-set value.
 Timer
 It is an instruction that waits a set amount of time before
doing something.
 When TD Relay Pick-Up Coil is Energized, a Delay is
Initiated
 Normally Open Contacts Wait to Close until Delay is
Completed
 Normally Closed Contacts Wait to Open until Delay is
Completed
 There are three types of PLC timer delays
ON-delay timer
OFF-delay timer
Retentive timer on
 ON-delay timer
 An ON delay timer is used where we need a time delay
before instruction becomes true.
 i.e. once sensor (input) turns on it wait x-seconds (pre-set
value) before activating a solenoid valve (output)
 OFF-delay timer
 An Off-Delay timer will keep the output energized for a pre-set
time after the rung signal has gone false.
 i.e. once sensor (input) sees a target we turn on a solenoid
(output). When the sensor no longer sees the target it hold the
solenoid on for x-seconds before turning it off
 Retentive or Accumulating timer
 It retain accumulated time value through the power loss or
the change in the rung state.
 A retentive timer accumulates time whenever the device
receives power, and it maintains the current time should
power be removed from the device.
Logic Gates
AND Gate
OR Gate
NOT Gate
NAND Gate
NOR Gate
Problem:
An emergency stop system is to be designed for a certain automatic
production machine. A single ‘start’ push button is used to turn on
the power to the machine at the beginning of the day. In addition,
there are three “emergency stop” buttons located at different
locations around the machine, any one of which can be pressed to
immediately turn off power to the machine.
(a)Write the truth table for this system.
(b) Write the Boolean logic expressions (Sum – Of- Product) for
the system.
(c) Construct the logic network diagram for the system.
(d) Construct the ladder logic diagram for the system.
Sr.No Start Stop-1 Stop-2 Stop-3 Latching Power to Machine
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 1 1
3 0 0 0 1 0 0
4 0 0 0 1 1 0
5 0 0 1 0 0 0
6 0 0 1 0 1 0
7 0 0 1 1 0 0
8 0 0 1 1 1 0
9 0 1 0 0 0 0
10 0 1 0 0 1 0
11 0 1 0 1 0 0
12 0 1 0 1 1 0
13 0 1 1 0 0 0
14 0 1 1 0 1 0
15 0 1 1 1 0 0
16 0 1 1 1 1 0
17 1 0 0 0 0 1
18 1 0 0 0 1 1
19 1 0 0 1 0 0
20 1 0 0 1 1 0
21 1 0 1 0 0 0
22 1 0 1 0 1 0
23 1 0 1 1 0 0
24 1 0 1 1 1 0
25 1 1 0 0 0 0
26 1 1 0 0 1 0
27 1 1 0 1 0 0
28 1 1 0 1 1 0
29 1 1 1 0 0 0
30 1 1 1 0 1 0
31 1 1 1 1 0 0
32 1 1 1 1 1 0
Boolean Expression:
P = (X1 + L) + (X2 + X3 + X4)

Logic Network Diagram:

Problem:
The water pumping system transfer water from a storage tank to
pressure tank as shown in Fig. When the water level in pressure tank
becomes low, pump will start automatically. And when water reach top
of the pressure tank, pump will stop. Water level is to be sense by 2
floating switch, which are located at top & bottom level of pressure
tank. In addition manually start & stop button is provided for operate a
pump. Construct the ladder logic diagram for the system.
 Limitation of PLC
 People reluctance to change( New technology)
 Environmental Considerations: high heat, vibrations,
noise level, interference with electronic devices
 Fixed circuit operation: If circuit in operation is never
altered, a fixed control system might be less costly than
PLC.
Computer Integrated Production
Management System

Afzal Alad
 Production Planning and Control
 The planning process within an organization is dynamic &
continuous.
 It is deciding future courses of action in advance.
 In any organization following type of decisions are taken.
o Strategic Decisions- Taken at top level management
o Tactical Decisions - Taken at middle level management
o Operational decisions- Taken at bottom level management
 Strategic Decisions
 Warehouse location
 Distribution Systems
 Building a new plant
 New product planning
 R&D Planning
 Quality Assurance Planning
 Dropping a product from existing product mix
 Social responsibility planning etc.
 Tactical Decisions
 Estimating & Costing of a product
 Product improvement through value analysis
 Maintenance Policy
 Budget Analysis
 Short term forecasting
 Make or buy decision
 Plant layout
 Project Scheduling
 Buying Equipment etc.
 Operational Decisions
 Designing sampling plan for inspection
 Deciding price discount at salesman level
 Scheduling of maintenance man power
 Machine loading
 Production scheduling
 Inventory Control etc.
 Production Control
 In reality, most of the decisions may not be implemented as
per the plans.
 This is due to uncertainty involved in many business processes
o Raw material quality is not as per assessed level
o Sudden breakdown of machine
o Operator efficiency is not with time standards
 Thus, a careful system with a proper feedback mechanism is a
must to correct the whole business process a appropriate time.
Function of PPC
 Material Requirement Planning
Problem:
Master Production Schedule for P1 & P2 is given in the table.
1 2 3 4 5
P1 50 100
P2 70 80 25

The detail of bill of material along with EOQ and stock on hand
for final product and sub assemblies are shown in the table.
Problem:
 Material requirement planning are to be planned for component
C2, given the master schedule for P1 and P2 in Fig 1, and the
product structure in fig 2 and 3 (next slide). Assembly lead time
for products and subassemblies (P and S levels) is 1 week,
manufacturing lead time for component (C level) is 2 weeks, and
ordering lead time for raw materials (M level) is 3 weeks.
Determine the MRP plan for M2, C2, S1 and S4. All on-Hand
inventories are zero.
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Model P1 50 100

Model P2 70 80 25
 P1

S1 S2
(1) (2)

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
(1) (4) (1) (2) (2) (1)

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (5)

P2

S3 S4 C7
(1) (1) (2)

C4 C6 C2 C8
(1) (2) (2) (1)

M4 M6 M2 M8 M7
(1) (0.5) (1) (1) (1)
 Manufacturing Resource Planning
(MRP-II)
 A method for the effective planning of all resources of a
manufacturing company.
 it addresses operational planning in units, financial planning in
rupees, and has a simulation capability to answer what-if
questions.
 It is made up of a variety of processes, each linked together:
business planning, production planning (sales and operations
planning), master production scheduling, material
requirements planning, capacity requirements planning, and
the execution support systems for capacity and material.
 Just in Time
 JIT as a management philosophy, rather than another production
technique.
 Monden Y. (1993) defines JIT as “producing the necessary items,
in the necessary quantity at the necessary time.”
 The primary objective of JIT is to eliminate waste which Toyota
President, Shoichiro Toyoda has referred to as “ anything other
than the minimum amount of equipment, materials, parts,
space, and worker’s time, which are absolutely essential to add
value to the product.”
 Type of waste
 Waiting
 Overproduction
 Rework / Rejection
 Motion
 Over Processing
 Inventory
 Transportation
 Expert System
 Expert System is an information system that is capable of
mimicking human thinking and making considerations during
the process of decision-making.
 It is an information system that has been used to solve a
problem that usually requires an expert to solve.
 Expert System comes from the Knowledge-Based Expert
System terminology.
Why Expert System?
Expert System Architecture
Forward Chaining
Backward Chaining