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Kinematics:
Kinematics is a branch of mechanics which describes the motion of objects without the consideration
of its masses or forces that bring that motion. Dynamics is concerned with the forces that produce
any motion to an object of mass m.
Together, kinematics and dynamics form the branch of physics known as mechanics.
The SI unit of average speed is ‘meters per seconds’ or ms-1. It is a scalar quantity.
The average velocity is the total displacement of an object from point A to point B divided by the total
time taken.
̅
1
For further explanation see http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/CLASS/1DKin/U1L1c.html
Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, revised on Nov 2011
Acceleration:
Acceleration is a vector quantity which is defined as the rate at which an object changes its velocity.
Where v is the change in velocity and t is time elapsed. Also the u and v are the initial and final
velocities of the moving object. The SI unit of acceleration is ‘meters per second square’ or ‘ms-2’.
Note: Whenever the acceleration and velocity are in same direction then the acceleration is positive
and when acceleration and velocity are in opposite direction, it means the body is slowing down and
the acceleration is negative. It is also called retardation or deceleration.
(A) moving with constant acceleration in positive direction (B) moving with constant deceleration in positive
direction (C) moving with constant deceleration along negative direction (D) object is stationary (E) moving
with constant velocity in negative direction (F) moving with constant velocity in positive direction (G) object is
changing direction (H) object is momentarily stop at two occasions during its whole motion (I) object is
momentarily stop only at one occasion during its whole motion
AS Physics 9702 unit 2: Motion, Force and Energy 3
(A) moving away from the mean position with constant velocity (B) moving towards the mean position with
constant velocity (C) moving towards the mean position from negative displacement with constant velocity (D)
object is stationary (E) object is stationary (F) object is stationary
Important!!!!
The area under the velocity – time graph measures total displacement.
The slope or gradient of a velocity – time graph represents the acceleration of the body.
The slope or gradient of a displacement – time graphs represents the velocity of the body.
From the definition of acceleration, it is the rate of change of velocity. Consider a body moving with
initial velocity u and after time t the velocity becomes v. the equation can be expressed as
vu
a
t
by arranging the above equation we can get
from the definition of average velocity that is sum of initial velocity and final velocity divided by two
̅ and ̅ ⁄
by equating two equations we get
Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, revised on Nov 2011
This equation can be derived by using two equations and . Replace the value
of v from the first equation into the second equation.
The equation can be derived by using equation . By squaring both sides of the equation we
get
f) Keep in mind that there may be two possible answers to visualize the different physical
situation.
Friction forces:
What are friction forces?
The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an
object moves across it or makes an effort to move across it.
The friction force opposes the motion of the object. For
example, if a block of mass ‘m’ moves across the surface
of a desk, the desk exerts a friction force in the direction
opposite to the motion of the block.
As such, friction depends upon the nature of the two
surfaces and upon the degree to which they are pressed
together. There are two types of frictional forces:
a) Static or limiting frictional force fs : This is the maximum force applied by the surface
of the desk on the block until just before the block starts to move. This is the force that needs to
be overcome by force F in order for block to move. Mathematically we can write the equation as
fs = µs × N
b) Kinetic or dynamic frictional force fk: This is the frictional force which exists between
the two adjacent surfaces which are in relative motion. This is usually slightly less than the static
friction. Mathematically fk = µk × N
N
N
fs m F fk m F
Fg= w = mg Fg = w = mg
N is the normal reaction force of surface on mass m. μs and μk are the coefficient of static and kinetic
friction respectively. Both depend on the nature and the condition of the surfaces which are in contact
but are independent of the area of contact. For example steel on steel µs 0.8 and for Teflon on Teflon
µs 0.04. If two surfaces are assumed to be perfectly smooth, if there is no frictional force and µs = µk
= 0. For two surfaces which have relative motion the kinetic frictional force is directly proportional to
the motion of an object.
Exercise: 2.2
Q) A box that weighs 10.0 N is being dragged with constant velocity along a horizontal surface of the table by a
rope that is at an angle 45o with that surface. The tension in the rope is 5.0 N. What is the coefficient of friction?
(ans:
Q) Solve assignment 3b on the website:
http://www.freewebs.com/faisalj/AS/Physics%20assignment%201%202%203%203b.pdf
AS Physics 9702 unit 2: Motion, Force and Energy 7
Terminal velocity:
Consider a sphere falling from rest through a viscous fluid (air or liquid). The forces acting on the
sphere are its weight w acting downward, the upthrust U due to displaced fluid3, and the viscous
force R or air resistance, both acting upwards. Initially the downward force w is greater than the
upward forces U+R, and the sphere accelerates downwards. As the velocity of the sphere
increases so does the viscous force (air resistance) R, and eventually U+R becomes equal to w the
weight. Since there is now no net force acting on it, its velocity has a constant maximum value
known as terminal velocity. In the beginning w >> U+R and as the body moves down w >U+R
and eventually at terminal velocity w=U+R.
w = mg
2
For further explanation http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/newtlaws/efar.html
3
It is the force that liquid exerts on the sphere. It is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the sphere when immersed.
Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, revised on Nov 2011
Projectile motion:
A projectile is any object which once projected, dropped or thrown continues its constant motion
along the x-direction (horizontal) and accelerated motion along y-direction (vertical) due to the
force of gravity.
Projectiles travel with a parabolic trajectory due to the
influence of gravity.
There are no horizontal forces acting upon projectiles
and thus no horizontal acceleration.
The horizontal velocity of a projectile is constant.
There is a vertical acceleration caused by gravity; its
value is 9.81 ms-2, downwards.
The vertical velocity of a projectile changes by 9.81
m/s each second.
The horizontal motion of a projectile is independent of
its vertical motion.
If there was any other force acting upon an object, then
that object would not be a projectile.
Examples of projectile, in the absence of air resistance are:
1. An object dropped from rest is a projectile.
2. An object which is thrown vertically upward is also a projectile.
3. An object which is thrown upward at an angle to the horizontal is also a projectile.
F
vx
vx
vy
y vy
A body projected with a velocity v at an angle
x vx
above the horizontal has horizontal (vx) and
vertical (vy) component of velocity
vy= v sin and vx = v cos
and horizontal (x) and vertical (y) displacements vy
are
and because vertical initial velocity is zero
AS Physics 9702 unit 2: Motion, Force and Energy 9
In similar way to find the resultant velocity v from its components we use Pythagoras theorem
v vx v y and direction is
2 2
y
θ
Replacing y=0 in the first equation and
replacing the value of t in the second R, Horizontal Range, m
equation we get the expression.
From the above expression we can see that the value of R will be maximum when sin 2 =1 or =45o
(because sin 90o =1). The projectile can have a maximum horizontal range if an object is thrown at
angle of 45o.
Exercise: 2.4
Q1) A soccer ball is kicked horizontally off a 22.0-metre high hill and lands a distance of 35.0 metres from the
edge of the hill. Determine the initial horizontal velocity of the soccer ball. ans: 16.5ms -1
Q2) A long jumper leaves the ground with an initial velocity of 12 m/s at an angle of 28o above the horizontal.
Determine a) the time of flight, b) the horizontal distance, and c) the peak height of the long-jumper. Ans (a)
1.1s, (b) 12.2 m, (c) 1.6 m
Dynamics:
Dynamics is the study of motion of an object with respect to forces that produce the motion.
Force is defined as the one that changes body’s state of rest or of uniform motion in straight line.
Another definition of force is that it causes a body to accelerate. The unit of force is newton (N). 1
newton is the force required to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 ms-2.
Issac Newton, one of the greatest scientists (1643 – 1727) presented the most powerful three laws of
motion.
where k is the constant of proportionality. By the definition of unit of force, newton, k is defined as:
1 N = k x 1 kg x 1 ms-2 thus k = 1
The newton (N) is defined as the force that produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 when applied on a body
of mass 1 kg.
Third law:
To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction N
force of two bodies acting upon each other. They are always
equal and opposite in direction.
Book
Consider a book of weight ‘w’ is placed on the table. The book
exerts a force equal to ‘w’ on the table and table exert equal and
opposite reaction force N on the book which is always perpendicular w
to the surface of the table.
Other examples are:
1. Earth exerts a gravitational force of attraction on Moon; the
Moon exerts a force of the same size on the Earth.
2. A rocket moves forward as a result of the push exerted on it
by the exhaust gases which the rocket has pushed out.
3. When a man jumps off the ground it is because he a pushed down on the Earth and the Earth
has pushed up on him.
AS Physics 9702 unit 2: Motion, Force and Energy 11
Mass Weight
The mass is the intrinsic property of matter and The weight of the body is the force acting on its
does not change as an object moved from one mass due to the gravitational attraction of earth in
location to another. earth’s gravitational field.
The mass of a body is measure of its resistance of Weight can change if the body is moved relative
acceleration that is it is measure of the inertia of to the centre of earth. Weight of the body is
the body.
SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg) which is the base SI unit of weight is newton which is derived unit
unit. by multiplication of mass and acceleration.
Linear momentum:
Definition of linear momentum: Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity of a body
that is moving in straight line. It is a vector quantity and express by unit kg ms-1 or N s.
p=mv
Where p (small case) is the momentum, m is the mass of the body and v is the velocity. The direction
of the momentum is same as the direction of the velocity.
FA FB
mA mB
vA vB
mA mB
When two bodies, A and B of mass mA and mB, are involved in a collision, the body A exert force FB
on B and body B exerts force FA on body A, then the changes in the momentum, are oppositely
directed and the total change in momentum is zero. Hence the principal of conservation of linear
momentum can be stated as
The total linear momentum of a system of interacting (eg colliding) bodies remains constant if
no external forces is applied.
From above diagram if the body A is moving towards right with the initial velocity uA and body B is
moving towards left with initial velocity -uB then
Initial momentum of body A before collision piA = mA uA
Initial momentum of body B before collision piB = mB(- uB)
and
Total initial momentum before collision pi = mA uA - mB uB
now after collision body A start moving with final velocity -vA towards left and B towards right with
final velocity vB
Final momentum of body A after collision pfA = mA (-vA)
Final momentum of body B after collision pfB = mB vB
Total final momentum after collision pf = -mA vA + mB vB
Principle of conservation of linear momentum is
Total initial momentum before collision = Total final momentum after collision
pi = pf
Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, revised on Nov 2011
The above equation must satisfied for two bodies to collide elastically provided the object A and B are
moving towards each other and after collision they move in opposite direction. The sign convention
must be change if the bodies are moving in direction other than the one used in the derivation of the
equation.
A car and a truck are approaching each other and Two trolleys of different masses travelling in the same direction one with
about to collide 1ms-1 and other with 4ms-1 are about to collide
Two trolleys connected to each other by spring are A cannon ball is fired from a cannon. Ball moves in one directon and
about to move in opposite direction when release. cannon move in opposite direction.
Impulse:
The impulse of a constant force F acting for a time ∆t is defined as the force applied on a body for
small fraction of time ∆t. or from equation
or or
Hence the impulse is the rate of change of momentum of a body. Examples of impulse of force are the
batsman hitting the cricket ball or golfer striking the golf ball. In both situations the concept of
impulse is used where a large variable force is acting for only a short period of time.
Since the impulse of force is the product of force and time of collision, therefore if the force applied
for longer time then it increases the impulse and that will also result in gain of momentum.
Pressure:
The pressure is defined as the force per unit area acting at right angles to the surface.
Exercise: 2.10 Solve the following questions from the past papers
The above equation means that vector sum of all the force along the x-axis is equal to zero and
vector sum of all the force along the y-axis is equal to zero.
b) Total torque about all axes is zero i.e.
WORK:
When a force ‘F’ is applied to an object than it covers a
displacement‘s’ in the direction of the force applied. It is said
that the work has been done on an object.
Suppose the gas now expands and moves the piston outwards through a distance of x, where x is so
small that p, the pressure of the gas can be considered constant. The external work done w is given
by the equation:
Derivation of Ek
If a body of mass m moves a distance s under the action of a constant force F, the work done W by
the force is given by W = Fs
F
m m
v
and if the constant acceleration of the body is a, then according to Newton’s second law of motion
F=ma but work done is represented by
if the body has acceleration from rest to some velocity v, then initial velocity u is zero
v2
v 2 u 2 2as or as
2
Replacing this value of ‘as’ in the equation of work
v2 1 2
W m or W mv
2 2
due to this work done the object gain motion and hence kinetic energy therefore this work done can be
expressed as Ek
1 2
Ek mv
2
Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, revised on Nov 2011
h
But this work done is changing the position of mass from ground to
height h then E p mgh
Loss of Ek Gain of E p
1 2
mv mgh
2
or v 2 gh
Internal energy
The internal energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic and electric potential energies of the
molecules of the system. It follows from the equation Q U w
The heat energy (Q) supplied to a system is equal to the increase in the internal energy (U) of the
system plus the work done (w) by the system on its surrounding.
Temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy or internal energy of the molecules of
an object. When an object is moving it possess the ordered kinetic energy.
Power:
Power of a machine is the rate at which it does work or the rate at which it supplies energy. The unit
W
of power is joules per second or watt. P
t
But W Fs
Fs
or P
t
P Fv
Efficiency of machines:
The ratio of useful work done, or energy output, to the work or energy input, in an energy transfer
system such as a machine or an engine.
20.0 N
20) Two forces P and Q, acts NW and NE respectively. They are in equilibrium with a force of
50.0N acting due S and a force of 20.0 N acting due E. Find P and Q.
Energy
21) A car of mass 800kg and moving at 30m/s. along a horizontal road is brought to rest by a
constant retarding force of 5000N. Calculate the distance the car moves whilst coming to rest.
[s= 72m]
22) A small block is released from rest at A and slides
down a smooth curved track. Calculate the velocity
of the block when it reached B, a vertical distance h
below A. [v= 2 gh ]
A
23) A car of mass 1.0 x 103 kg increases its speed from
10m/s to 20m/s whilst moving 500 m up a road
inclined at an angle to the horizontal where sin
= 1/20. There is a constant resistance to motion of h
300 N. Find the driving force exerted y the engine,
assuming that it is constant. Take g = 10 m/s2 B
[F = 1.1 x 103 N]