Archaeological Investigations at Pikillacta, a Wari Site in Peru

Author(s): Gordon F. McEwan

Source: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Summer, 1996), pp. 169-186
Published by: Boston University
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/530502
Accessed: 03/10/2009 13:50

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=boston.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Boston University is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Field
Archaeology.

http://www.jstor.org
 169

Archaeological Investigations at Pikillacta,

a WariSite in Peru

Gordon F. McEwan
Denver Art Museum
Denver7 Colorado

The1989 andf1990Jieldfseasonsat the WariprovincialsiteofPikillactain thevalleyof

Cuzco,Peru,comprisedf theJirstextensiveexcavationof thesecond&-largest existingWari
architecturalcomplex.Occupiedf betweenA.C. 600 andf900, Pikillactawasbuiltin three
successiveconstrustionpholsesandJinallyabandfonedf beforecompletionof theJinalone.
Excavationsrevealedf well7reservedf architecturein thecenterof thesite,includfingsuch
featuresasgypsum-plasteredffloors andfwalls;superimposedffloor remainscollapsedf on
oneanother,dfemonstrating theexistenceof multi-storiedfbuildfings;plasteredf
staircases;
plaster-linedf
niches;andfa varietyofsub-floorofferingpits.Althoughtheinteriorsof the
buildfings
werelargelydfevoidf of artifacts,excavationsin thesite'sprincipalmidfdfenpro-
dfucedfan abundfance of material:largequantitiesof ceramicremains,includfingsuch
foreignstylesas Nazca andfCayamarca,as wellas obyssts of bone,shell,metal,obsidfian,
andfworkedf stone.Evidfence ispresentedfthatadfdfresses
manyof thelong-standfing ques-
tionsregardfingthisunusuollsite. Thedfatasuggesta sudfdfen butordferlyabandfonment of
Pikillactain themidfstof thelast construction phase.Entrancesto manyof thebuildfings
werecarefullysealed&,andfat leastonepartiallyconstructedf buildfingwasintentionally
buried&.
Thereis alsoevidfence that thecentralportionof thesitewasconsumedf byJiredfur-
ing orshortlyafterabandfontnent.

Introduction an expandingstateduringthe MiddleHorizontimeperiod

How andwhen the firstAndeanimperialstatedeveloped
has long been the subjectof scholarlydebate.By the time
of the Spanishconquest in A.C. 1532, the majorityof the
vast territoryof Andean South Arnericahad been united
into a singlepoliticalentityknownas the IncaEmpire.The
Spanishconquerorswere astonishednot only at the size of
the Empirebut also by its sophisticatedpoliticaland eco-
nomic structure,and by its monumentalpublic works.
Soon afterthe Conquest,the Spaniardsmadeinquiriesinto
the originsof the Inca state, learningthat the empirehad
been in existence for only about 80 years (Rowe 1946:
205; Schacdel1978: 115). This seems entirelytoo short a
time for the Incasto have not only conqueredsuch a vast
territorybut also to haveindependenclyinventedall of the
politicaland economic institutionsnecessaryto controlit.
ltecent archaeologicalstudieshave demonstratedthat the
Incas were the end product of a long process of social
evolution,and that the origin of the state and the concept
of empire lay furtherin the past than the Spanishwere
told.
Researchfocusingspecificallyon the remainsof the Wari
culturerevealarchaeologicalevidencefor the emergenceof
(A.C. 540-900). Severalmonumental architecturalcom-
plexeshavebeen identifiedas Waristatecentersof admini-
stration.Most prominentof these arePikillactanearCuzvo
in the southern Highlands, Viracocha Pampa near
Huamachucoin the north Highlands,and the presumed
capitalof the empire,the site of Wariin Ayacucho(FIG. 1).
Additionally,Wari-styleartifactsare found throughout
much of what is now modernPeru.These datahavebeen
interpretedby manyscholarsto suggestthat the Wariwere
the originatorsof the firstAndeanempire.
In additionto being a stylistichorizon of ceramicsand
other portableartifacts,the Wariempirehas been defined
by a widespread,highlyuniform,architectural style. Shifts
in settlementpatternoccurringduring the Middle Hori-
zon have also been viewedas a diagnostictraitof the Wari
empire (Lumbreras1974; McEwan 1979, 1984; Rowe
1963; Schacdel 1966; Schreiber 1978, 1987; Willey
1953). These changesare seen to reflecta reorganization
of economic and social activitieswith an emphasis on
centralizedadministrativecontrol and channelingof re-
sourcesthatseemsto suggestthe impositionof an imperial
organization(Schacdel1966).
170 Pikillacta, a WariSite in Peru/McEwan
PERU
Figure 1. Map of Peru showinglocationof the Pikillactasite as well as the other principalWaricen-
ters. The moderncities of Limaand Cuzco are shown for reference.
The archaeologicalremainsof the Waricultureappearto
meet many of the the criteriaused in anthropological
definitionsof the state, which commonlyincludeconcen-
tration of economic and political power, monopoly of
force, organizationalong politicaland territoriallines, and
differentialaccess to resourcesbased on status (Service
1962; Adams 1966; Fried 1967; Wright 1977). Trigger
(1974: 98-101) has noted that the distributionof varying
sized settlementsis likely to be significantin interpreting
politicalorganization.In complex societies, the size and
architecturalfeaturesof some settlementsarelikelyrelated
to theirpositionwithinan administrative hierarchy.Wright
and Johnson(1975) have definedthe earlystate in Meso-
potamiausing the criteriaof a site size hierarchywhich,
they argue, would reflect a parallelhierarchyof decision
making.Wright(1977) has observedthat statesare inter-
nallyspecialized,comprisingmore thanone decision-mak-
ing level within the centralizedadministrativehierarchy.
Such systemsentaila seriesof regionaladministrative cen-
tersand an efficientcommunicationnetworkfor the trans-
fer of informationbetween levels of the administrative
hierarchy.
Isbell and Schreiber(1978) have consideredthe Wari
datain the context of these observationsand haveapplied
the Wrightand Johnson(1975) site-sizehierarchymodel
to the Waridata. They concludedthat the distributionof
Wari sites tends to conform to this model and, thus,
supportsthe conceptof a state-levelpoliticalorganization.
They also cite evidencefor a Warihighwaynetworkthat
provided the communicationslink between the various
sites.
In orderto increaseour understandingofthe natureand
inction of the Wariempire,the PikillactaArchaeological
Project,conductedbetween1989 and 1991, examinedthe

Figure2. Aerialphotographof the Pikillactasite. Courtesyof ServicioAerofotograficoNacional,Peru.
largestand best preservedof the Wariprovincialcenters.
This work has produced a large quantityof information
about the Warisite of Pikillactain the Valleyof Cuzvo in
the southernPeruvianAndes. Since most of the data sets
resulting from this project are still being analyzed,the
purposeof this reportis to providea preliminaryoverview
of the principalfindingsof the project.
The archaeologicalsite of Pikillactais believedto have
been a provincialcapitalof the Wariempire during the
AndeanMiddle Horizon (ca. A.C. 540-A.C. 900). Pikillacta
("flea-town"in Qucchua)is located on the north side of
the LucreBasinat the southernend of the Valleyof Cuzvo.
Builtat an elevationof 3250 m asl,the site restson a series
of low ridgesthatform the westernflankof CerroHuchuy
Balcon(FIGS. 1, 2 ) .
Pikillactais noted for its huge size, well-preservedarchi-
Journatlof Field Archateology/Vol.
23, 1996 171
tecturalremains,andrigidgeometriclayout.The gridplan
of Pikillactaforms a nearlyperfectrectanglewhen viewed
fromthe air(FIG. 2). This geometricsymmetryis evenmore
impressivewhen viewed on the ground;the steep undula-
tions of the terrainwere not modifiedto accommodatethe
architectureof the site. The NE side of Pikillactais consid-
erablyhigherin elevationthanthe sw side, and the ground
risesand fallsthroughoutthe site.
The entiresite measuresapproximately1680 x 1120 m,
the most prominentportionof the site consistingof a very
large,rectangularenclosure(approximately745 x 630 m)
that containsmost of the architecturalfeatures.Flanking
the north and SE sides of this main architecturalblock are
two groups of large, semi-rectangularenclosures(each
approximately400 x 600 m in size) that may have func-
tioned as corrals.The individualstructureswithinthe main
172 Pikillacta, a Wri Site iv Petu/McEwv
enclosureare also built on a grand scale, with some of
them measuring50 m or more on a side. Some of the
ruinedwallsstill stand 12 m high.
In additionto its enormoussize and strictadherenceto
a geometricplan, Pikillactapresentspeculiaritiesthat have
stimulatedmuch comment and speculation.For example,
therearealmostno surfaceartifactsto indicatethat the site
was ever occupied.This paucityof surfacematerialstands
in markedcontrastto nearlyall other sites in the Cuzvo
Valleyand, for that matter,most ceramic-periodsites in
Peru.Anotherprovocativequestionrelatesto the acquisi-
tion of waterwithinthe site.Althoughsubterranean canals
have been found, no sources of water were encountered
during the site survey and excavations.Additionalques-
tions ariseregardingaccessto the variousstructures.A1-
though therearemorethan 700 individualstructuralunits
within the main architecturalblock, there are very few
connecting corridors,doorways,or windows that would
provideentriesto these structures.
Withoutsurfaceceramicsto assistin culturalinterpreta-
tions,Valcarcel(1933) and Harth-Terre(1959) speculated
that Pikillactawas an Inca site. It was not until the mid-
1950s andearly1960s that JohnRowe (1956: 149) recog-
nized architecturalsimilaritiesthat linked Pikillactawith
the site of Wari in Ayacucho. Sanders' (1973) limited
excavations,producing Wari style ceramics, confirmed
Rowe's observationthat Pikillactawas in fact a Warisite.
Sanders,however,found such a smallquantityof artifacts
that he concludedthat Pikillactahad never,in fact, been
occupied.
Recent work at Pikillactaby the author (1979, 1984,
1987) resultedin the firstcompletegroundplanofthe site
(FIG. 3) and a typologyof architecturalunits that could be
used to define sampling strata for testing the site. An
archaeologicaltesting programestablishedseveralcrucial
points. First, the site had definitely been occupied. A
considerablenumber of artifacts remained in context
withinthe structuresandin the maintrashmiddendiscov-
ered just outside the SE side of the main enclosurewall.
Second, the site was unquestionablya Wariconstruction
with ceremonialceramicsof that type found in clearcon-
text with the structures.Third, test excavationsin the
numerous(501) small,conjoinedstructureson the NWside
of the site produced no evidence of a storage function.
Thus there is no supportfor the widely-heldview (Harth-
Terre 1959; Rowe 1963; Menzel 1964; Lanning 1967)
that these structureswere analogousto Inca storageunits
(called qolqas) and that the entire site functioned as a
storagecenter.The testingprogramdemonstratedthatsite
finciion could not be determinedby superficialexamina-
tion alone.
Instead,it is most likelythat Pikillactaservedas a major
administrativenode in the Wari empire, probablyas a
provincialor regionalcapital.This conclusionis basedon
several lines of evidence. First, the site is strategically
located, with respect to both the local environmentand
topographyand the imperialWaridomain and road sys-
tem. Second, Pikillactais the earliestlarge architectural
complex to have been constructedin the southernPeru-
vian highlands;size alone would indicatethe significance
of Pikillactaduringthe MiddleHorizon. Third,artifactual
remains, including polychrome ceramics, finely-carved
bone objects, bronze implements,and objects of exotic
materials(for example,spondylusshell and turquoise-col-
ored stone) reveal evidence of elite occupation. Certain
structureswithinthe site havebeen interpretedas ceremo-
nial in function,basedon recoveredofferingsand special-
ized architecturalforms(McEwan1987: 39-40). Increas-
ingly, the picture that emerges from the archaeological
investigationis that Pikillactaserved as a large, imperial,
palace-likecomplex that housed high-rankingelites con-
cernedwith stateadministration andreligiousactivities.
Architectural Investigations
In 1989, extensivearchitecturalexcavationswereunder-
taken at Pikillacta.The purpose of these was to obtain
evidenceof structuralfunction,whichin turnwouldreflect
total site function. The hypothesisthat Pikillactawas an
administrative centerfor the Wariempirewas approached
through this analysis.In selectingthe locationsof excava-
tion units,severalconsiderationswereimportant.Pikillacta
is dividedby its own architectureinto four sectors(FIG. 3).
In orderto studythe constructionsequenceand function
of the site's main divisions, it was essential to sample
variousstructuraltypeswithinall sectors.
A Revised Typolo,gy
for PikillDlstDl
The 1982 structuraltypology used in previousstudies
(McEwan 1984, 1987, 1991, 1992) has been redefined
and simplified,based on the results of excavation.The
1982 typologycontainedfivebasicstructuraltypes(FIG. 4).
Type A structuresconsist of a rectangularenclosurewith
peripheralgalleriesarrangedsymmetrically, two or more
on each side. Type B structurescomprisea rectangular
enclosurewith or without peripheralgalleries,but always
containing a rectangularbuilding inside the enclosure.
Type C structureshave a rectangularenclosurewith pe-
ripheralgallerieslaid out in an asymmetricalpattern(this
asymmetryconstitutingthe principaldifferencebetween
Types A and C); thus, one or more sides of a Type C
structuremay have multiple galleriesbut all four sides
neverhavethe samenumberof galleries,exceptwhen only
 Journglof FieldArchgeology/Vol.
23, 1996 173

0 50 10 0 METERS

Figure3. Groundplan of the centralpart of the site of Pikillacta.

 E g
174 Pikillacta, a WariSite in Per/McEwan
NEW WARI STRUCTURALTYPOLOGY
T T
L
TYPE I STRUCTURES
j
3_1
TYPE II STRUCTURE
TYPE III STRUCTURES
Figure4. Illustrationof the groundplansof the new and old structuraltypologiesfor I'ikillacta.
a singlegalleryis presenton each of the foursides.Type D
structuresconsistof only an empty,rectangularenclosure,
while Type E structuresare rectangularbuildings with
rounded corners that are unaccompaniedby the other
elements.A new three-parttypology has been developed
by McEwanand Couturefor reasonsexplainedbelow.
Examinationof the 1982 data revealsno discernible
differencein function between Types A and C, despite
differencesin structuralsize and the numberof sub-units
within each type. Although it is not possibleat presentto
definethe specificfunctionof these structures,it is appar-
ent that the artifactpatterningin these two types is very
similar.TypesA and C both containfew hearthsand only
smallamountsof refuse,composedof animalbones, bro-
ken pottery, and discardedartifactsof bronze, obsidian,
and shell. Manychamberswithin both structuraltypesare
devoid of any artifacts,however. Differences between
Types A and C seem to be more a matter of scale and
OLD WARI STRUCTURALTYPOLOGY
TYPE A
TYPE B
TYPE C T T
L j
TYPE D
TYPE E
elaborationthanfunction.Due to theirperceivedsimilarity
(particularlywhen compared with the other structural
typesat Pikillacta),TypesA and C havebeen combinedto
form a singletype usingthe new designation"TypeI."
Excavationof TypesB and E indicatedthat these types
arenot analogous,as previouslybelieved(McEwan1987:
29-30). Further,it has become apparentthat the original
definitionof Type B (which had includeda free-standing
structureinside an enclosure compound) was in error.
Type B structuresare found both free-standingand em-
bedded in surroundingarchitecturalunits and do not
appearto be necessarilylinked with an enclosurecom-
pound. The definition of Type B has been revised to
include only the rectangularstructurewith niches and
internally-roundedcorners;it has been renamed "Type
II." Structuresformerlyidentifiedas Type E have been
reclassifiedas "TypeIII."
No type D structureswere tested by excavationbecause
 JournoDl
of Field ArchoDeolo,gy/Vol.
23, 1996 175

L1 11 , 11 1m1 1N
L1 11 1 1 1z1 1
L1 11 I nl 1E11 1
E1 11 1 L1 101 1
L1 11 1n r 1 1z1 1

N UNIT 43
0 10 M t
,....,...., <

L Partially Excavated/Surface Cleaning

E Excavation Units

l l l
l l l l
1 1C1 11 1L1 1
1 1g1 11 1z1 1
Figure5. Planof excavationUnits 36, 37, 38, 42, and 43.

the definitionprovedto be too vague. It was evidentthat
almostanyempty-appearing enclosurecould be definedas
type D but, without excavatingeach of them, it is impossi-
ble to have confidencein their equivalence.It is apparent
that Type D was not satisfactorilydefined originallyand
shouldbe abandonedas a typologicalcategory.
The revised,simplified,three-parttypologyis illustrated
in Figure4.
ExcavationsIn Sector1
Two excavations,designatedUnits 47-A and47-B, were
conductedin a TypeII structurelocatedon the swperime-
ter of Sector 1 (FIG.3).
Unit 47-A involvedclearingan exteriorstone staircase
of 10 steps that led to the entranceof the building,which
had been carefullyblocked with stone in antiquity.The
areasurroundingand includingthe thresholdof the door-
way was excavated,exposingan offeringof camelidbones
and spondylusshellwhich had been placedin the floor of
the thresholdat the time of construction.
Unit 47-B, located in the westerncornerof the struc-
ture, consisted of a 2 x 4 m pit that was excavatedto a
depth of 3.95 m. No floor was identified,but an offering
pit, measuringapproximately1 m in diameter,was en-
countered 1.28 m below the surfaceand continued to a
depth of 3.95 m below the surface.At the bottom of this
deep pit was an offering of camelidbone and spondylus
shell.
Both excavationsrevealedthat the interiorwallsof this
structure had not been plasteredwith clay and white
gypsum,as is commonlythe case with finishedstructures
at Pikillacta.This building appearsto have been aban-
doned after the placement of dedicatory offerings but
before construction was completed. Excavationscon-
ducted in 1982 in Unit 31, also in Sector 1 on the NE
perimeter,producedsimilarresults,indicatingthat Sector
1 was abandonedin the midstof construction.
ExcavationsIn Sector2
Four contiguousType I and Type II structures,located
nearthe centerof Sector2, wereinvestigatedby excavation
(FIGS. 3, 5 ) .
Unit 36 consistedof fiveexcavations(labeledA through
E) to samplea TypeII structurethat measures10 x 30 m.
Unit 36-A, the largestexcavationin this structure,exposed
about 60 sq m of the NE end of the buildingand revealed
 Pv WoDri
176 PikillgstoD, Site in Per/McEwoDn
Figure6. View of the plasterfloor and four largenichesin Unit 36. Note the offeringpit in the far
corner.
fourlargenichesthathad been partiallypreservedin the NE
wall (FIG. 6). These nichesaretrapezoidalin the horizontal
plane,with the narrowend openinginto the interiorof the
building.This structurestill had tracesof the originalwall
finishing,composedof as manyas seven layersof clayand
cappedwith a final, surfacecoat of white gypsumplaster.
Also exposedwas a large section of the massive,gypsum-
plasteredfloor at the NE end of the building.This wasvery
smooth and had an originalthicknessof approximately10
cm. Otherexcavationsof the unit confirmedthatit contin-
ued throughoutthe structure.
At each of the four corners of the structurewas a
sub-floorpit into which an offering may have originally
been placed.Al1of these pits)however,had been looted at
some point in the past, but those at the north and east
cornersof the struccurewere well-preservedand still con-
tainedsome of theiroriginalcontents.Thesewereapproxi-
mately90 cm in diameterand 3 m deep)andat the bottom
of eachwas found a numberof partially-worked spondylus
shells and green-stainedcamelid bones. The pits at the
south and west were much more shallow and reached
bedrock at a depth of approximately60 cm. Unit 36
encounteredevidenceof an old looting episode near the
centerof the NE wall and in the thresholdof the doorway,
but there did not appearto havebeen an offeringlocated
in either location. Excluding the remainsfound in the
offeringpits, no artifactswere found in this structure.
Unit 36-F sampleda room adjacentto the NE wallof this
structure,but neither plasterflooring nor artifactswere
found.
Unit 38 tested the south cornerof a Type II structure
located acrossthe large courtyardto the NWof Unit 36.
This excavationrevealeda shallow offering pit, approxi-
mately20 cm deep, that had been looted in the past and
containedno artifacts.
DirectlySE and acrossa narrowcorridorfrom Unit 36
was a smallType I structuremeasuring10 x 10 m thatwas
designatedUnit 42. This showed evidenceof a plastered

courtyard,and the exposed interiorsof the rooms con-
tained the originalgypsum-plasteredfloors and wall sur-
faces.The most interestingfeatureof this structurewasthe
well-preserved,gypsum-plasteredstaircasein the western
corner(FIG. 7), which consistedof a flight of six steps that
led to a secondfloorlanding.How entrywas gainedto this
buildingis not clear:the mainentranceseemsto be in the
southerncorner but the corridorleadingto the entrance
from Unit 37 appearsblocked by a cross-wall.Since the
latter was plasteredwith clay and gypsum in the same
manneras the rest of the structure,it appearsto be an
originalfeature.
Adjacentto Unit 42 and just to the SE iS a largerType I
structurethat measures20 x 20 m. Designatedas Unit 37,
this building was sampled by means of nine excavation
units (FIG. 5). Units 37-B1 through B3, Unit 37-C, Unit
37-D1, Unit 37-E1, and Unit 37-H1 exposed various
rooms of this structure.All contained gypsum-plastered
floors and walls beneath 2-3 m of overburden(FIG. 8).
Additionally,they all containedremainsof the collapsed
upper floors that were apparentlyconstructedof plaster
and clay laid over a frameworkof wooden poles (FIG. 9).
The few artifactsincludedpartsof polychromebowls and
a fragmentof a bottle with a modeled human face on its
neck. Excavationalso revealed large ash deposits and
burnedwooden beams,indicatingthat this buildinghad
likelybeen burned.
A stratigraphiccut in the south cornerof the patio, just
in front of the mainentryto the structure,was designated
Unit 37-P1. The profileofthis excavationrevealedthatthe
patio floor level had been raisedand re-plasteredtwice in
antiquity.The second remodelingof the patio covered a
bench that had originallyrun along the NE wall of Unit
37-A and Unit 37-B. To accommodatethe raisedpatio, a
short flight of four steps had been placedin front of the
main entrance. Three entrances to this structure were
located;two in the south cornerandone in the eastcorner.
The two doorwaysin the south corner appearto be the
principalentrancesand were carefullyblockedin antiquity
(FIG. 10), presumably at the time of site abandonment.
The north corner of the largest structurein the site
intrudesinto the south cornerof Unit 37. This structure
was sampledby three excavations,Unit 43-A3, Unit 43-
A4, and Unit 43-B1 (FIG. 5). The first of these revealed
finely-finishedplasteredwalls and the remains of three
separategypsum-plasteredfloors (indicatingthe presence
of what originallyhad been a three-storybuilding).Large
chunks of fallen floor showed the impressionsof beams
lashed with ropes that had formed the upper-storysup-
ports. In Unit 43-A3 we encountereda single,rectangular,
dressed-stoneblockrestingon the floor;this is the only cut
23, 1996 177
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.
stone ever found in an architecturalcontext at Pikillacta
(FIG. 11). This room was filledto a depth of 3 m with fine,
grayash mixedwith burnedwooden beams,suggestinga
massiveburning episode. In contrastto the excavations
previouslydescribed,potsherds,needles,and clothingpins
(tupus) of bronze, and obsidianfragmentswere common
in the fill. In Unit 43-A3 were recoveredfragmentsof the
originalwooden lintelsthatspannedthe doorwaysin sock-
ets on either side of the door frames. Resting in the
doorwayof the second story was a large chunk of fallen
plasterfloor that could only have come from a collapsed
third floor as it restedwell above the protrudingsecond-
floor supports.
Slightly to the north of Unit 43-A3 are two curious,
triangular-shaped rooms, each measuringapproximately
1 x 1 x 2.7 m, and designated Unit 43-A4 and Unit
43-B1. These were excavatedto the ground floor (about
3 m below present surface)and revealedthat each con-
taineda low doorway(measuring0.9 m in height x 0.6 m
in width) for access.The fillwithinthese unitsconsistedof
ash and burnedwood. Restingon the floorof Unit 43-A4
werethe remainsof at least30 beans,suggestingthatthese
smallrooms mayhavebeen used for food storage.
Withinthe NE and SE wallsof this huge centralstructure
arelocatedtwo TypeII structures(FIG. 3). Unit 45 sampled
the Type II structurelocatedwithin the NE wall. This unit
was located in the western corner of this structureand
revealed the characteristic,internally-roundedconstruc-
tion. The remains of a looted offering pit, measuring
approximately 90 cm in diameter,were found beneaththe
gypsum-plastered floor.Unit 45 alsorevealedan extraordi-
nary,full-heightniche, (verydifferentfromthe othersseen
at Pikillacta)that extendedfromthe floorto the top of the
ruinedwall (1 m wide x 2.1 m high). The fill within this
unit alsoconsistedof finely-powdered,grayashmixedwith
burnedwood fragments.
Unit 46 sampledthe north cornerof the other Type II
structureembeddedwithin the SE wall of this same large,
centralbuilding (FIG. 3). A characteristicrounded corner
was exposed.Additionally,Unit 46 containeda largeniche
(trapezoidalin its horizontalplane) and a looted offering
pit (about 90 cm in diameter)located beneath the gyp-
sum-plasteredfloor. No artifactswere found within this
unit, andthe fill containedmuchless ashthanwasencoun-
teredin the previousexcavations.
In sum, excavationindicatesthat before abandonment,
Sector 2 had been completely constructed,with some
buildings having multiple stories and probablyroofs of
thatch. Previousexcavations,in 1982, also providedevi-
dence that this sector was finishedand occupied.A trash
midden and hearthswere found in severalbuildings.Un-
178 Pikillacta, a Wari Site in Peru/McEwan

Figure7. View of the staircasefound in Unit 42.

 23, 1996 179
of Field Arch6Beolo,gy/Vol.
Joxrn6B1

Figure8. Plasterfloorsin Units 37-D and E.

 Pv Wgri Site in Per/McEwgn
180 Pikill6Dctg,
Figure9. Collapsedupperfloor in situ in Unit 37-B2. Note the line of projectingstones on the right
wall indicatingthe originalheight of the floor.
like Sector 1, Sector2 seems to have been completedand
occupied.It also seems to have been destroyed,at least in
part,by fire.
In tector J
Excolvoltzons
* n n
Sector 3 containsthe smallestnumberof structuresand
shows the least evidenceof finishedconstructionin Pikil-
lacta (FIG. 3). A Type II structureon the NWend of the
sector, designatedUnit 34, was sampledby means of 21
excavation pits. Internally-roundedcorners and large
nicheswith trapezoidalcross-sectionwere exposed by ex-
cavation.This building had been completely filled with
sterile clay soil. The floors had not been laid, the walls
remainedunfinished,and none of the usualofferingsbeen
placed in the cornersand door threshold.The doorway
had been carefullyblockedin antiquity.This structurehad
apparentlybeen abandonedduring its constructionand
carefullysealedin clay.
Other finds of interest in Sector 3 consisted of two
originalentrancesto the site and two burials,all locatedin
the sw perimeterwall of Pikillacta.The PeruvianNational
Instituteof Culturehad been engaged in conservingthe
walls of Pikillactawhen they came upon these features.
Members of the PikillactaArchaeologicalProject were
askedto assistthe archaeologistsof the Institutein exca-
vatingand recordingthe burials.Entrance1 appearsto be
a narrow gatewayextending the full height of the wall.
Entrance2 was much lower and was capped by a lintel
stone. Burial1 containedthe bodiesof a mananda woman
of about middle age (John Verano,personalcommunica-
tion, 1989). Associatedwith the burialwere a numberof
small,turquoise-coloredstone beads.These bodies appear
to havebeen placedin the wall at the time of construction.
Due to the slumpingof the wall it was difficultto deter-
mine the preciseoriginalpositionof the bodiesor whether
there had been a preparedcyst within the wall; both
individualswere in a flexed, seatedposition. Burial2 was
alsofoundin a slumpedportionof the mud andsplit-stone
wall.The body was in a flexedpositionbut had fallenonto
its side. The remainswere of an adolescentfemalewith a
severefacialdeformity(John Verano,personalcommuni-
cation, 1989).
Excavations In The Midden
The midden at Pikillactais located outside the SE pe-
rimeterwall and just above the southernapproachavenue
to the site (FIG. 3). Unit 39, Unit 40, and Unit 44 were
excavatedwithin this midden and more than 150,000

Figure10. View of the principalentranceto Unit 37 that was deliberatelyblockedin antiquity.
artifactswere recovered.Most of these were potsherdsbut
therewere also quantitiesof metal, bone, shell, stone, and
obsidian artifacts.Analysisof these materialsis not yet
completebut preliminaryinspectionhasyieldedsome pro-
vocative data. One of the more unusual finds was the
discoverya largefragmentof a Nazca6-stylebowl (Patricia
Knobloch, personal communication, 1989). About five
sherdsin the Cajamarcastylewere also recovered(FIG. 12).
A largenumberof metalimplements(probablycopperand
bronze) tupupins, needles,chisels,andfragments were
also found, indicatingthat the use of metal objects was
fairlycommon duringthe Middle Horizon.
Radiocarbon Dates From Pikillacta
Five radiocarbonsamples collected during the 1989
excavationshave been processed.Charcoalfound directly
on the floor of Unit 36 (Beta 43230) provideda date of
1150+80 B.P. (an uncorrecteddate of A.C. 800+80).Two
samplesfrom Unit 37 were processed.One (Beta 43234)
was taken from a wooden beam support associatedwith
the collapsedsecond floor andyieldeda date of 1330 + 60
B.P. (an uncorrecteddate of A.C. 620 + 60). The second
sample(Beta43232) from Unit 37 was of charcoalfrom a
burned upper-floorsupport beam. It provided a date of
1180+ 60 B.P. (an uncorrecteddate of A.C. 770 + 60). Two
Journglof FieldArchgeolo,gy/Vol.
23, 1996 181
samplesfromUnit 43 were alsoprocessed.A fragmentof a
wooden lintel found in situ in a doorway (Beta 43231)
provideda date of 1290 + 60 B.P. (an uncorrecteddate of
A.C. 660 + 60). The second samplefrom this unit was of
charcoalfrom a burnedfloor or roof supportbeam (Beta
43233), and yielded a date of 1060 + 50 (an uncorrected
date of A.C. 890 + 50). Although there is always the
possibility that the wooden architecturalbeams were
reused from other earlierstructures,the dates obtained
from them fall within the expected range for the Middle
Horizon. The datesfrom these samplesare also consistent
with those obtainedin 1979 and 1982 (McEwan1987).
Conclusions
Although the data recovered from Pikillactaare still
being analyzed,it is possible to draw some preliminary
conclusionsfromthe excavationresults.Therearedatesfor
the occupation,an indicationof the sequenceof construc-
tion, evidencefor structuralfunction, and some informa-
tion regardingthe circumstancesof site abandonment.
The site was begun possiblyas earlyas A.C. 600 and may
have been occupieduntil A.C. 850-900. Architecturalevi-
dence indicatesthat constructioncontinued throughout
the occupation and that the site was abandonedbefore
much of the architecturewas completed.Excavationillus-
182 Pikillact6l,a W6lriSite in Per/McEw6ln

Figure11. View of Unit 43-A3. Note the columnof ash fill in the doorwayand the cut stone in situ
on the floor.

Figure12. Ceramicfragmentsof the Nazca (right) and Cajamarca
(leftmost)styles,found at Pikillacta.
tratesthat Sector 2 was the firstto be built, and featured
filllyplasteredwalls and floors in multiple-storybuildings
with thatchedroofs.This sectorwas occupiedlong enough
for some buildingsto have undergoneat leasttwo remod-
eling episodes.
Basedon the degreeof completeness,it appearsthat the
other threeSectorswere constructedin the sequenceof 1,
4, and finally3. Wallsand floorswere incompletein Sector
1, but offerings had been placed in doorway thresholds
andcornerpits preparatoryto layingthe gypsum-plastered
floor. In Sector 4, constructionwas also well advanced,
with offeringsin place (McEwan1987: 35, 40), but walls
were incompleteand floorswere unfinished.Sector 3 was
the least complete, with walls risingonly a short distance
abovethe foundationbeforebeing halted.
Structuralfilnction in Wariarchitectureremainsenig-
matic. The buildings are so unusual that they do not
suggest any filnctionrecognizableby form alone. Thereis
consistentplacementof elaborately-prepared offeringpits
in the cornersof Type II structuresand, although these
pits have all been looted, the few remainingartifactssug-
gest importantofferingsof humanand animalbone, met-
al, and spondylus shell. It also seems likely that these
offeringpits originallycontainedsets of turquoise-colored
stone figurineslike those reported to have been looted
from the site in 1927 (Valcarcel1933; Cook 1992). Type
Journal of Field Archaeology/Vol.23, 1996 183
II buildingsalso are unusualin Wariarchitecturein that
they contain large wall niches. From this evidence it is
possibleto suggest that Type II structuresare ceremonial
in natureand representshrinesor temples.Type I struc-
tures only contain hints as to originalfilncton; the few
remainingarofactspoint to the storageand preparatonof
food and perhapsother goods, however. The multiple,
small cellularrooms (like those of Unit 37) would have
been difficultto light and seem crampedand inconvenient
for living quarters;they would, however,have servedad-
mirablyfor storage.Among the few artifactsfound in this
type of structureare decoratedceramicservingbowls and
metal pins usually associatedin the Andes with texales
worn by women. Hearths have also been found in the
chamberscloser to the courtyardsin some of these build-
ings. Direct evidencefor storageof foodstuffscomes from
the smalltriangularcell of Unit 47 in whichthe remainsof
beans were found on the floor. Analysisof the ceramic
collection,currentlyunderway,will shedmorelight on this
queston.
The abandonmentof Pikillactaoccurred during the
constructon of Sectors 1, 3, and 4. The abruptcessaton
of constructon in the midst of a majorexpansionof the
site seemsto reflectsome sort of crisisfromwhichthe Wari
never recovered. Although construction was halted
abruptly,the abandonmentof the site was orderly and
184 Pikillacta, a Wri Site in Petu/McEwn
enough time was availablefor elaborate preparations.
Among thesewas the sealingof a numberof key doorways
with stone blocksin what seems to have been an attempt
to discourageunwanted visitors. Rooms were carefully
emptied of valuablegoods, which no doubt accountsfor
the clean, empty chambersthat archaeologistsencounter.
Some buildings,such as Unit 34, were deliberatelyfilled
and sealed with clay,perhapsto protect sacredprecincts
from outsiders.Some offeringsmayhavebeen removedat
this time as well. The precisionof the cuts through the
floor in Unit 36 suggests prior knowledge of the exact
locationof eachoffering.No excessplasterwas brokenand
the hole was cut directlyoverthe pit. Theseprecautionsby
the Warialso stronglysuggestthat they intendedto return
to Pikillactaandwere seekingto protectit.
The final event in the abandonmentseems to be a
massiveburningepisode. It is unknownwho lit these fires
but it seems unlikelythat the Wariwould have burned
down the site after taking such elaborate measuresto
protectit. More likelyis the explanationthat local peoples
attemptedto sackthe site afterthe departureof the Wari.
The extensivenessof the burningin the site, togetherwith
evidenceof its intensity(with large,whole beamsbecom-
ing completelycarbonizedand beamsburnedon the un-
dersideof floors)suggeststhat the firewasdeliberatelyand
not accidentallyset. In sum, the evidenceseemsto suggest
an abruptend to the Warioccupationof Pikillactaand the
Cuzvo region, and perhapsan end to the empire.
The excavationresultsfromPikillactacorrelatewell with
the basic chronology set forth by Menzel (1964, 1968)
and the resultsof studiesof the othermajorWarisites.It is
instructiveto view Pikillactain termsof the Warichronol-
ogy and datafromthe other two majorsites that represent
the imperialorganization:the imperialcapitalat Wariin
the AyacuchoBasin,andthe site of Viracochapampa in the
North Highlands.
In the 1960s Dorothy Menzel (1964, 1968) undertook
ceramicstudiesof collectionsfromWariand other Middle
Horizon sites and was able to identifyand seriateseveral
majorstyles involvedin the Wariexpansion.From these
studiesshe was able to derivea generalizedchronologyof
events in the history of the Wariempire.The portion of
the Middle Horizon (A.C. 540-900) during which Wari
ceramicswere spread throughout Peru is divided into
epochs 1 and 2, each spanning100 years.Each of these
epochsis furthersubdividedinto partsA andB of approxi-
mately50 yearsduration.
DuringEpoch 1A a new styleof ceremonialpotterywith
iconographicsimilaritiesto BolivianTiahuanacoand other
altiplano styles appearedin the Ayacucho region. This
seems to imply the introductionof a new religion rather
than a conquest by outsiderssince few importedartifacts
havebeen found.
During Epoch 1B Waribecamethe centerof an expan-
sion movement.This expansionis markedby both relig-
ious and secularceramicsandwas likelymilitaryin charac-
ter ratherthanreligiousbecauseof the high proportionof
secularartifactsfoundin areasinfluencedby the expansion.
Radiocarbonand ceramicdatafromPikillactasuggestthat
it was founded duringthe Epoch 1B expansionand that
constructionbegan between A.C. 600 and 650 (see also
McEwan1984: 131-133).
In Epoch2A Menzelpostulatesa severecrisis,perhapsa
revolt or epidemic that halted expansionof the empire.
This is reflectedin the change in settlementdistribution
and burialpatternsin the AyacuchoValleyand on the
South Coast. During this time sector 2 of Pikillactahad
been completedand continuedto be occupied.
This crisiswas apparentlyresolvedby Epoch2B and the
empire expandedvery rapidlyand reachedits maximum
extent. Expansionat Pikillactawas also undertakenand
constructionin sectors1, 3, and 4 was begun. At the end
of Epoch 2B the empirecollapsedand the capitalat Wari
abandoned.At about this same time (the latest construc-
tion date determinedby radiocarbonis A.C. 830 + 42)
Pikillactawas abandonedwith sectors 1, 3, and 4 left
uncompleted.
At the capital of the empire, the site of Wari in
Ayacucho,a similarsequenceis seen in the architectural
contructionphasesof the site (Isbell, Brewster-Wray, and
Spickard1991). Constructionof architecturein the style
seen at Pikillactaseemsto peakduringEpoch 1B. Thiswas
followedlate in Epoch2 by a new andambitiousconstruc-
tion phasethat was not completedbeforethe site is aban-
doned. Thus the sequence of construction,occupation,
expansion,and abandonmentis paralledat Wariand Pikil-
lacta.
At the site of Viracochapampa in the North Highlands
(FIG. 1) can be seen anotherset of interestingparallelsto
the situationrevealedby the excavationsat Pikillacta.This
site is also laid out in a rigid grid plan and can be subdi-
vided into four sectors. Like Pikillacta,Viracochapampa
was abandonedbefore constructionwas completed.The
end of constructionhoweveris rathertenuouslydated to
Epoch 1B, considerablyearlierthan at Pikillacta(Topic
and Topic 1983; Topic 1991). A red claydepositor fill is
seen in many of the incomplete buildingsat Viracocha-
pampawhichis reminiscentof the red clayfillseen in Unit
34 at Pikillacta.Although Topic (1991: 151) feels that
these deposits may be the result of excavationfor wall
foundation trenches at Viracochapampa,this is not the
caseat Pikillactawherethe wallfoundationswerealsobuilt

in trenches.The red clayseems to be deliberatelybrought
in and likely had some symbolic value in terms of the
materialand the color. Blocked doorways are another
feature seen at both Pikillactaand Viracochapampa.At
Pikillactathey have been interpretedas an effort by the
Warito discourageunauthorizedentryafterabandonment.
At Viracochapampa,Topic and Topic (1983: 18; 1991:
151) havearguedthat the blockeddoorwaysarethe result
of a constructiontechnique representingtemporaryma-
sonrysupportsfor lintelsthatwere neverremoved.
Thisuncompletedconstructionactivityseen throughout
the Waridomain providessome interestinginsights into
the state of the empireat the time of its collapse.Rather
than a state of decline or decay, the data reflect a state
engagedin large-scalerenovationandnew construction.If
future studies can decipherthe function of the buildings
underconstructionanddemonstratethattheywerepartof
the administrative apparatusof the state, then these aban-
doned constructionprojectsmay reflecta parallelexpan-
sion of the empire. This third great expansionseems to
hasTe failedhowever,with catastrophicresultsfor the Wari,
includingthe abruptcollapseof theirempire.
Acknowledgments
The PikillactaArchaeologicalProject was carriedout
under a grant from the National Science Foundation
(BNS-8819481). The authorgratefullyacknowledgesthe
help of the following individualswho participatedin the
excavations:Alana Cordy Collins, Nicole Couture, Mary
Glowacki,Daniel Julien,Ann Hutflies,Nemesio Holguin,
Donald McHwan,Roberto Perez, RahillaAbbas, Kathy
Reese, WilbertPalomino,and WilbertVera.I would also
like to thankInga Calvinfor editorialassistance.
GordonF. McEwgnis Curgtorof New WorldArt gt the
DenverArt Museuxngnd hgs beenstudyinsg erly stgtes
in the vglleyof Cuzco,PerH,since 1977. Mgilinsggddress:
DenverArt MHseuxn, New WorldDeprtxnent, 100 W
14thAvenuePrkwgy, Denver;CO 80204.
Adams, Robert McC.
1966 TheEvolutionof Urban Society.Chicago:Aldine.
Cook, Anita G.
1992 "The Stone Ancestors: Idioms of Imperial Attire and
Rank Among Huari Figurines," Latin American Antiq-
uity 3: 341-364.
Freid, Morton H.
1967 The Evolution of Political Society:An Essay in Political
New York:Random House.
Anthropolo,gy.
23, 1996 185
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.
Harth-Terre,Emilio
1959 Pikillacta - ciudad de positosy bastimientosdel imperio
incaico.Cuzvo: Universidaddel Cuzvo.
Isbell, William H., ChristineBrewster-Wray, and Lynda Spickard
1991 "Architectureand SpatialOrganizationat Huari,"in Wil-
liam H. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds., Huari Ad-
ministrativeStructure:PrehistoricMonumentalArchitec-
ture and State Government. Washington, D.C.:
Dumbarton Oaks, 19-53.
Isbell, William H., and KatharinaSchreiber
1978 "WasHuari a State?"AmericanAntiquity43: 372-389.
Lanning, Edward P.
1967 Peru Beforethe Incas. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
Lumbreras,Luis G.
1974 ThePeoplesand Culturesof Ancient Peru. Betty J. Meg-
gers, transl. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press.
McEwan, Gordon F.
1979 "Principlesof Wari Settlement Planning," M.A. thesis,
Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at
Austin.
1984 "The Middle Horizon in the Valleyof Cuzvo, Peru: the
Impact of the Warioccupation of Pikillactain the Lucre
Basin," Ph.D. dissertation, The Universitv of Texas at
Austin.
1987 The Middle Horizon in the Valleyof Cuzco, Peru: The
Impact of the Wari Occupationof Pikillacta in the Lucre
Basin. BAR InternationalSeriesS-372. Oxford: B.A.R.
1991 "Investigationsat the PikillactaSite: A ProvincialWari
Center in the Valleyof Cuzvo," in WilliamH. Isbell and
Gordon F. McEwan, eds., Huari Administrative Struc-
ture:PrehistoricMonumentalArchitectureand State Gov-
ernment.Washington,D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 93-119.
1992 "El Horizonte Medio en el Cuzvo y La SierraDel Sur
Peruano,"in Duccio Bonavia,ed., EstudiosdeArqueolozgia
Peruana. Lima:Fomciencias,279-310.
Menzel, Dorothy
1964 "Style and Time in the Middle Horizon," NaxvpaPacha
2: 1-105.
1968 "New Data on the Huari Empire in Middle Horizon
Epoch 2A," NaxvpaPacha6: 47- 114.
Rowe, John H.
1946 "Inca Culture at the Time of the SpanishConquest," in
JulianH. Steward,ed., Handbookof SouthAmericanIndi-
ans. Bulletin 143, Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of
AmericanEthnology, 18 3-3 30 .
1956 "ArchaeologicalExplorationsin Southern Peru, 1954-
55," AmericanAntiquity 22: 135-151.
1963 "Urban Settlements in Ancient Peru." NaxvpaPacha 1:
1-27.
Sanders,WilliamT.
1973 "The Significanceof Pikillactain Andean Culture His-
Pennsylvania
tory," OccasionalPapers in Anthropolozgy,
State University8:380428.
186 Pikillatstat,a Wari Site in Petu/McEwatn

Schacdel, RichardP.
1966 "IncipientUrbanization and Secularizationin Tiahuana-
coid Peru,"AmericanAntiquity 31: 338-344.
1978 "Formationof the Inca State," in RamiroMatos M. ed.,
III ConzgresoPeruano del Hombrey la Cultura Andina,
XtOl.1. Lima: UniversidadNacional Mayor de San Mar-
cos, 112-156.
Schreiber,K. J.
1978 "PlannedArchitectureof Middle Horizon Peru: Implica-
tions for Social and PoliticalOrganization,"Ph.D. disser-
tation, State Universityof New Yorkat Binghamton.
1987 "From State to Empire:The Expansionof Warioutside
the Ayacucho Basin,"in JonathanHaas, Shelia Pozorski,
and Thomas Pozorski,eds., TheOrizginsand Development
of the Andean State. Cambridge:Cambridge University
Press,91-96.
Service, Elman
1962 Primitive Social Orzganization:
An EvolutionaryPerspec-
tive. New York:Random House.
Topic, John R.
1991 "Huariand Huamachuco,"in WilliamH. Isbell and Gor-
don F. McEwan, eds., Huari Ad ministrative Structure:
PrehistoricMonumental Architectureand State Govern-
ment.Washington,D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 141-164.
Topic, John R., and Theresa Lange Topic
1983 HuamachucoArchaeolozgical Project:Preliminary Report
on the SecondSeasonJune-Auzgust1982. Peterborough,
Ontario:Trent University
Trigger, Bruce
1974 "The Archaeologyof Government," WorldArchaeolozgy
6:
95-106.
Valcarcel,Luis
1933 "Esculturasde Pikillacta,"Revista del MuseoNacional 2:
1948.
Willey, Gordon R.
1953 Pre-HistoricSettlementPatterns in the Viru Valley,Peru.
Bureau of Amreican EthnolozgyBulletin, Volume 155.
Washington,D.C.: SmithsonianInstitution.
Wright, Henry T.
1977 "Recent Research on the Origin of the State," Annual
Reviexvof Anthropolozgy
6: 379-397.
Wright, Henry T., and Gregory Johnson
1975 "Population Exchange and Early State Formation in
Southwestern Iran," American Anthropolozgist
77: 267-
289.