CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

CLIMATE

Climate is traditionally defined as the description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant
atmospheric variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate can thus be viewed
as a synthesis or aggregate of weather. This implies that the portrayal of the climate in a particular
region or a place.

Climate is defined as Integration in time of the physical status of the atmospheric environmental
conditions of a certain geographical location. Climate is an accumulation of weather evenly
over an extended period of time.

WEATHER

Weather is the momentary state of the atmospheric environment at a certain location. In other
words, it is the condition of the atmosphere over a brief period of time. Weather is the
combination of temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, visibility, and wind

Comparison between Climate and Weather

Climate Weather
Definition: Describes the average conditions Describes the atmospheric conditions at a
expected at a specific place at a specific place at a specific point in time.
given time. Weather generally refers to day-to-day
temperature and precipitation activity
Components: Climate may include precipitation, Weather includes sunshine, rain, cloud
temperature, humidity, sunshine, cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, freezing
wind velocity, phenomena such as rain, flooding, blizzards, ice storms,
fog, frost, and hail storms over a long thunderstorms, steady rains from a cold
period of time front or warm front, excessive heat, heat
waves and more
Forecast: By aggregates of weather statistics By collecting meteorological data, like air
over periods of 30 years temperature, pressure, humidity, solar
radiation, wind speeds and direction etc.
Determined Aggregating weather statistics over Real-time measurements of atmospheric
by: periods of 30 years ("climate pressure, temperature, wind speed and
normals"). direction, humidity, precipitation, cloud
cover, and other variables
About: Climate is defined as statistical Weather is the day-to-day state of the
weather information that describes atmosphere, and its short-term (minutes to
the variation of weather at a given weeks) variation
place for a specified interval.
Time frame: Measured over a long period Measured for short term
Study: Climatology Meteorology

What is Climatology?

Scientific study of climates. Defined as the average mean weather conditions over a period of
time. Takes into account the averages of short term and long term weather conditions. It also
takes into account the variables and averages of short-term and long-term weather conditions.
Climatology focuses primarily on climate changes throughout and the effects of the climate on
people and events over time.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 1

Why is Climatology important?

• Climatology is important in all these fields because long-term changes in climate can
affect the future of crop production, energy, animals, and even humans.
• Also can also anticipate the effects of adverse conditions.
• Climatologist is the name given to the person who studied the subject.
• A climatologist attempts to discover and explain the impacts of climate so that society can
plan its activities, design its buildings and infrastructure, and anticipate the effects of
adverse conditions.

FACTORS DETERMINES THE CLIMATE

SOLAR RADIATION QUANTITY:

The earth receives all its energy from the sun in the form of radiation thus the sun plays an
important role on climate.

SOLAR SPECTRUM:

The range of electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun is known as the solar spectrum, and lies
mainly in three regions: ultraviolet, visible, and infrared. The spectrum of solar radiation extends
from 290 nm to 2300nm (nano meter).

Human’s means of perception we can distinguish UV light radiation, 290-380 nm, producing
photochemical effects, bleaching and sunburn

Visible light , 380 (violet ) to 700 nm (red ) Short Infra red – 700 to 2300nm, radiant heat with photo
chemical effects. Spectral energy varies with altitude.

SOLAR RADIATION QUANTITY: Solar constant:

The rate at which energy reaches the earth's
surface from the sun, usually taken to be
1,395watts per square meter
The intensity of solar radiation reaching the
upper surface of the atmosphere is taken as
the solar constant. May vary +/- 2% due to
variation in the output of sun.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 2

TILT OF THE EARTHS AXIS

The earth moves round the sun in an elliptical orbit. One revolution completed in 366 days or to be
precise 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds.

Since Earth's axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees, we have seasons. One hemisphere leans toward the sun
half the year while the other leans away, and then the situation reverses.

Earth rotates daily around an axis that is oriented at an angle of 23.4° away from its plane of
orbit around the sun.

At the equinoxes, the sun is directly over the equator, but at the solstices, June 21 and
December 21, the sun is directly above the Tropic of Cancer (latitude 23.4°N) or the Tropic of
Capricorn (latitude 23.4°S), respectively.

Solstices is a phenomena when the sun is the far from the equator. Therefore, on June 21, the
Tropic of Cancer receives full sunlight and experiences summer; the Tropic of Capricorn
experiences winter. On December 21, the reverse applies.

On March 21 and 23rd September the areas along the equator are normal and hence these
are equinox days. Day and night of equal days

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 3

RADIATION AT EARTHS SURFACE

The heat receives from the Sun, termed solar insolation. The amount of insolations which reaches
the Earth's surface depends on site latitude and season. The insolations into a surface are largest
when the surface directly faces the Sun.

This projection effect is the main reason why the Polar Regions are much colder than equatorial
regions on Earth. On an annual average the poles receive less insolation than does the equator,
because at the poles the Earth's surface is angled away from the Sun.

COSINE L AW

When radiation from the sun strikes the surface of an object

directly, the energy density per unit area will be much higher than
if the radiation struck from a much greater angle. This effect can
be calculated using the cosine law, where the radiant energy
from the sun multiplied by the cosine of the incidence angle.

When the radiation strikes at 75° it imparts only 26% of its energy to
the surface. At 15° it imparts 96% of its energy. Obviously at 0° it
would impart 100% and at 90° it would impart 0% as it no longer
actually strikes the surface.

The incidence angle is always calculated to the surface of each plane. Radiant energy density is
at its maximum when the incidence angle approaches 0°. It is at its minimum at grazing incidence
when the incidence angle approaches 90°.

Cosine law states that the intensity on tilted surface equals to the normal intensity times the cosine
angle of incidence. Cosine Law More energy received at equator than at poles

SURFACE OF THE EARTH

The amount of sunlight that is absorbed or reflected by the surface determines how much
atmospheric heating occurs. Darker areas, such as heavily vegetated regions, tend to be good
absorbers; lighter areas, such as snow and ice-covered regions, tend to be good reflectors.

The ocean absorbs and loses heat more slowly than land. Its waters gradually release heat into
the atmosphere, which then distributes heat around the globe.

Places located near the equator are hotter as they receive the vertical rays of the sun, e.g.,
Singapore, whereas places which are situated away from the equator receive the slanting rays of
the sun. Hence, they are cooler, e.g., London.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 4

WIND

Winds are created because of the uneven heating the Earth. Air moves from high pressure to low
pressure. Areas that are warmer are low pressure areas, so wind blows toward low pressure. Areas
that are colder are high pressure areas, so wind blows away from high pressure

There are two types of winds

a. Planetary (or global)

b. Local

PLANETARY WINDS

These winds blow across the entire planet. They generally blow at the same speed and direction.
Some are high in the atmosphere and you cannot feel them on the ground

Each hemisphere contains 3 wind belts that divide up the planetary winds:

There are 3 major wind patterns found in the Northern Hemisphere and also 3 in the Southern
Hemisphere.

TRADE WINDS

Located between 0-30º north and south

Between thirty degrees latitude and the equator, most of the cooling sinking air moves back to
the equator. The rest of the air flows toward the poles. The air movements toward the equator are
called trade winds- warm, steady breezes that blow almost continuously.

They were named by EUROPEAN sailors who relied upon these winds to propel their ships across
the seas for trade

The trade winds coming from the south and the north meet near the equator. These converging
trade winds produce general upward winds as they are heated, so there are no steady surface
winds. This area of calm is called the doldrums.

The areas where the air rises, and where the northerly and southerly winds meet a tropical front is
formed called as the inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) which moves back and forth across
the Equator

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 5

CORIOLIS EFFECT

Once air has been set in motion by the pressure gradient force, it undergoes an apparent
deflection from its path, as seen by an observer on the earth. This apparent deflection is called
the "Coriolis force" and is a result of the earth's rotation.

Causes air to move in a curved path. It is caused by the Earth spinning on its axis. The Earth spins
fastest at the equator, and slowest near the poles. So the coriolis effect causes wind flowing from
high pressure to low pressure to curve as the wind moves

As air moves from high to low pressure in the northern

hemisphere, it is deflected to the right by the Coriolis
force. In the southern hemisphere, air moving from high
to low pressure is deflected to the left by the Coriolis
force. The Coriolis force is zero right at the equator.

MID LATITUDE WESTERLIES

Between 30º and 60º latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, and the Southern Hemisphere, winds
blow from the west towards the east. These winds are thus called westerly winds, after the
direction from whence the winds come.

High pressure at 30º causes air to descend and blow toward the poles.
This zone of high pressure at 30º is called Horse Latitude. The strongest
westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the Roaring Forties,
between 40 and 50 degrees.

POLAR WINDS

Located above 60º latitude (between 60-90º). High pressure over the poles (caused by the sinking
cold dense air) causes the air to blow away from the poles toward 60º latitude. At North Pole, they
are northeast winds since the wind comes from the northeast. At the South Pole, they are
southeast winds since the wind comes from the southeast

At about sixty degrees latitude in both hemispheres, the prevailing westerlies join with polar
easterlies to reduce upward motion. This cool air then sinks and spreads over the surface. As the
air flows away from the poles, it is turned to the west by the Coriolis Effect.

LOCAL WINDS

• These winds blow over small areas

• Unlike planetary winds, local winds can change speed and direct frequently
• These are the winds we feel on the ground
• They are influenced by local conditions and local temperature variations

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 6

LAND AND SEA BREEZES

During the day, the land heats up faster than the water; it heats the air in the atmosphere above
it. This causes the air to expand, becoming less dense, and thus creating a low pressure.

Because water heats up less quickly, air above

the ocean also takes longer to increase in
temperature. The result is that a higher pressure
is maintained. With a high pressure above the
water and a lower pressure above the land.
Wind blows from the sea towards the land. This
is known as a sea breeze

In the night, land cools down much quicker

than the waters of the ocean. As the land
becomes cooler, so does the air above it. This
results in air becoming denser, forming a high
pressure, causing winds to blow outward
towards the sea. This is known as a land breeze.

ALTITUDE

Altitude, or how high one is above sea level, has a similar effect--the higher the elevation, the
colder the climate.

Places located on high altitude are cooler than places located on the plains. This is due to the
fact that atmosphere gets heated by terrestrial radiation rather than directly by the sun. Hence,
the temperature decreases with increasing altitude.

Temperature decreases at the rate of 1°C for 165 m of ascent.

At higher altitudes, the temperature drops. Specifically, temperature goes down 4 degrees
Fahrenheit for every 1,000 feet. This happens because air pressure decreases, allowing the air to
expand and get colder.

Altitude affects the climate because the higher you go in altitude the colder the air is. The air is
also thinner at higher altitudes which can cause people to become light headed when they
aren't used to it.

PROXIMITY TO OCEAN /SEA

Land and water retain different amounts of heat. Land heats more quickly than water, but water
holds heat longer. Proximity to water moderates the climate, while inland climates are harsher.

Those living near the water will experience breezy, moist weather, when the warm air from the
land meets the cooler air from the water and rises, making for a windy climate with precipitation.
The further inland one goes, the drier the climate in most regions.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 7

TOPOGRAPHY

The Topography of an area can greatly influence our climate. Mountain ranges are natural
barriers to air movement. Topography is a detailed map of the surface features of land.
Topography represents a particular area in detail, including everything natural and man-made -
hills, valleys, roads, or lakes. It's the geographical contours of the land.

Topography affects climate in a variety of ways. The orientation of mountains to the prevailing
wind affects precipitation. Windward slopes, those facing into the wind, experience more
precipitation. Leeward sides of mountains are in the rain shadow and thus receive less
precipitation. Air temperatures are affected by slope and orientation as slopes facing into the Sun
will be warmer than those facing away. Temperature also decreases as one move toward higher
elevations. Mountains have nearly the same effect as latitude does on climate.

EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY ON CLIMATE

Topography Affects Rain and Snowfall

Mountains play an important role in precipitation patterns. Topographic barriers such as

mountains and hills force prevailing winds up and over their slopes. As air rises, it also cools. Cooler
air is capable of holding less water vapor than warmer air. As air cools, this water vapor is forced
to condense, depositing rain or snow on windward slopes.

Topography Creates Distinctive Regional Winds

Mountain barriers also create and funnel regional winds, an important element of climate. As wind
descends the leeward slopes, the air compresses, becoming more dense and warm.

Strong winds can result, such as the powerful and unseasonably warm winds that flow down the
eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. Wind blows more strongly when forced by topography
through a narrow opening, and many wind farms can be found in these locations.

Higher Elevations and Cooler Temperatures

Land at higher elevations, such as mountains or

plateaus, are naturally cooler due to a
phenomenon known as the environmental lapse
rate. Air cools at 3.5 degrees Fahrenheit for every
1,000 feet of elevation gain.

Direction of mountains

If the winds blow parallel to the mountain range, then there will be no rainfall, e.g., Aravalies. If the
winds are obstructed by the mountains, the windward side of the mountain receives heavy
rainfall, e.g., Western Ghats.

The windward side of the mountains means that it is the side where the clouds are blocked by the
mountain, this side experiences rainfall because the clouds are forced to precipitate.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 8

The other side of the mountain, which does not block the clouds, is called the leeward side, and
this side does not receive much rainfall.

VEGETATION

Hot and wet climates in the tropics, for instance, develop rainforests; the more trees and plants
there are, the more water vapour in the atmosphere and the moister and cooler the area.

Along the same line, dry climates will often enable the growth of grasslands or savannas with little
water vapour to contribute to the atmosphere, maintaining drier weather patterns.

Components of Climate or Elements of Climate

• Temperature
• Humidity
• Vapour Pressure
• Precipitation
• Driving rain
• Sky condition
• Solar radiation
• Wind
• Vegetation

Temperature:

Temperature states as the outward appearance of thermal state of the body. If an energy is
conveyed to a body, the molecular movement within that body is increased and its appears to
be warmer. If this molecular movement is spreading to other bodies, its intensity within the body
decreases and the body appears to be cooling. Temperature is measured by Celsius scale & it is
denoted by °C or deg C.

Humidity:

The amount of moisture content present in the air is known as Humidity. The humidity of air can be
described as absolute humidity (AH), the amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit
volume of air. The relative humidity (RH), the amount of moisture the air can hold (the saturation
point humidity: SH) depends on the temperature. Relative humidity is the ratio of actual amount of
moisture present, to the amount of moisture the air could hold the given temperature expressed
as a percentage.

RH=AH/SH X 100(%)

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 9

Humidity is usually measured with wet & dry bulb hygrometer. This consists of two ordinary mercury
thermometers mounded side by side. The first one measures the air (dry-bulb) temperature (DBT).
The bulb of the second one is covered with gauze and is kept wet. Moisture evaporating gives
cooling effect, and hence reading of wet bulb temperature (WBT) is less than dry bulb
temperature (DBT). In case of 100% RH the two readings will be identical as there is no
evaporation.

Vapour Pressure

Vapour pressure is measured in Newton / meter square. A vapour pressure concept is rarely used.
It is another expression of humidity. The partial pressure of water vapour present in air. Atmospheric
Pressure (P) is the sum of partial pressure of dry air (Pa) and the partial vapour pressure (PV).

P = Pa + PV

Relative humidity can also be expressed as the ratio of actual vapour pressure.

RH= AH/SH x 100 = PV / Pvs x 100

PV – partial vapour pressure

Pvs – saturated vapour pressure

Precipitation

Precipitation is the collective term used for rain, snow, hail dew and frost.
I.e. all forms of water deposited from the atmosphere. Measured by rain
gauges and expressed in mm per time unit (mm/day, mm/month) .The
values would indicate the pattern of dry and wet season.

Driving Rain

Defined as the quantity of rain that passes through a vertical plane in the atmosphere. It occurs
because rain drops falling on the ground are blown sideways at the speed of wind. It expresses
the degree of exposure

It is the product of annual rainfall (m) and annual average wind velocity (m/sec). Thus the
dimension is meter square / second.

Sky Conditions

The presence or absence of clouds. Two observations are made per day and expressed in
percentage. Morning and afternoon conditions may affect the design of roofs over hang and
shading devices.

Solar Radiation

Sunshine recorder will register the duration of sunshine which can be expressed in number of hours
per day. Solarimeter, heliometer, actinometer and pyranometer are the instruments used.

International SI unit is watt/meter square. Total radiation received over a longer period is
expressed in Joule per meter square.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 10

Wind

Averages are taken to notice the calm

period in each month. All observations help
to record the occurrence of hurricanes,
typhoons and tornadoes.

Wind velocity and direction should be

tabulated and the frequency of occurrence
should be done over a period of 25 – 30
years.

Wind velocity is measured by a cup type or

propeller type anemometer or by a pivot
tube
Vegetation

Vegetation influences climate. Design of outdoor spaces and courtyards reduces the
temperature. Study of local species of plant life shape and color, orientation and situation helps in
reducing the climatic conditions of the site.

CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CLIMATE

The Basis of classification is given by two atmospheric factors which influence human comfort -Air
Temperature and Humidity. Air temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is.

Tropical regions are divided into 3 major climatic zones and 3 sub groups.

a. Warm humid Equatorial climate

b. Hot Desert or semi Desert
c. Composite or monsoon

Sub Groups

a. Warm Humid Island or Trade Wind climate

b. Hot Dry Maritime Desert

c. Tropical Upland Climate.

Characteristics of climate are:

• Air Temperature
• Humidity
• Precipitation
• Sky conditions
• Solar radiation
• Wind velocity
• Vegetation
• Special characteristics

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 11

WARM – HUMID

Found in the belt near equator to 15 degrees N and S

Examples of places coming in this zone would be Colombo, Singapore, Jarkarta

Season: Very little seasonal variation throughout the year with periods of heavy or less rain, gusty
winds and storms

Air temperature: Mean Max day 27-32 degrees C , Mean Min night temperature 21-27 degrees C

Humidity is generally high at 75% most of the time and may vary between 55 to almost 100 %

Vapour pressure varies from 2500- 3000N/m2 .

Precipitation: is High throughout the year and more intense for several months. Annual Rainfall
varies from 2000 to 5000mm .Exceeds 500mm in the wettest month. During severe storms rain may
fall at the rate of 100mm/H

Sky conditions: Fairly Cloudy throughout .Cloud cover varies between 60-90 %. Sky is bright with
luminance of 7000 cd/m2 or even more when thinly overcast. When heavily overcast the Sky is dull
at 850cd/m2

Solar radiation : Is partly reflected and partly scattered by the cloud blanket or the high vapour
content of the atmosphere , therefore the radiation reaching the ground is diffuse but strong and
can cause glare.

Wind Velocity: are typically Low with calm periods are frequent .Strong winds can occur during
rain squalls. Wind speeds of 30m/s

Vegetation: Grows quick due to rain and high temperature, Red brown laterite soil is poor for
agriculture; minerals are generally washed away by rain. Sub soil water table is high and ground is
water logged, little light is reflected from the ground.

Special Characteristics: High humidity accelerates mould and algae growth. Rusting and rotting
occurs, Organic building materials decay. Mosquito and insects abound. Thunderstorms are
accompanied by frequent air to air electric discharges.

HOT DRY DESERT CLIMATE

These climates occur in two belts at latitudes between 15 and 30 Degrees N and S

Examples Bhagdad, Phoenix

Seasons: Are two Hot and cooler period

Air Temperature: Day mean max 43-49 degrees C during hot period

Day mean max 27- 32 degrees C during cooler period

Night mean min – 24 to 30 degrees C during the hot period

10-18 degrees C during cooler period.

Humidity: varies from 10- 55 % due to high evaporation

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 12

Vapour pressure – normally between 750 – 1500 N/m2

Precipitation: Slight and variable throughout the year from 50 -155mm per annum. Flash storms
occur over areas with 50mm in few hours and some regions have no rains for several hours.

Sky conditions: are normally clear. Clouds are few due to low humidity. Sky is dark blue with
luminance of 1700-2500cd/m2 and further darkened by dust storms to 850 cd/m2

Solar Radiation: Is direct and strong during day but the absence of clouds permits easy release of
the heat stored during the day time in the form of long wave radiation towards the cold night sky.

Wind Velocity: winds are local; winds are hot carrying dust and sand and develop into dust storms.

Vegetation: Sparse and difficult to maintain because of no rain and low humidity. Soil is dusty and
very dry. Soil dries up quickly after rain and fertile if irrigated .Sub water table is low.

Special characteristics: Certain months are dust and sand storms. High day temp and rapid
cooling at night might cause materials to crack and break.

COMPOSITE OR MONSOON

These climates occur in large land masses near the tropic of cancer and Capricorn which are
sufficiently far away from the equator.

Examples: New Delhi, Lahore

Seasons: Two seasons normally occur. 2/3 of the year is hot and dry 1/3 warm and humid. Further
N and S they have cool and dry. Basically 3 seasons – hot and dry, warm and humid, cool and dry

Air Temperature: Day Mean Max 32—43 for hot and dry, 27-32 warm and humid, cool and dry up
to 27 degrees C

Night 21-27 hot and dry,

24-27 warm and humid and

4 -10 cool and dry.

Humidity: is low throughout dry periods 20-55% with a VP of 1300 to 1600n/m2 ,

During wet period rises to 55 – 95 % with a VP of 2000- 2500 N/m2

Precipitation: the monsoon rains are Intense and prolonged. Rains could be 25- 38 mm /h

The annual rainfall varies from 500-1300mm, 200-250 mm during the wet month. Dry season may
not have rain.

Sky conditions: Vary with season. Sky is heavily overcast and dull during monsoons and clear with
dark blue in dry season. End of hot and dry season sky becomes bright with frequent dust haze.

Solar radiation: Alternates between conditions found in the warm humid and hot dry desert
climates

Wind velocity: Hot and dusty during dry period .Direction changes in the warm and humid
season bring rain clouds and humid air from the sea. Monsoon winds are strong and steady.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 13

Vegetation

Sparse characteristic of hot and dry region with brown and red barren ground, changes rapidly
with rain. The landscape becomes green and fertile within a few days .Plants grows quickly. In
cooler period vegetation covers the ground but diminishes as the temperature raises .Risk of soil
erosion during monsoon. In dry season strong glare may be present.

Special Characteristics: The seasonal changes in relative humidity cause rapid weakening of
buildings. Dust and sand storms may occur. Termites are common. Occasional condensation
problems

WARM HUMID ISLAND

Islands within the equatorial belt and in the trade wind zone belong to this climate.

Examples: Caribbean’s, the Philippines’ and other island groups in the Pacific Ocean

Seasons: variation is negligible

Air temperature: Day time mean max: 29- 32 degree Celsius. Night mean min: 18-24 degree
Celsius.

Humidity: Varies between 55 and almost 100 %, the Vapour pressure being between 1750 and
2500 N/m2

Precipitation: is high. 1250 to 1800mm per annum. 200 – 250 mm in the wettest month. Up to
250mm may fall in a single storm of few hours duration.

Sky conditions: Normally clear or filled with white broken clouds of high brightness. During storms
skies are dark and dull. Clear blue skies are of low luminance between 1700 to 2500 cd/m2

Solar radiation: Strong and direct when the cloud is clear, but varies with a could cover

Winds: The trade winds blow with a steady velocity of 6-7 m/s and provide relief from heat and
humidity.

Vegetation: is less luxuriant and of a lighter green colour than warm and humid zones. It varies with
rainfall. Sun reflected form light colour corals sand and rock can be very bright. Soil is dry and a
low water table.

Special characteristics: are the tropical cyclones or hurricanes with wind velocity from 45 -70 m/s
which constitutes a serious seasonal hazard. High salt content encourages corrosion.

HOT DRY MARITIME

Same latitudes as hot and dry desert where the sea adjoins the land. They are regarded as the
most unfavorable climates of the earth.

Examples: Kuwait, Karachi

Seasons: Two seasons one hot and one cooler

Air temperature: Day mean max – 38 degree Celsius and in the cooler season remains 21to 26. The
night mean minimum of the hot season varies from 24 – 30 degree Celsius and the cooler season
10-18 degree Celsius.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 14

Humidity: RH is high between 50-90 %

VP – 1500-2500N/m2 due to the strong solar radiation causing evaporation from the sea.

Precipitation: Is very low compared to other desert regions

Sky conditions: A little more could may occur in the form of a thin transparent haze which could
cause glare.

Solar radiation: Is strong due to thin clouds and suspended moisture

Winds: mostly local coastal winds caused by unequal heating and cooling of land and sea
surfaces.

Vegetation: is sparse, not more than some dry grass, the ground and rocks brown or red. It could
be Dry and dusty throughout the year. Glare could be intense.

Special characteristics: Dust and sand storms may occur. Corrosion may occur.

TROPICAL UPLAND CLIMATES

Mountainous regions and plateaus more that 900 to 1200 m above sea level experience such
climates between 20 degree isotherms.

Examples: Mexico, Nairobi, Bogota, Addis Ababa.

Seasons: Variations are small in upland climate near Equator but further away the seasons follow
those of nearby lowlands

Air Temperature: At an altitude of 1800m the day time mean max – 24-30degree Celsius. And
night times mean min – 10-13. at some locations it may fall below 4 degrees and ground frost is
common.

Humidity: RH is between 45-99%and the VP 800-1600N/m2

Precipitation: is variable but rarely less than 1000mm. Rain often falls heavy concentrated showers
reaching up to 80mm/h

Sky conditions: normally clear or partly cloudy to the extent of about 40%.During monsoon the sky
is overcast and the clouds are heavy and low

Solar radiation: is strong and direct during the clear periods .UV radiation especially is stronger
than at lower altitudes. As the cloud cover increases the radiation diffuses.

Winds: variable, predominantly NE and SE but may be deflected by the local topography. Wind
velocity rarely exceed 15m/s

Vegetation: Green although not luxuriant during the wet season but it may wither in dry season,
when the ground can turn brown or red.

The soil may be damp in the rains but dries quickly.

Special characteristic: Heavy dew at night. The strong radiation loss at night during the dry
season may lead to the formation of radiation fog. Thunder storms with a fair proportion of electric
discharges. Hail may also occur.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 15

SITE CLIMATE

Macro climate: Every town city, village will have a climate of its own slightly different from the
region. The macro climate around a building cannot be affected by any
design changes; however the building design can be developed with knowledge of the macro
climate in which the building is located.

Micro climate: variation in climate around a building or a surrounding area. Tall buildings create
their own microclimate, both by overshadowing large areas and by channeling strong winds to
ground level. Microclimates can also refer to manmade environments, such as those in a room or
other enclosure.

Site Climate: Site climate establishes the scale. Whatever the size of the project, it implies the
climate of the area available and is its use in the horizontal and vertical context.

1. Local factors:

They include Topography: slope, orientation, exposure, elevation, hills or valleys at or near the site.

Ground surface: whether natural or manmade, the reflectance, permeability, soil temperature as
these affect vegetation and in turn affects the climate.

3d objects: such as trees, tree belts, fences, walls and buildings as these may influence air
movement and cast shadows. It may also sub divide the area into smaller units.

2. Air Temperature:

Depends on solar radiation. During the day, the lowest layer of the air gets heated; the air nearest
to the ground gets the highest temperature. On calm conditions within 2 m from the ground,
mixing of hot and cold air occurs and the lower layers cause an upward eddy of warm light air.

During night the situation is reversed from air to ground.

3. Temperature Inversion: this phenomenon is referred to temperature inversion as the day time
situation of decreasing temperature with increase in height is taken as normal. A difference of 7 to
8 m in height can cause a difference of 5-6 degrees in air temperature.

4. Humidity: During day the lowest layer gets heated the fastest resulting in a decrease in RH and
an increase in AH. During night the situation is reversed , the lower level of air cools with an
increase in RH and a decrease in AH .As the RH is increased the point of saturation is soon
reached and with further cooling the excess moisture condenses to form dew .

The point at which the water vapor in air condenses to form liquid is called Dew point..When the
dew point temperature is reached formation of fog will start.

5. Precipitation: When the ground level changes by more that 300m the windward slope tends to
receive more rainfall than the leeward side. If the winds blow parallel to the mountain range, then
there will be no rainfall, e.g., Aravalies. If the winds are obstructed by the mountains, the
windward side of the mountain receives heavy rainfall, e.g., Western Ghats.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 16

The windward side of the mountains means that it is the side where the clouds are blocked by the
mountain, this side experiences rainfall because the clouds are forced to precipitate..

The other side of the mountain, which does not block the clouds, is called the leeward side, and
this side does not receive much rainfall.

6. Sky condition: Remains the same over short distances, unless there is a sudden drastic change
in topography .Eg: Rock of Gibraltar where there is a flag like permanent cloud formation.

7. Solar Radiation: are influenced by local factors in three ways:

Intensity on a horizontal plane above the ground level is affected by local factors like pollution,
smoke, smog, dust and local cloud conditions.

Intensity on ground surface is influenced by slope and orientation of the site. Daily amount of
radiation is also influenced by hills, trees, buildings casting shadows on each other.

8. Air movement: Wind speed is reduced by 50 % by a horizontal barrier at a distance of 10 time

the height and 25 % at a distance of 20 times the height.

During the day, the land heats up faster than the water; it heats the air in the atmosphere above
it. This causes the air to expand, becoming less dense, and thus creating a low pressure.

Because water heats up less quickly, air above the ocean also takes longer to increase in
temperature. The result is that a higher pressure is maintained.

With a high pressure above the water and a lower pressure above the land, wind blows from the
sea towards the land. This is known as a sea breeze.

In the night, land cools down much quicker than the waters of the ocean. As the land becomes
cooler, so does the air above it. This results in air becoming denser, forming a high pressure,
causing winds to blow outward towards the sea. This is known as a land breeze.

9. Special characteristics:

Thunderstorms are microclimatic phenomenon but local topography can influence their path. Top
of hills are mostly subjected to lightening strikes and a tall building which is the highest object of a
large area even on a level ground is a target for lightening. Precautionary measures need to be
taken.

Dust and sand storms: are influenced by local factors both by ground and by in providing sand
and dust carried by wind and topography in funneling or diverting of wind.

Earthquakes: they occur in well defined seismic zones. The danger zones can be marked on
isoseismic maps. I.e. maps showing lines of earthquake risk. Proper care has to be taken while
designing a site on these zones.

Human body heat balance and heat loss

Human response to the thermal environment does not depend on air temperature alone. It has
been established beyond doubt that air temperature, humidity, radiation and air movement all
produce thermal effects, and must be considered simultaneously if human responses are to be
predicted. To appreciate the effect of these climatic factors, it is necessary to examine briefly the
basic thermal processes of the human body.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 17

Human body heat production

Heat is continuously produced by the body. Most of the biochemical processes involved in tissue-
building, energy conversion and muscular work are exotherm, i.e heat producing. All energy and
material requirements of the body are supplied from the consumption and digestion of food. The
processes involved in converting foodstuff into living matter and useful form of energy are known
as metabolism.

The total metabolic heat production can be divided into basal metabolism, i.e. the heat
production of vegetative, automatic processes which are continuous, and the muscular
metabolism, i.e. the heat production of muscles whilst carrying out consciously controlled work, of
all energy produced in the body, only about 20% is utilised, the remaining 80% is surplus heat and
must be dissipated to the environment.

The Human body Heat loss

The deep body temperature must remain balanced and constant around 37 deg C. in order to
maintain body temperature at this steady level, all surplus heat must be dissipated to the
environment. If there is some form of simultaneous heat gain from the environment (eg: Solar
radiation or warm air) that also must be dissipated.

The body can release heat to its environment by convection, radiation and evaporation- and to a
lesser extent by conduction.

Convection is due to heat transmission from the body to the air in contact with the skin or clothing
which then rises and is replaced by cooler air. The rate of convective heat loss is increased by a
faster rate of air movement, by lower air temperature and higher skin temperature.

Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the temperature of
opposing surfaces.

Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of evaporation, which in turn depends on the
humidity of air (the dyer the air, the faster the evaporation) and on the amount of moisture
available for evaporation. Evaporation takes place in the lungs through breathing and on the skin
as imperceptible perspiration and sweat.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 18

 Human body Heat Balance

The body has the ability to balance its temperature by various means.

This thermal balance is determined, on the one hand, by the “internal heat load” and on the
other, by the energy flow (thermal exchange) between the body and the environment.

The thermal exchange between the body and the environment takes place in four different ways:
conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation (perspiration and respiration).

Regulatory Mechanisms

The thermal balance of the body can be expressed by an equation. If the heat gain and heat loss
factors are:

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 19

 Thermal balance of Human Body

Conduction:

The contribution that conduction makes to the heat exchange process depends on the thermal
conductivity of the materials in immediate contact with the skin. Conduction usually accounts for
only a small part of the whole heat exchange. It is limited to local cooling of particular parts of the
body when they come into contact with materials which are good conductors. This is of practical
importance in the choice of flooring materials, especially where people usually sit on the floor.

Convection:

Heat exchange by convection depends primarily on the temperature difference between the
skin and the air and on air movement. It can, to a certain extent, be controlled by adequate
clothing. The insulation effect of clothing can be expressed by a clothing value (clo-value).

Insulation values of different kind of clothing (1 clo = 0.155 m2K/W)

Radiation:

Radiation takes place between the human body and the surrounding surfaces such as walls and
windows; and, in the open air, the sky and sun. In this process temperature, humidity and air
movement have practically no influence on the amount of heat transmitted.

This amount of heat depends mainly on the difference in temperature between the person’s skin
and the surrounding or enclosing surface.

The body may gain or lose heat by the above-described processes depending on whether the
environment is colder or warmer than the body surface. When the surrounding temperature (air
and surfaces) is above 25°C, the clothed human body cannot get rid of enough heat by
conduction, convection or radiation.

Evaporation (perspiration and respiration)

In this case the sole compensatory mechanism is loss by evaporation in the form of perspiration,
together with, to a certain extent, respiration. During evaporation water absorbs heat, and as
humans normally lose about one litre of water a day in perspiration, a fair amount of heat is taken
from the body to evaporate it. The lower the vapour pressure (dry air) and the greater the air
movement, the greater is the evaporation potential.

Thermal Comfort

Thermal Comfort defined as "That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment. Thermal comfort is “that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the
thermal environment”. Thermal comfort standards define the thermal environment as a function
of four physical variables (air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative air velocity and air
humidity) and two variables related to people (activity level and clothing).

The optimum thermal condition can be defined as the situation in which the least extra effort is
required to maintain the human body’s thermal balance. The greater the effort that is required,
the less comfortable the climate is felt to be.

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 21

The maximum comfort condition can usually not be achieved. However, it is the aim of the
designer to build houses that provide an indoor climate close to an optimum, within a certain
range in which thermal comfort is still experienced.

This range is called the comfort zone. It differs somewhat with individuals. It depends also on the
clothing worn, the physical activity, age and health condition. Although ethnic differences are
not of importance, the geographical location plays a role because of the habits and of the
acclimatization capacity of individuals.

Thermal comfort defined 3 parameters for a person to be in thermal comfort: a. the body is in
heat balance; b. sweat rate is within comfort limits; c. mean skin temperature is within comfort
limits.

Effective Temperature

The Effective Temperature (ET) is defined as the temperature of a still, saturated atmosphere
which would, in the absence of radiation, produce the same effect as the atmosphere in
question. It indicates the combined effects of relative humidity, air velocity, air temperature and
clothing.

Effective temperature is the temperature in an environment with 100% humidity and no air
movements which will induce the same level of thermal comforts as in the present situation.

The effective temperature is a combined climate index that takes into account air
temperature, Humidity and air speed, which together create an even, subjective perception of
climate. The effective temperature combines these climate factors in a single value.

The individual parameters affect a person's perception of the climate in different ways. For
example, the same air temperature may feel cooler if it is accompanied by air movement such as
a light wind. In practice, therefore, it is hard to combine objective individual data (temperature,
humidity, air movement).

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 22

Mahoney Tables

The system which can take into account of various climatic factors for particular duration. Table:1-
to record the most essential climate data, table:2-facilities a diagnosis of the climate, table:3-
translates into performance specifications or sketch design recommendations

AR-6303 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIT-1 Page 23