AN INTRODUCTION TO RRSEARCH & RESEARCH METHOD – refers only to the various specific tools or

METHODS ways data can be collected and analysed (questionnaire,

interview checklist, data analysis software)
RESEARCH – process of enquiry and investigation; it is
systematic, methodical and ethical

 Solve practical problems RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

 Increase knowledge
1. POSITIVISTIC
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH Surveys – selecting representative and
unbiased sample of subject, face-to-
1. Review or synthesize existing knowledge face interviews or telephone interviews
2. Investigate existing situation or problems  Descriptive survey
3. Provide solutions to problems (identifying & counting the
4. Explore and analyze more general ideas frequency)
5. Construct or create new procedures or systems  Analytical survey (analyse
6. Explain new phenomenon the relationship b/w
7. Generate new knowledge different elements)
RESEARCH APPROACHES Experimental Studies – can be
1. QUANTITATIIVE – collecting and analyzing manipulated or controlled to observe
numerical data, concentrate in measuring the effect on the subject
(scale, range, frequency)
 Highly detailed and Longitudinal Studies - extended period
structure, easily collated to observe the effect
and presented statistically
Cross-sectional Studies – involving
QUALITATIVE – subjective, involves examining different organisations or peoples to
and reflecting (values, attitudes, perception) look at similarities or differences

2. DEDUCTIVE - from general ideas to specific 2. PHENOMENOLOGICAL – offers an opportunity

particular situation to study a particular subject. Can be used to
formulate theories:
INDUCTIVE - from particular situation to infer Descriptive(described)
broad general ideas Illustrative (illustrates)
Experimental (examined)
Explanatory (explaining)
RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES
Action research – intervention by
 POSITIVISTIC – Quantitative, objectivist, researcher to influence change in any
scientific, experimental, traditional given situation and to monitor and
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL – Qualitative, subjective, evaluate the result
humanistic, interpretative
Ethnography (participant observation)
– involve anthropology and the close
METHODOLOGY – refers to overall approaches and study of societies, more usually
perspectives to the research process as a whole and is described as participant observation
concerned with the following main issues That can be overt (everyone knows it is
happening) and covert (unaware it is
WHY you collected certain data
happening)
WHAT data you collected
WHERE you collected it
Participative Enquiry – active
HOW collected it
involvement and co-operation of
HOW you analysed it
 people (sharing, agreeing, cooperating 
There may be standard
as open and equal as possible) questions or areas but the
interviewer may omit or
Feminist Perspective – focuses on add to some of these
knowledge grounded in female questions or areas
experience and is of benefit to  UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
everyone  Informal discussion where
the interviewer wants to
Grounded Theory – reverses explore the depth of
approaches in research that collected particular topic
data in order to test the validity of
theoretical positions, with no
preconceived ideas
FOCUS GROUP – use to gather data, usually in
the forms of opinions, from a selected group of
STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS people

1. Establish a general field of interest PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION – researcher

2. Undertake preliminary & background reading attempt to observe that can be overt (everyone
3. Narrow your ideas to workable topic or knows it is happening) and covert (unaware it is
research proposal and give it a title happening)
4. Preparation of information gathering “tools”
(questionnaire, interviews sheet) Summarised by Gill & Johnson 1977
5. Collation, analyse and interpretation of a. Complete participant – not
research data revealed to other group members
6. Write first draft of research project report b. Complete observer – not revealed
7. Revisions and re-write dissertation; submit to those being observe
dissertation c. Observer as participant –
researchers role is known to others
in the group
YOUR RESEARCH-GETTING STARTED d. Participant as observer -
researchers role is known to all
1. Establish a general field of interest others in the group
2. Background and preparatory reading Data Collection:
- What was the purpose of the previous study  Primary Observation –
- How was the precious research conducted actual happen
- What were the findings  Secondary Observations –
- What were the limitations and weaknesses interpretative statements
 Experiential Data – record
3. Gather Information & Data researcher’s feeling
 One-to-one interviews
 Focus group
 Participant observation
MAIN POINT TO REMEMBER IN DESIGNING
 A questionnaire survey
QUESTIONNAIRE
INTERVIEWS
A. Questionnaires facilitate the collection of data
 STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS by asking all, or a sample of people, to respond
 Involved the use to the same questions.
questionnaires based on a
predetermined and B. There are 5 types of questionnaires
identical set of questions  On-line (electronics)
 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS  Postal (printed)
  Delivery & Collection (printed)
 Telephone (electronic/printed)
 Interview face to face/group (electronic
or printed)
C. You need to absolutely clear before you design
a questionnaire what it is you want to learn
D. The validity (extent to which the data
accurately measures what they intended to
measure) and reliability (extent to which the
data collection method will yield consistent
findings if replicated by others)
11. Avoid leading or value-laden questions which
imply what the required answer might be
12. Avoid offensive questions or insensitive
questions which could cause embarrassment
13. Avoid asking “difficult” question, where the
respondent may struggle to answer
14. Keep your questionnaire as short as possible,
but include all the questions you need to cover
your purpose

E. Questionnaires can be:

OPEN QUESTIONS – questions is posed, but
space is left for the respondents

CLOSED – limited number and alternative

responses to set of questions

F. The order and flow of questions should be

logical to the respondent
G. There can be a low rate of return with
questionnaires, so they need to be introduced
carefully and courteously to potential
respondents
H. All questions should be piloted, if possible, with
a small group before the main research to
assess their value, validity and reliability

SOME GENERAL RULES FOR DESIGNING

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. Explain the purpose of the questionnaire to all

participant
2. Keep your questions as simple as possible
3. Do not use jargon or specialist language
4. Phrase each question so that only one meaning
is possible
5. Avoid vague, descriptive words, such as “large”
and “small”
6. Avoid asking negative questions as these are
easy to misinterpret
7. Only ask q\one question at a time
8. Include relevant questions only
9. Include, if possible, questions which serve as
cross-checks on the answers to other questions
10. Avoid questions which require participant to
perform calculations