INTERBEHAVIORAL PHILOSOPHY

INTERBEHAVIORAL
PHILOSOPHY

J. R. Kantor

The Principia Press

Chicago • Illinois
1981
 ISBN 0911188-56-8

Copyright© 1981 by The Principia Press

5743 South Kimbark Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60637

All rights reserved.

Printed in U.S.A.
 DEDICATION

The debt that intellectual workers owe

to their past and present compeers,
whether by partial approval or total
rejection, can never be fully repaid.
However, by token it can be somewhat
acknowledged.
Hence to all my companions in research
I dedicate this volume.
 CONTENTS
Preface ......................................................................................................... xiii
INTRODUCTION: Perennial Problems of Philosophy
Chapter 1: Philosophy in search of an Id en tity ............................................ 3
Variant Aspects of Philosophy. 3: What is Philosophy?. 3: Informal and
Technical Philosophyzing. 4; Autistic and Observational Aspects of Phi­
losophy, 4; Authentic or Scientific Aspects of Philosophy. 5: Spiritistic
Variants in Conventional Philosophy. 6; Philosophies of Science: Valid
and Invalid. 8; Intcrbchavioral Philosophy Identified. 10

SECTION 1: Philosophical Systems in Succession

Chapter 2: Historical Development of Philosophical Systems.................... 15
Informal and Unsystematized Interval. 15; Formal and Systematic Inter­
val. 17.

Chapter 3: The Confrontational Interval.................. .................................19

Philosophical Origins: The Classical Age. 19; I: The Naively Objective
Postulations of the Early Greek Philosophers. 19; II: The Development of
Definite Postulates in the Platonic Doctrine of Knowledge. 23; III: The
Statical Function of the Aristotelian Categories. 28; IV: The Influence of
Primitive Realism on Greek Science. 36.

Chapter 4: The Transcendental Interval............ .........................................41

The Advent of a Dualistic Culture. 41; Characteristics of Transcendental­
ism. 41.

Chapter 5: Science Intrudes upon F a it h .................................................................46

Confrontation Vs. Beliefs. 46: Spiritism Assimilates Science. 47; The

Preeminence of Spirit. 47; Soul as Source of Knowledge. 48; Substances
as Associated Psychic Atoms. 48; Substances as Psychic Synthesis. 49;
The Reality of Knowledge and Thinking. 50; Knowing and Existence. 51;
Science and the Infinite. 53.

Chapter 6: The Materialistic Interval ........................................... ......................... 54

The Paradox of Materialism. 54; What is Materialism'?. 54; Materialism as
Symbol of Enlightenment. 55; French Materialism in the 18th Century. 55;
German Materialism in the 19th Century, 63; Materialism in Psychologi­
cal Perspective, 64; Significance of the Materialistic Interval. 65; Material­
ism: Period of Hope and Doubt. 65.

vit
 CONTENTS

Chapter 7: The Positivistic Interval..................................................................... 67

Positivistic Philosophy, 67; Positivism: Nature and Origin. 68; Positivism
in Perspective, 69; Positivism: the Philosophy of Scientists, 69; Positivism
— Critical Analysis, 73; Basis of Positivistic Errors, 74; Specimens of
Cultural Influences, 76.
Chapter 8; The Interval of Linguistic Analysis............................................ 77
Transformation of Philosophical Institutions, 77; Language in the Service
of Philosophy, 77; Essentials of Linguistic Philosophy. 78; Linguistic
Philosophy: Valid Premises. Invalid Conclusions, 79; Inadequate Attitude
toward Philosophy, 79; Inadequate View of Language, 79; The Extensive
Range of Language Things and Language Events, 80; The Role of Propo­
sitions in Philosophical Situations, 81; Propositions as Behavioral Pro­
ducts. 82; An Interbehavioral Approach to Philosophical Propositions,
83: Interbehavioral Implications for Science, 86; Interbehavioral Implica­
tions for Philosophy, 89; The Comparison of Propositions with Related
Things. 91; Linguistic Philosophy in General, 93.
Chapter 9: Towards Significant Philosophyzing.......................................... 95
Guide to Valid Thinking, 95; Specification 1: Freedom from Metaphysical
Institutions. 95; Specification II: Freedom from Universalism, 96; Speci­
fication III: Freedom from Absolutes, 96; Specification IV: Inhibition of
Reifying Constructs, 96; Specification V; Withdrawal from Transcenden­
ces, 97; Specification VI: Dissociation from Verbal Puzzles. 97; Specifica­
tion VII: Valid Linguistics. 98; Specification VIII: Valid Psychology, 98.
CTION II; The Philosopher and his World
Chapter 10: Nature of Human N a tu re...................................................... 101
Mankind as Biosocial and Cultural Organisms, 103.
Chapter 11: The Intimacy of Philosophy and Science.............. ............. 106
Chapter 12: The Birth of Epistemology and Ontology...... ....................... 120
Knowledge and Existence, 120; Knowledge as Adaptation and Orienta­
tion. 120: Fractionation of Adaptations to Events, 121; Epistemology, 121;
Ontology and Existence. 123; Mathematics as an Ontological Problem.
125; Psychology of Discovery, 126.
Chapter 13: Egocentric Knowing versus Cognitive Fields........................ 127
Spiritistic Philosophy Dominates the Science of Knowing, 127; Galileo
spiritises Knowing, 127; Newton's Color Experiments support Mentalistic
Science, 130; The Newtonian Model of Perceiving, 133; Critical Analysis
of Newton's Sensory Model, 134; Historical Career of Newton’s Perceiv­
ing Model, 13S; Newton's Baneful Influence on Science and Philosophy,
136; Summary, 138.

VIII
 CONTENTS

SECTION III: Hum an Events in Philosophical Perspective

Chapter 14: Linguistic Events as Interbehavioral Fields ................................ 141

Ubiquity of Linguistic Behavior. 141; Interbehavioral and Traditional
Postulation. 141; Linguistic Fields. 142; Linguistic and Nonlinguistic
Events. 144; Speech as the Matrix of Language. 145; The Evolution of
Linguistic Things, 146; The Advent of Literacy. 147; The Domination of
Linguistics by Words, 147; Interbehavioral Vs, Conventional Linguistics,
148; Linguistic Functions in the Anthropic Domain. 153; Linguistic In­
fluences on Philosophyzing. 154; Linguistic Philosophy. 155; Linguistic
Philosophy and the World of Events. 156.

Chapter 15: Philosophical Issues in Ethical Situations...............................159

isolation and Identification of Moral Situations. 159; Ethical Events and
Ethical Constructs, 160; Morality: Absolute and Relative. 161; Morality
Situations Dominated by Infallible Philosophy, 163; Prominent Miscon­
ceptions in Ethical Theory, 163; Ethical Problems as Linguistic Analysis.
167; Psychological Model of Ethical Behavior. 167; Morals and Values.
168; Standards of Morals, 169; Public and Private Morality. 170; Morality
and Legality, 171.

Chapter 16: Philosophical Aspects of Politics............................................. 172

Humanity as Colonial Organisms, 172; Hierarchy of Human Groupings.
172; Variety in Political Systems, 173; Political Systems and Political
Philosophy, 174; Specimens of Political Philosophies. 175; A. Divine and
Human Philosophy, 176; B. Philosophy of Social Compacts. 176; C.
Philosophy of Political Utility, 178; D. Religious Philosophy and Political
Revolution, 180; E. Materialistic Philosophy and Anarchical Society. 185;
Individuals versus Political Systems, 186; Specific Political Problems. 186;
Psychological Aspects of Political Philosophy, 192.

Chapter 17: Philosophy and Economics ................................................................194

Economics in Philosophical Perspective, 194; Origin and Nature of Eco­
nomic Events, 195; Crucial Problems in Economic Analysis, 196; Exces­
sive Abstractionism in Economics. 196; Economic Constructions and
Economic Events, 197; The Law of Supply and Demand, 197; Specificities
in the Economic Complex, 198; The Dogma of Price. 201; Supply and
Demand as Dogmas and as Events, 202; Equilibrium in Economics, 202;
Capitalism and Socialism as Variant Economic Systems, 203; Business
and Public Welfare, 203; Economic Confusions: Causes and Remedies.
204; Interrelations of Philosophy and Economics, 206; Psychological
Aspects of Economics, 222; Critical Overview of the Philosophy of Eco­
nomics, 225.

ix
 C O N T E N T S

Chapter 18: Philosophy of Art and A esthetics...............................................232

Parlous Conditions of Aesthetics, 232; Art through the Ages, 232; Evolu­
tion of Aesthetics, 233; Issues in Art and Aesthetics, 236; Polarities in
Artistic and Aesthetic Situations, 244; Range of Aesthetic Qualities, 246;
“Beauty": Universal Applique, 249; Aesthetic Beauty Identified and
Defined, 250; Paraesthetic Behavior, 252; Interbehavioral Psychology in
Aesthetics, 254; Analysis of Aesthetic Fields, 254; A. The Artist, 256;
B. The Appreciator or Observer, 257; C. The Interbehavioral Object, 258;
D. Setting or Auspice, 258; Recapitulation, 259.

Chapter 19: Education in Philosophical Perspective................................263

Education and Human Maturation, 263; Conventional Theories of Edu­
cation, 263; Education as Personality Evolution, 264; Two Phases of
Personality Development, 264; Education Described, 266; Education in
Interrelation, 267; Education in the Perspective of Scientific Development,
268; Sequential Order in Educational Development, 270; Continuity of
Educational Processes, 271; Some Problems in Educational Situations,
271; Education Versus Training, 272; Education in Simple and Complex
Cultures, 273; Educational Goals and Values, 273; Technology and Engi­
neering in Education, 274; Summary, 276.
Chapter 20: Philosophy of Religion..........................................................278
Isolation and Identification of Religion, 278; What is Religion? Various
Definitions, 278; Varying Types of Religious Data, 279; Identifying As­
pects of Personal Religion, 281; Various Types of Religious Behavior, 282;
Religion and Theology, 283; Religion in Anthropological Perspective, 284;
Religion and Science, 286; Comparative Philosophies of Religion, 288;
Comparative Psychologies of Religion, 289; Dominance of Spiritistic
Culture, 291; Religion and Values, 293; Religion and Morals, 295; Reli­
gion and Politics, 296.
Chapter 21: Philosophy of Law..................................................................298
Laws in Philosophical Perspective, 298; Laws of Nature and of Society,
298; Various Philosophies of Laws, 299; A. Nature of Laws in Scientific
Contexts, 300; Philosophical Roots of Law Theories, 301; Laws in Scien­
tific Philosophy, 302; B. Laws as Societal Institutions, 304; Legal Philos­
ophy extremely abstractionistic, 304; Nature of Societal Laws, 304; Scien­
tific Philosophy and Societal Laws, 306; Sources of Societal Laws, 306;
Laws: Natural or Functional, 308; Semantics and the Law, 308; Psycho­
logical Aspects of Societal Laws, 309; Natural Rights and Positive Law,
311; Judicial Review and Modification of Law, 311; Paradoxes in Legal
Philosophy, 312; Societal Laws not Laws of Nature, 313; National and
International Law, 314; Jurisprudence as Interdisciplinary Philosophy,
315.

x
 CON T E NT S

Chapter 22: Philosophical Aspects of H isto r y ................................................ 317

Ambiguities concerning the Philosophy of History, 317; Historiography
Emended, 317; History as Events and as Constructs, 3 18; Can History be a
Science?, 320; Analysis of Scientific Enterprises, 321; Ontological Aspects
of History, 325; Epistemic Issues in Historiography, 331; Range of Histo­
riography, 338.
- V Chapter 23: E p ilo g u e........................................................................................ 340
Outstanding Faults of Conventional Philosophy, 340; The Flight from the
True, the Beautiful, and the Good, 341; Benefit Claims of Interbehavioral
Philosophy, 341; Specialization Problems in Philosophy, 345; Can Cul­
tural Institutions be Changed?, 346.

Subject Index ............................................................................................................... 349

N am e In d ex ..................................................................................................................... 353

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1: Evolution of Philosophy Through Intellectual S t a g e s ....................... 75

Fig. 2: N ew ton’s “Experim entum Crucis” ...............................................................131
Fig. 3: Conventional Theory o f the Function o f the Brain in M edia­
ting Between Physical Light and Mental Q u alities........................ 133
Fig. 4: D e Saussere’s representation o f the processes o f transforming
psychic states into words and vice v e r sa ........................................... 142
Fig. 5: Basic Linguistic B ehavior................................................................................143
Fig. 6: Hearer Becom es S p ea k er................................................................................143
Fig. 7: Comparison o f Linguistic and Sem iotic F ield s....................................... 144
Fig. 8: The Inverted Pyramid o f L a n g u a g e .......................................................... 145
Fig. 9: Ogden-Richards’ Concept o f Symbol-Referent R e la tio n .................... 149
Fig. 10: Bloomfield’s Concept of Sym bol-Referent R elation.............................. 150
Fig. 11: Objective Psychology’s Relation Between Linguistic Stimulus and
Response ...................................................................................................... 151
Fig. 12: The Behavior Segm ent as Unit o f In terb eh avior............................... 255
Fig. 13: R eciprocal Influence o f C ulture upon Individuals and Vice
V ersa................................................................................................................342

Table 1: Com parison o f Conventional and Interbehavioral Views Concern­

ing M eanings ............................................ 151
Table 2: Samples o f Conventional Ethical Criteria...............................................160

xi
 CONTE NT S

ible 3: Keynesian Heresies.......................................................................... 223

ible 4: Schema of Economic Development................ 227
ible 5: Aesthetic Situations.......................................................... 243
ible 6: Schema of Law Construction..........................................................298
ible 7: Constitutional M odification.............................. 312
lart 1: Samples of Persons Listed as Anarchists........................................184
iart 2: Economic Opinions of the 17th—19thCenturies...................... 228-229

xu
 PREFACE

f Unlike other animals, the hum an species has so evolved as to include

unique individuals whose activities extend beyond the behavior necessary
for organismic survival and societal adjustments?)Such persons reflect
upon and evaluate their am bient cosmic and sociocultural events in order
to understand and possibly modify them. In com m on they construct
systems o f attitudes or beliefs which when codified and inscribed serve as
the intellectual furniture of individuals and the communities in which they
live. Such persons are called philosophers and their systematic products
constitute the philosophical institutions depicted in the intellectual histo­
ries of the various tribes of mankind.
But this is the idealized description of the philosophical scene. Philo­
sophers as hum an personalities stray widely from the straight and narrow
path. As is the case with their lay companions their professed wisdom is not
exclusively involved with objects and events within the range of actual
experience. Their form ulations are generously interlarded with imaginary
ingredients.
Basic to the primary flaws of conventional philosophy is the departure
from the things and events actually encountered toward worlds verbally
created. Consulting the philosophyzing records o f the Western European
tradition we observe w ithout exception the utter dom ination of philo­
sophers by the delusion that the universe including themselves is dichotom-
. ized into spirit and m atter, while persons are composed o f body and mind.
r Competing and succeeding philosophical systems are simply variations
upon this dualistic theme instead of being founded upon results of contacts
with confrontable and observable events. Once the specious dichotomy
has been effected num erous variations of epistemologies and ontologies
have arisen and succeeded each other. Philosophers continuously struggle
with such pseudo-problems as (a) existence and nature of God, (b) the
innateness of knowledge, (c) whether minds are imprinted by external
forces, (d) the substantiality of “Sense D ata,” and (e) the possibility of
knowing if other persons have minds. M uch of the philosophyzing of
W estern European thinkers whether categorized as spiritism or its mate­
rialistic polarity consists of the verbal means of escaping from the rigors of
actually prevailing circumstances. Unfortunately, few philosophers realize
that the souls or minds they haggle about have no existence whatever aside

XIII
 -

mjthe phrases that refer tOi^henyA similar com m ent can be m a d e a b o u t\ 7

: other phase of the mind-bcSdydualism, namely, the metaphysical body. / *
Now it is obvious that philosophy is in dire need of complete reforma-
n and it is frankly the goal of this book to propose such a reformation.
hat is required is a different set o f postulates in order to achieve a more
ing means of reflection. Here are some samples of superior postulation.
In the first place, it m ust be assum ed that hum an individuals cannot
.nscend the things, objects, conditions, and relations that can be con-
»nted and observed. Such is the limit of hum an knowledge and service- V
le speculation. N o philosophyzing worthy o f the name can roam beyon
thentic observation and valid inference. Plainly put, authentic philo- /% .
phy has no concern with Absolutes, Infinities, Miracles, Invented Uni- ^
rses, Magical Occurrences, or Im aginary Personalities, Powers, and
ocesses.
Anothei^a&sumption is that, since philosophers are always members of
me rfocietyjir some group within a larger social system, they are
flueneejTby this circumstance. This assum ption relates to the fact that the
story of philosophyzing describes a series of uniquely form ulated sys-
ms which reflect differences in the political, economic, and general
m m unity conditions, prevailing at various times in the circumstances of
iman societies. Thus specific differences appear in the construction of
lilosophical systems. Granting that philosophyzing represents one of the
:ak hum an preoccupations, criteria and standards are inescapable. Phi-
sophical systems are thus subject to evaluation on the basis of origin and
ilidity. It is a striking consequencelhat a great hiatus is observable as
:tween deliberations derived from contacts with things and events,
hether involving hum an beings or nonhum an occurrences, as com pared
ith self-indulgent wishes, dreams, and uncontrolled ruminations.
A final sample of a basic philosophical assum ption is that the erection of
mrious philosophies and ineffective doctrines indicates a lack o f c o n t a c t
ith actual events as well as a misuse of language. M etaphorical and
tystical propositions are form ulated by delusory analogy with authentic
ascriptions and in terp retatio n s of observed events and their in-
rrelations.
Critical students of the conventionally accepted philosophy can only
>nclude that both historical and current thinking is completely riddled
ith mythology rather than supported by verifiable propositions concern -
g themselves or the events available for observation. This is not to
^erlook the many criticisms that succeeding generations of thinkers make
f the errors of their predecessors. Two such apparent m onuments of
xiv
 P REF ACE

dissent may be m entioned. FirsU .thc.apparenL great revolution when

philosophers in the Renaissance period began to turn their thinking away
frorrfthe exclusive interest in soul -salvation toward the work and discoveT^
' —ies of sciience. The~dtKer Fsthe monTrecent effort to eschew traditional
metaphysics b y assuming thaLphifos.ophy is not cohoeVned with content,
"w ith events~but only with the proper use oHangjuage^
— While brnTTmovements offer considerable potentiality for the correction
of philosophy neither one served to unseat the venerable and powerful
dualistic dogm a, and so the advocates of scientific philosophy intermixed
occurring events with religious interpretations, while.linguistic ph ilo ­
sophers failed to m atch their strictures upon irresponsible references^with
an improved appreciation of inorganic, organic, and hum an events. To
achieve significant philosophyzing it is clearly a prime necessity for thinkers
to em ancipate their discipline from the intolerable fetters of transcendental
and other supernatural mythologies that have beclouded the pages of
intellectual history.
Since philosophyzing is hum an behavior it is of the utm ost importance
to break the chains that bind psychology to a mystical dualism, a dualism
that perpetuates belief in souls, minds, consciousness, o r other mythical
^ entities. It is a basic p rerm seo fth is book that a free scientific psychology
can greatly advance a naturalistic and valid philosophy. Both philosophy
and psychology m ust be freed from sensations, ideas, thoughts, and every
variety of faculty, which items have been historically employed to support
the gossamer structures of traditional metaphysics. A naturalistic psychol­
ogy can o ffer adequate analyses of perceiving, thinking, reasoning, am ong
other im portant activities, so that the spurious problems of mythical minds
with their a prioris and transcendences can be completely abolished, thus
making way for reasonable philosophyzing and the valid systemization of
observable events. It is only such philosophyzing that justifies the evalua -
tion of thinking persons as hom o sapiens sapiens; civilians; and superiorily
evolved organisms.
This preface cannot be concluded otherwise than by recording the names
of two persons w ho have aided me greatly in the production of this book.
M r. Greer Allen has not only designed this volume, but also carefully
attended to seeing it through the press. 1 appreciate his help very much.
Miss Suzanne Howe earned my gratitude for her many effective labors in
the development of a satisfactory typescript for the printers. I acknowledge
her efforts with thanks.

M ay 1980 J.R .K .
XV
 INTRODUCTION

Perennial Problems
of Philosophy
 CHAPTER 1
PHILOSOPHY
IN SEARCH OF AN IDENTITY

VARIANT ASPECTS OF PHILOSOPHY

No reflecting person need question that philosophyzing is a pervasive
hum an preoccupation, nor that philosophical attitudes are among the
basic institutions of every complex civilization. Properly envisaged all
complex behavior and modes of living are permeated and influenced by
structured and unstructured assum ptions that reflect the identity, stability,
and intellectual direction of individuals and communities. However, philo­
sophyzing possesses many other aspects besides pervasiveness which
render it subject to a variety of descriptions, some of which are directly
contrary to and irreconcilable with othcrs. At one point in time philosophy
is conceived as the “queen of the sciences” in the sense that all intellectual
. occupations are sciences, while at another, it is thought of a /o tio s e in d
futile web-spinning. Again, philosophy has been categorized aslfieTiand-
maiden of theology or at least an outgrow th of religion. Despite the great
num ber of varying views concerning philosophy, it is still possible to
analyze and identify the traits that mark it as a distinctive attribute of
cultivated individuals, and a significant stage in the intellectual evolution of
mankind.

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
Basic to all the varieties o f philosophyzing and the resulting philosophi­
cal products is the construction of systems of assumptions, beliefs, and
other intellectual attitudes. Such systems vary with natural and social
conditions prevailing in the purview of thinkers. Historically philosophies
swing between the creation of literary vehicles to escape from conditions
that plague the constructors and their compatriots, to expressions of
satisfaction by their inventors with themselves and the world in general.
Thus some philosophical products are characterized by the deepest gloom
of pessimism while others m irror the peaks of exultation. With this sugges­
tion concerning the identification of philosophy we may explore other
aspects of philosophyzing for light on the merits or ranking of the many
historical or current systems.

3
 P E R E N N I A L P R O B L E M S OF P H I L O S O P H Y

IN F O R M A L A N D T E C H N IC A L P H IL O SO PH Y Z IN G

ie analysis of philosophyzing enterprises reveals the incessant creator

nateur and informal attitudes about the ambient worlds of their
ors. Such informal philosophies are definitely related to and precede
->rmal systems that have become crystallized by inscription or general
tion throughout generations of thinkers from various communities
nations.
:chnical philosophies consist of systems of propositions constructed by
iduals which through various circumstances become institutionalized
codified, as for example the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, St.
ustine. St. Thom as, and innumerable m odern thinkers; for example
:artes, Locke, Hobbes, Kant, Hume, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and so on.
the preservation and study of s uch systems that has givenjise to the
ession that philosophy is the history of philosophy.!

UTISTIC A N D O B SE R V A T IO N A L A SP E C T S O F PH IL O SO PH Y

ranting the prevalence and importance of philosophy in all complex

an situations and further that philosophy consists of systems of intel-
al attitudes, we have to inquire into the nature of the attitudes. The
>ry of philosophy show's that for the most part systems of philosophical
msitions are autistic. T hat is, they are not built up on the basis of
rvations of things and events but on the contrary are derived from
in0?
iral traditions. The cultural traditions scarcely touch upon occu rrin g ^
>s and events but are founded upon imagined bases concerning reality
ell as mythical notions of man and the world.
'hy there should be so m any variations in philosophical attitudes is
litely explained by considering the nature of man as the constructor of
ude systems as well as the type of civilization in which he makes his
ie. As we shall see in the next chapter, the G reek era of philosophy is
acterized by the view of m an as a biological organism able to perform
>nal behavior. In this period intellectual attitudes were constructed
respect to naturalistic surroundings. But this situation did not endure
ong. W ith the change in social and political circumstances, mankind
med a biomental d uality so that system constructors were no longer
rded as natural beings in a natural world. Thus arose the era of
d-body such that thinkers became creators of conversional systems,
tan behavior was transform ed into soul while biocellular organisms
ime bodies. The ambient world, too, traditional thinkers imagined to

4
 I D E N T I T Y OF P H I L O S O P H Y

be dichotomized into m aterial on one hand, and spiritual and psychic on

the other.
Duaiistic systems continue to prosper down to the present moment.
There is no m anner of doubt but th at this dichotom ization o f m an and his
world has completely dom inated the entire history of philosophy and
infected every branch and specialty of science. The result has been and
* continues to be that error is rife and philosophy futile. Because philosophy
exists alongside and intermixed with mysticism and m ythology what

/-,-vlV
should be the m ost cultivated aspect of hum an living keeps people
enmeshed in the m ost retrogressive intellectual condition despite the high
level of technological, political, economic, and social scales o f living.
T radition and ritual rem ain the m ost effective cultural controls over the
otherwise most advanced people.
AUTHENTIC OR SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF PHILOSOPHY
Genuine philosophical attitudes are essentially those based upon the
responses of persons to confrontable objects and events including the
thinker himself. By contrast they stand over against autistic o r essentially
verbal form ulations. Scientific philosophyzing separates sharply
constructions that consist o f such inventions as forces, essences, and
powers with their products o f universals, absolutes, transcendental *•
creations, and so on, from the objects and events with which persons can
' interaet-and'Observe. Interbehavioral Philosophy stands directly opposed
‘ to the puerile verbiages o f the orthodox systems reported in the
• conventional histories of philosophy.
Authentic philosophy advocates the complete abolition of the nebulous
w raith of historical spiritism as cherished by m any conventional
philosophers whose votaries attem pt to evade or disclaim its mystical and
\ religious source. Although current advanced philosophers claim to be
(yotariesfrf science they still argue for a “mind” in addition to a “body” and
J o r a “will” whether free or determined.
A n acquaintance with the conventional History of Philosophy
convinces that the abiding essence of traditional philosophy is supernatural
and transcendental. The entire philosophical scene since the Greco-Rom an
period is haunted by ghosts o f various shapes and sizes. In the days of the
Church Fathers and the Scholastics of the Middle Ages, philosophy was
frankly centered in the dom ain of theology and consisted of arguments
concerning a grand creator and his angel ministers as explanations of
everything known o r thought of. In those days, thinkers invented a world

5
 ***'
s> vA J"* * t ‘
' P E R E N N I A - ------- --------------- - - ---------

m d that of confrontable things and events which shone forth as

mate Reality beyond Appearances, as Subsistent rather than Existent,
le Perfect and Stable Reality beyond merely contingent events. In sum,
osophers verbally created a new environm ent over and above the
ome and wretched ambience of their actual lives.
ven in the days of Intellectual Enlightenment the primary concerns of
osophers were still God, Freedom , and Im m ortality. Although there
a slight inkling o f the superfluity o f cosmic mysteries and o f the just
ns of natural events, philosophy still remained suffused with age-old
itism. Things and events were persistently regarded as creations and
ections of spirit named Reason. Self, and ConsciousnessTV^itere
ran beings were specifically'under considerationrthey-were-invested
1spiritistic substances and powers o f mind, self, intelligence, sensations,
s, and so on. In consequence thgre arose such insubstantial problems as
.hophysical parallelism, interactionism, and identism. From the
d point of actual things and events, all this is specious and reducible to
ting m ore than institutional verbiage. r -v - v w
low powerful the spiritistic principle has been since its invention may be
ged by the fact that it is not only professional philosophers who
ntain this transcendental way o f thinking but eminent scientists also,
laureate physicist Com pton who was himself a n excellent example of a
ntist with a penchant for religion has drawn up a list o f great scientists,
>ng them Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Kant, and Laplace, who
nted_themselves as theists. W hile he surely could greatly have
thened this list and indeed added recent eminent scientists like
lington, Schrodinger, Heisenberg, Planck, and Sherrington, to name
ra few, he makes the point that while there is some modification o f view
veen thinkers of different generations they all recognize the importance
deas,” “ideals,” and “purpose” in understanding the “ meaning” of what
pens, and most of the late scientists even introduce the construct of God
their world picture.1

SPIRITISTIC VARIANTS IN CONVENTIONAL PHILOSOPHY

tudents of conventional philosophy may ponder the perennial question
io w spiritistic ways of thinking persist throughout all the myriads of
nges in hum an experience. A n attractive answer is ready to hand. It is
the concept and the term “spirit" is polysemous in the extreme. It not
* 1]ivLUtAVJ, '*
lohiuton, M., The Cosmos o f Arthur Holly Compton. New York,'Knopf, 1967, p. 112.

6
 f t *
I D E N T I T Y OF P H I L O S O P H Y

only refers to supreme beings but to chemical com pounds also, and
isfi provides many semantic problems in the literature of philosophy.
V The concepts and the term s “meaning” and the “ideal” have become
& effective tools by means of which thinkers of many persuasions have helped
£
to conserve spiritistic institutions. They have used these tools to pry into
<N
many mysteries which they have themselves created. N ot realizing that they
vp'"'
V: are simply reifying words, they ask fo r thejneaninE of “existence”: they ask
“who am I?” and “what am I?” and as certain scientists make plain, they
believe that the mystery of self is the m ost pressing of all scientific pursuits.2
Are these authentic questions or mythological answers? The egregious
error here is to be dom inated by historical spiritism so that things and
\ events are not invariably the starting points for all valid speculation but
only surface appearances of a “Reality” that underlies them and gives them
their significance. One is tempted to ask whether such scientists have no
faith in the world of anatom ists, biochemists, geologists, physiologists, or
anthropologists. O f course, it is true that many scientists of the types just
mentioned also perform sacrifices at the altar of spiritism.

r
— Similarly, the translation of the term “spirit” into the “ideal” has served
to elevate the nonexistent and the most objectionable things and practices
to the ultimate good. Bits of spirit have become ideal building blocks out of
which grand systems have been erected, prominent examples from
different ages are Schopenhauer’s The World as Will and Idea, and
Carnap’s Logical Structure o f the World}
\ W hat is_of the greatest .importance here is the wav spiritistic philosophy^
has always influenced scientists to transform things and events into what V ’
* V./.
v
they are not and could not be.4 Striking examples are the transform ation
by neurologists of the brain into a nest of “functions” and a storehouse of
, “ideas” and “ijiemories!Land-the rubbing out by physicists from the world
7 of alkcolors, tastes, odors, and soundsT^Scientists, too, join laymen in
transform ing all values and v irtu e sin to transcendental, that is, verbal
abstractions. The ultimately baleful effect of inventing spiritism culminates
in creationism. This kind of intellectual behavior amounts to a retreat from
things and events actually encountered and results in the loss of
2Schrodinger, E., Nature and the Greeks, Cambridge, Cambridge Unix’. Press. 1954, and
Schrodinger, E„ Science and Humanism, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1951.
Schopenhauer, A., Die Welt als Wide unci vorstcllung, 2 vols. Halle, O. Hendel, 1819; and Carnap,
R., The Logical Structure o f the World; pseudoproblems in Philosophy (R. A. George, trs.), Berkeley,
Univ. of California Press, 1967.
4 Kanlor, J. R., "Scientific Psychology and Specious Philosophy,” Psychological Record. 1969, 19,
15-27.

7
 , 1/O f. I A L PROBLEMS OF P H I L O S O P H Y
U
reciation of man’s nature and his relation to those things and events,
is in no sense difficult then to account for the origin and perseverance
anscendental ways of thinking..At the bottom of the process lies man’s
tcity for manipulating language.' Persons embody in language their
ude toward w h af tfiey"dislike, fear, or favor and thus provide
jctures” or intellectual institutions. Such institutions achieve their life
vigor by virtue of other persons performing similar reactions to the
inal stimulating objects and conditions. And as is easily seen, such
tutions potentially exert good or evil consequences depending upon
icular circumstances. How different all this is from authentic
osophy.
PHILOSOPHIES OF SCIENCE: VALID AND INVALID
i recent decades the scientific dom ains have been rather amply supplied
i philosophical analyses and interpretations. Thus have grown up a
inct specialization of study called philosophy of science. (What we
uld expect of such a discipline is the a nalysis a nd criticism of scientific
k and its results by way of com paring and coordinating the interest and
ievement of individuals and groups who investigate the confrontable
Id of things and events, including the dom ain of the stars and planets, .
varieties of vegetations and animals and their actions, as well as the
al and political events of hum an societvj)But what we find instead is the
osition of conventional spiritistic philosophy upon scientists and
nee. Thus we may differentiate between a valid and an invalid
osophy of science. The form er is an aid to both philosophy and science
je the latter misrepresents and mystifies scientific works.*W hether a
ntist’s philosophical assumptions are valid or invalid depends upon the
gruity or incongruity of postulates, hypotheses, protocols, and laws,
1 original data: In the following paragraphs we display some examples
>uch congruities and incongruities from various sources, including
ventional philosophy itself.
. Mathematics. The assumption that geometry is a closed and absolute
em became established and endured for several thousands of years
:>re it was discovered that the Euclidean premises were only one of a
ying series and that other geometrical systems were possible and
ducible on the basis of very different premises.
. Physics. Einstein’s notion th at a mysterious capacity of a
:hematician enables him to formulate an equational system which later
liscovered to fit data is a good example of invalid premises. He
8
 developed this notion on the basis that “nature is the realization of the
simplest conceivable mathematical ideas” and that “the creative principle r
resides in mathematics.” 5_It was based on the disregard of the many details
involved in the process of choosing the parameters of equations. Einstein
z overlooked the fact that only the mathematician experienced with the data
< in question and the expertise to see the relations between constructions and
^ events can succeed in such enterprises. Einstein was unjustified in accepting
vj- the Kantian dictum that philosophers give laws to nature.
c. Ethics. The impropriety of assuming fixed and absolute premises is
well illustrated in the dom ain of morals. Students of ethics adopt either the
assumption that there are absolute laws, guides, or descriptions of the good
and proper life or they assume a vacuous relativism. In both cases they
perform a great leap away from the actual situations of moral behaviorand
^ resort to verbal abstractions, thus failing to present adequate descriptions
of proper conduct, justiceTand injustice which initiate their system building
in the first place.
d. Education. Because the dom ain of conventional formal education is
so intertwined with social, economic, and political circumstances, it affords
a large num ber of invalid assumptions. These center about the questions of

vocational, cheaply or expensively, and for what purpose. M any of them

are theoretical or practical. Striking errors are rooted in the assumptions
about the mental capacities of developing persons and affect the learning
events and the means of carrying out the learning process in schools. Here,
too, we meet with the problems of inequality of races a nd the specification
of social and environing influences.
e. Conventional Philosophy. The reading of historical and current
philosophical formulations forces upon us the ineptitude of this intellectual
domain. One cannot but be revolted by the aridity and the incongruities
between the systems of thinking and the things, events, and conditions with
which one is interacting. The ancient beliefs about the supernal and its
contrast with the earthy has influenced wrong ideas about man and his
nature and indeed about the plenum inevitably surrounding the
philosophers.
-M An outstanding symptom o f the dichotomizing of the actual universe is
the reduction o f psychology to the study of words rather than the critical""
description of confrontable things and events. By challenging statements

5Einstein. A., Essays iniScience. New York, Covici-Friede. 1934. pp. 17, 18.
 PERENNI AL PROBLEMS OF P H I L O S O P H Y

1 analyzing them it is believed thinkers can be freed from universalism,

olutism, and other malefic traits of orthodox philosophy. Linguistic
losophv is an improvement but in the final analysis it is negativistic. It"
rks a small shift away from transcendental thinking, but it does not aid
forward advancement of Philosophy.

1NTERBEHAVIORAL P H IL O SO PH Y ID E N T IFIE D

Barnes aside, since names are only imposed attributes o f things, our
nmary of the descriptions of an authentic or valid philosophy marks it
from all historical and transcendental speculations. There is no place in
;rbehavioral philosophy for ultimate reality, absolutes, eternal truths.
versality, totalism , o r infinities of any description whatever,
erbehavioral philosophy remains forever within the bounds of
Fractions of persons with the things and events with which they comeT
3 contact. O nly inferences derived from such contacts have any place in
losophical systems.
Scientific or valid philosophy is sufficiently identified as a type of hum an
ction to the things and events confronted in their observable form. The
il of such behavior is to arrive at the nature of things and events as free as
;sible from the verbal patination laid upon them by generations of
nkers from all sorts of periods and places. Philosophical reactions as
ihisticated approaches to things and events become increasingly expert
h experience, that is the multiplication of critical interactions.
Descriptions of confrontations with things and events as well as of the
rigs confronted are obviously constructs, but instead of being media for
aosing qualities on inorganic objects, biological organisms and their
tavior, and psychological and social events, they are records of
;ervations and experiments performed upon the things studied.
jreover, there is strict limitation placed on the extrapolation from the
dies. Otherwise the evaluations and speculations tend toward vacuous
1 misty verbiage. What no observation or experiment reveals is purely
Istic.
While constructions are very different from the things observed,
>erimented upon, or speculated about, they must in the final analysis be
ived from those things. There is a continuity in the behavior of
losophers from bare contact with things to the construction of the most
;tract hypotheses and axioms. Notions of hidden qualities, mysterious
itions. and theologically based arcana are delusory inventions.

10
 I DE N T I T Y OF P H I L O S O P H Y

Expertness in philosophical matters consists to a considerable extent of

being able to distinguish between authentic existence and the autistic
constructions presumed to be descriptive and explanatory of such
existence. It is in this sense that interbehavioral philosophy is basic to the
analysis of intellectual processes and products.

11
 SECTION

I
Philosophical Systems
in Succession
 CHAPTER 2
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS

IN FO R M A L A N D U N SY ST E M A T IZ E D INTERVAL

Although it is an appealing guess that speculation and reflection are

inherent potentialities of hum an experience, it is daring speculation to
attem pt to set an interval when hum ans began to construct philosophical
attitudes. The origin of philosophy even of the most primitive sort is lost in
the haze of preliterate time. Certainly it must have been eons ago when
mankind became somewhat integrated with his surroundings and found
the leisure and occasions to construct attitudes about himself, comparisons
with others, the cycles of birth and death, and the environment in general.
W hen one considers the great skill and refinement of taste of the cave
hunters and painters we may well assume that the birth of philosophy took
place at least as far back as the Neolithic period of hum an evolution. Of
one thing we may be reasonably certain and that is that the ideas the
primitives had were simple and perhaps poetic. But no warrant is available
to assume that supematurals had already been invented, though of course
thinkers may have abstracted and extrapolated farfrom thedim ensions of
visible objects and relations. All this is not to say that the primitive
philosopher is bereft of the process of myth-making. No. As performers of
language behavior, primitives could idealize their existences, deplore their
t losses and calamities, and construct fables to ease their grief or assuage
their other affections.
Considerable evidence o f the capabilities of current primitives for
philosophical thinking is available in such works as Radin’s Primitive Man
as Philosopher.1 Despite the great differences in time and circumstance
between the cave men and the m odern primitives there is still good ground
to believe that something like the attitudes of modern primitives was
cultivated in the early stages of hum an evolution.
Like all things human, philosophyzing displays numerous changes
some of which must be regarded as progressive. Thus, the reflective
behavior of particular persons, though they are linked in a chain beginning
i
' Radin, P., Primitive Stan as Philosopher, New York. Appleton, 1927.

15
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

in the most humble and insignificant m anner, starts at an elevated point of

achievement and value.
The historical development of philosophy must be described and
evaluated in terms of the productivity of specialized individuals who have
developed competency in observation and delineation of what they
observe. In the beginning of philosophyzing such individuals may be
singular and unusual members of whatever communities they belong to.
W hat they achieve, however, may be accumulated to form systems and
institutional fashions in their societies.
But here we face an im portant problem of specification. It is an
established view that the specialized process of philosophyzing is always
contaminated with m etaphors and mythology. An interesting example is
the work of D odds2 who in his objection to the idea of the utter rationality
of the Greeks goes to great lengths to demonstrate that they were, in their
religious aspects, highly irrational. Moreover, he carries his notion so far as
to discover irrational elements in Greek philosophy even to put in the work
of Plato and Aristotle.
His views and that of his cohorts are subject to several objections. In the
first place, they assume a universalistic attitude, they ascribe to all Greeks
even to philosophers the supem aturalism of the herd and the classical
poets. Again they reveal an unwitting sympathy with what they call the
irrational stance of the general populace. Furtherm ore, they do not
distinguish between supernatural beliefs and psychic powers and processes,
and mythical analogies and other inventions.
Probably the most applicable corrective for the study of classical religion
and philosophy is the consideration that classicists are unfam iliar with
scientific psychology and of recent discoveries. They discuss problems oT~
soul, spirit, and mind as objective entities instead of misused words. They
have no compunction to carrying back mind-body doctrine into the past as
though it articulated with fact and existence. In general they do not
differentiate m etaphors, story telling from descriptions of beliefs
concerning confrontable things and events. For them literature is no
different from philosophy while in general there is absent in their writings
any adequate appreciation of the interactions of persons with their
ambience, including their own behaviors. Terms like “religion” cover a
multitude of activities. Greeks are presumed to wallow in the morass of

: Dodds, E. R., The Greeks and the Irrational, Boston. Beacon Press. 1957.

16
 SERIES OF P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS

spirit though classicists well know the great emphasis Greek philosophers
put upon the four exclusive elements of nature — fire, water, air, and earth.
There is a continuity in hum an affairs, social systems, politics,
economics, and all other forms of organization and behavior constitute a
unity of many variations. This is true of philosophy. M any specific items
have become integrated into abiding institutions of current times. It is the
task of current philosophers to analyze the thinking of the times and to
differentiate between what has been thought under specific conditions and
what can be thought now that events and their stimulations have evolved a
new competence. We turn now to a purview of the formal philosophical
systems.

FORMAL AND SYSTEMATIC INTERVAL

An im portant first step in the study of formal and systematic philosophy
of the W estern European tradition is to observe the involved selectivity.
Only some influences of the philosophical systems of the Far East, for
example, are taken account of. T o illustrate, only the system erected by
Schopenhauer is usually included in the philosophy of the occidental
tradition, even though Schopenhauer indicates some Eastern sources of his
thinking.
O ur enumeration of the thinking of Western philosophers begins then
with the Greek philosophers since they furnish us for the first time with
texts that we can scrutinize, and by the time we reach the fourth century of
the pre-Christian era we have the elaborate works of Plato and Aristotle.
Now the m ost fundam ental thing about the philosophical attitudes of the
Greeks is a strict naturalism. It is traditional to think of Plato as the
classical dualist, but actually his dualism is not the culpable dualism of
m atter and spirit. W hat he was differentiating was construction mainly in
the form of mathematical formulae from the objects that were being
described or discussed. W hen we reach Aristotle, who is conventionally
regarded as a pupil of Plato, we find that unlike Plato, who was
mathematically inclined in his thinking, Aristotle was primarily a biologist
and a very competent one, so much so, in fact, as to call out great praise
from Darwin.3 In studying Aristotle as a philosopher we find that he is
greatly influenced, as is only natural when specialism had not yet
developed, by scientific discpvery and observation. He drew his
’“Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods; but they were mere schoolboys compared to old
Aristotle.” Letter to W. Ogle in Darwin. F., The Life and Letters o f Charles Darrin, New York, Basic
Books. 1959. p. 427.

17
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCES SI ON

in clu sio n s from the observations he made and did not create autistic
in stru c tio n s on the basis of language which is so fertile a potentiality for
nythology and superstition.
It is quite remarkable that such an eminent scientist as Schrodinger*
ooks down upon the Greeks because they resorted to what he calls Sense
Data and did not make great use of the kind of speculation and
magi nation which results in all sorts of spiritistic thought and the division
sf the world into inner and outer or spirit and matter.
For convenience of exposition the succession of periods or intervals may
De divided into six distinct groups as follows:
The Confrontational Interval.
The Transcendental Interval.
Science Intrudes upon Faith.
The Materialistic Interval.
The Positivistic Interval.
The Interval of Linguistic Analysis.
Each is discussed in the above order.

•Schrodinger, E., Nature and the Creeks. Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press. 1954.

18
 CHAPTER 3

TH E C O N F R O N T A T IO N A L INTERVAL

PH ILO SO PHICA L ORIGINS: TH E CLASSICAL AGE

We categorize the Greco-Roman objective and naturalistic period as a
confrontational age, because the great emphasis of its thinkers was on the
description or explanation of observable things, starting with terrestial
objects and events, and ascending to the sublimities of the astronomical
__world.
The philosophy of the Greeks and Romans with its culmination in
Aristotle and Lucretius developed through a long series of attitudes pro-
,r- jected against their generating human conditions.(When philosophy first
began, its votaries sought to make an ultimate evaluation of nature
exclusively in perceptual and even ethical terms?)This enterprise marked a
sharp advance over previous mythological explanation; for the categoriza­
tion of nature in terms of visible concrete things involved a more sophisti­
cated attitude toward objects and events than had previously been the case. „
With the transition from the early cosmologists to the pre-Sophistics we
find a gradual awareness of the evaluation function. This function was
sharply focused by Socrates in his attempt to establish standards of ethical
conduct, when the Sophists raised the problem of knowledge in the field of
practical pursuits. In establishing norms of conduct, Socrates introduced
Pythagorean notions, converted into abstract forms which could be util­
ized in judgments. With Plato these forms became categories, but since he
developed only a few, it remained for Aristotle to enlarge the whole
categorization field. Prominent throughout this entire development was an
attitude of naive objectivity which was the fundamental characteristic of
Greek philosophy. This chapter aims to trace out the gradual development
of the evaluation process in this objective milieu, and the significance of
categorization doctrine.

/
The Naively Objective Postulations
o f the Early Greek Philosophers
When philosophical attitudes were first recorded, the search for reality
carried thinkers to a simple cause for the various objects in the world. It

19
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

was supposed that an explanation of all the facts of nature could be

uimmed up in a simple category which would be at the same time the
,nner essence and the cause of objects. W e m ay well consider this a very
naive attitude toward the world of things, but one, however, which resulted
directly from the social and intellectual conditions o f the time. Although
the early Greek philosophers attained a simple, natural science viewpoint
and attempted to give a rational explanation of th eir cont acts with things,
they did not understand a nything a b out the character of the process bv
which the nat ure o^ things was determined.
The pre-Soj)histic philosophers represent merely a transition stage
between thtMTiythologists and the more reflective thinkers, since tfieir
determination of the world was an immediate expression of uncritical
thought. The progress of these thinkers over the previous mythologists lay
in a slight inclination toward a more critical attitude toward the objects
about them. They gave up telling tales, as Burnet puts it. This is a
significant advance, in spite o f the fact that the new attitude was not
■deliberately adopted, but was dictated by changes in the immediate social
conditions—- --------------------------------------------------------------
The fact that Physis1 was the most fundam ental category throughout
the entire Milesian period indicates both the changes of that period from
the previous cultural age and also its continuity with that age. Thus we can s
readily surmise the connection between the water that Thales suggested as
the real and the Oceanus and Uranus which the Homeric and Hesiodic
poems mention.21J h c lack of a thoroughgoing differentiation between the
philosophic and the mythological periods is also indicated by the relation
between the Anaximandrialn boundless ancTtfie Hesiodic chaos._ It is
characteristic of a mythological era to consider N ature in general to be
reality, but the Milesians undertook to give a naturalistic description of its
essence. In all the Milesian doctrines some substance which could be
observed through direct perceptual means was regarded as the substance
of the real.
Instructive evidence of the beginnings of an interest in the process of
evaluation is the argument of Anaximenes that the boundless which
Anaximander assumed to be reality required more specific determination.
To call the essence of nature the boundless seemed to Anaximenes a lapse
to the position of the earlier mythologists. He asserted therefore, that the
boundless was air, and thus he brought it into closer contact with directly
1Burnet. J„ Greek Philosophy, London. Macmillan, 1914, p. 27.
3Von Hartmann. E., Geschichie eler Metaphvsik, Ausgewahite Werke, voL II, Leipzig, Haacke,
1899. p. 2.
20
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NT E RVAL

perceived objects. He did not find it necessary to think o f the infinite as

being different from the m aterial which was separated out of it, since
diversities were accounted for by a greater or lesser quantity o f the
substance in a given locus. Anaximenes drew an analogy between the
hum an and the cosmic process. “As our soul is air and we are thereby held 7
together; so the entire world order is encompassed by breath and air."3
That the early Greeks had reached only a beginning toward the realiza­
tion of the evaluating process is indicated by the fact that they asked no
pointed questions as to the n atu re of scientific description and its relation ^
to actual things, as critical philosophers must do. The categorization of the '
whole of nature in term s of some directly perceived part of it indicates the
im m aturity o f Ionian philosophy. A m ore m ature conception in which the
process of evaluation is a prom inent feature would hardly define reality in
any but rational terms.
The development of new social conditions with a corresponding modi­
fication of orientation in the world of things, brings about new attitudes
which reflect the new happenings.JThus the Pythagorean tradition intro­
duces new motives in philosophical thought and leads to the evaluation of
nature in terms that are not entirely perceptuaDThc attitude of Pythagoras
takes on a m athem atical trend, and the Pythagoreans find the reality of
things in number. Such a viewpoint represents, however, only a very
gradual diversion from the earlier traditions, for in the first place, as
Aristotle points out, the num bers of the Pythagoreanscqnstitute the actual
content of ordinaryjobjects4 and are not at all what they signify to a
m odem m athematician. And in the second place the Pythagorean doctrine
is clearly very closely related to a religious mysticism. In adopting numbers
as the essence of reality, however, m ore prom inence is given to the act of
evaluating experience, and incidentally the way is cleared for the problem
of thet) n e and the M any.'The Pythagorean tradition, although it is not a
substantial rationalistic attitude,3 stands for philosophical progress above
all, in that its fundam ental determ inations of reality become somewhat
more independent of the unreflective categories of religion and mythology.
This is true in spite of the fact that the “Physis” of the early Greek
philosophers is not actual nature, but is endowed with supernatural
qualities.6
3Diels, H., Fragment? der Vorsokratiker, vol. 1, Berlin, Weidmann, 1951, p. 95.
‘ Aristotle, Metaphysica, 986a.
5Cf. Herbertz, R. Das Wahrheitsproblem in dgr Griechischen Phitosophie. Berlin, Reimer, 1913. p.
124. ' \ to fe fe w J /
‘■Comford, F. M., From Religion to Philosophy, New York. Harper, 1957, p. 123 ff. 1 V •

.. .,V ' 21) . i.fy t A

 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

The Pythagorean tradition is im portant in that the categories which this

chool develops are less directly connected with perceived things and thus
illow for a more adequate determ ination of objects. The concept of the
)articipation of things in the forms which described them and the evalua-
ion of nature in terms of laws rather than of substances o r changes in
;ubstance, initiated a period of emphasis of the categorization function.
Phis variation in philosophical attitude culminates in the knowledge doc-
rines of Plato and Aristotle, and makes of the Pythagorean movement a
ransition between the Ionian and Athenian viewpoints.
In the conflict of the Heracleitan and Parmem dean viewpoints, Greek
:hought advances to the stage in which the work of the thinker plays an
ncreasingly important role. Both Heracleitus and Parmenides place
reliance in reason as a means for the discovery of reality, although in
neither can we find a total departure from the naively objective attitude of
the Milesians. Parmenides begins a tradition which places distinct empha­
sis upon the creative aspect of the philosophical attitude. Evaluation as
products of reason stands out more prominently than has hitherto been the
case; that is, Parmenides stresses the idea that reality is only to be known
through reason. By originating the category of Being, he goes farther than
any of his predecessors in formulating a non-perceptual evaluation of
nature, and at the same time makes philosophy more self-conscious. Based
on this viewpoint is the suggestion that Parmenides is the first scientific
philosopher,7 who first makes possible the discovery of Being on the basis
of definite principles.*
The superiority of the Parmenidean philosophy, however, extends only
to the m atter of method and not to the actual determination of objects.
While Parmenides seeks in a more definite and determined way to under­
stand the significance of interpreting the world, he is not able to form ulate
a very satisfactory description of the latter. This incapacity is demonstrated
in his incUnatiorUQ.denv t he reality of perceptual things which appear to
him as delusions.1' As yet Greek thinkers had not attained the personal in-
dependeneg which is essential for a constructive attitude toward the world
of actjaal_Qbjects. Consequently, they are unable to categorize reaiity in
actual knowledge terms. -

’ Cohen. H., Logik tier reinen Erkenmniss, Berlin, Cassirer, 1902, p. 27.
* Hartmann, E.. Platos Ixjgik des Seins, in H. Cohen and P. Natorp’s Philosophische Arbeiten, vol.
3. Giessen. Topetmann, 1909, p. 44.
vWindclhand, W.. History o f Ancient Philosophy (H. E. Cushman, trs.), New York, Scribner’s,
1899. p. 62.
22
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NTERVAL

A significant m o d ificatio n in th e a ttitu d e s o f th e p h ilo so p h ers o f th is

p erio d is b eg in n in g to b e m an ife ste d in th e lessened e n e rgy given to the
c a te g o riz a tio n o f th e u k im a te s u b s tances o f re a lity, an d in the g re ater effort
d irec te d to w a rd a n e x p la n a tio n o f h o w they o perate, t h e categ o ries
d escrib in g th e w orld begin to in clu d e th e co n tro llin g forces o f the changes
o f n a tu re ,10 a m o n g w h ich a re th e L ove a n d S trife o f E m pedocles a n d th e
Nous o f A n a x a g o ra s . T h e d e te r m in a tio n o f Nous as a fu n d a m e n ta l cate-
g o r v m a r k s a tu rn in g p o in t in th e d ev e lo p m e n t o,f p h ilo so p h y . T h e speci­
ficatio n o f re aso n as a force in n a tu re m a rk s a m ore reflective stag e o f
p h ilo so p h ic al d ev elo p m en t, since th e fo rm u la tio n s o f attitu d e s becom e
p ro b le m s in them selves. T h e g ra d u a l tra n sitio n th a t is ta k in g p lace in
G reek th o u g h t at this p erio d is in d icated by th e fact th a t A n a x a g o ra s
a ttrib u te s to his Nous th e p o w ers o f settin g things in o rd er, d iscrim in atin g
a n d se p a ra tin g th em , a n d is c o n se q u e n tly striv in g fo r a m o re scientific
view p o in t th an his p re d ece sso rs h ad a tta in e d ." T h a t the tra n sitio n is very
g ra d u a l is in d icated by th e fact th a t Nous fo r A n a x a g o ra s is still h o m o ­
geneo u s w ith the o bjective s tu ff o f th e w o r l d .»
T h e a d v a n ce in in tellectu al d ev e lo p m e n t w hich A n a x a g o ra s rep resen ts
parallels a g ro w in g interest in m an ’s circ u m stan ces a n d co n d itio n s. T h e
G re e k s o f th is g e n e ra tio n , o w in g to th e ir c o n ta c t w ith th e P ersjan s, a re led
to find a n a b s o rb in g in te rest in th eir o w n perso nalities. It is in this p erio d
th a t A esch y lu s s p ea k s o f th e G re ek s as m e n w h o have “nev er been called
th e su b jects o r slaves o f a n y o n e ." T h is is th e ag e w hen individualism begins
to be th e k ey n o te o f G re ek civilization, a n d th e ad v en t o f th e period w hen
A th e n s assum es th e le a d e rsh ip o f th e G reeks. T h e struggle o f A th e n s w ith
S p a rta fo r th is lead ersh ip t y p ifies^ th e gro w th o f individualism a n d the
s u p rem acy o f th e in te llect, a c o n d itio n w h ich brings to a focus th e p ro b lem
o f k n o w led g e. F ro m th is tim e o n . Nous becom es a fu n d a m e n tal ca te g o ry
o f G re ek p h ilo so p h y , fo r A n a x a g o ra s is th e first p h ilo so p h er o f A thens. I

II
The Development o f Definite Postulates
in the Platonic Doctrine o f Knowledge
P ra c tic a lly fro m th e b eg in n in g o f th e A th e n ia n period th e o rie n ta tio n in
th e w orld o f things is m a d e w ith a fairly critical view to th e validity o f the
categ o ries fu n c tio n in g in this o rie n ta tio n . A fter passing th ro u g h the stages
10In contrast with the Ionian philosophers who merely quote the changes to support their doctrines
of fundamental substance. Cf. in this connection Woodbridge, F. J. E.. Philosophical Review. 10,
359-374.
11Comford, F. M.. Op. cil. p. 154.
23
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES SI ON

f in q u iry as to the n a tu re o f k n o w led g e , th e a tte m p t is m ad e by th in k e rs to

eterm in e a list o f logical c a te g o rie s, w h ich a re p re su m e d to be re p resen ta -
ves o f re a lity /F ro m S o c ra te s o n m a y be tra c e d a series o f su ch d e te rm in a -
ons, re su ltin g in th e A risto te lia n ta b le o f c a te g o ries, w hich sym bolizes th e
u lm in a tio n o f th e G reek c o n c e p tio n o f reality ^ T h e experience o f th e
ireeks o f th e fo u rth c e n tu ry b rin gs o u t a d ecid ed ly different a ttitu d e fro m
taT o f p r evious p erio d s. T he in tere sts o f th e th in k e rs beco m e centered
lo re in in tim a te h u m a n h a p p e n in g s, a n d th e p ro b lem s o f h u m a n a c tio n
ver a g a in st th e b e h a v io r o f c o sm ic affairs ta k e b h ’g r e a t e f im p o rta n c e .12
'h u s th e A th e n ia n p erio d a d v a n c e s n o t o n ly th e p ro b le m o f kn o w led g e a s
basis f o r th e sp ec u la tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e re ality o f th e w orld , b u t also a
,ew series o f e v a lu a tio n s o f life. T h ese n ew d e sc rip tio n s are fo rm u late d in
ateg o ries o f a n eth ical so rt, a n d th e “g o o d " th u s b eco m es a n ex p ressio n o f
o m e fu n d a m e n ta l c h a n g e s in p h ilo s o p h ic a ttitu d e s . S o m e o f th ese
hanges a re rep resen ted by th e .S o p h ists, w h o tu rn fro m th e c o n sid e ra tio n
>f n a tu re to a n exclusive stu d y o f p rin cip les o f c o n d u c t.[N a tu ra lly th e
ih ilo so p h ica l fo rm u la tio n s begin to in clu d e eth ical a n d political p ro b lem s,
ind c o n se q u e n tly p h ilo so p h y realizes to a g re a te r e x te n t th a n ever b efo re
h a t its fu n c tio n is to in te rp re t h u m a n c o n d itio n s a n d events.]
T h e a r b itra ry v iew p o in ts w h ich th e ty p es o f p h ilo so p h ic th o u g h t o cca­
sion a re successfully d isp o sed o f b y th e g re a t a c h ie v em en t o f S o cra te s,
which co n sists o f esta b lish in g a firm basis as a c rite rio n fo r m o ra l c o n d u c t.
fh e p re cise result re ached b y S o c ra te s in th is m a tte r is th a t v irtu e based o n
know ledge is a d e q u ately fo u n d e d. H e a rg u es th a t th ere is a definite m ean -
ng o f v irtu e w h ich ca n be d isco v ered by a n in tense search fo r its ex a ct
n atu re .13 T o ta k e a n ex am p le: if w e w a n t to k n o w w h a t co u rag e is, w e m u st
seek fo r the essential fa c to r o f c o u ra g e o u s c o n d u c t. In the sam e w ay this
establish m en t o f k n o w led g e in th e w o rld o f n a tu re involves th e disco v ery
of th e essence o f th in g s.U n b o th cases th e result is th e d isco v ery o f th e
form o r u n iv e rsa l.14 T h e difficulty in is o la tin g these fo rm s in th e re a lm o f
existence leads S o cra te s to th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e m e th o d o f o v ert ju d g m e n t
o r ev a lu a tio n . H e states t h a t since h e h as failed in th e c o n te m p la tio n o f tru e
existen ce, he m u st assu m e a p rin cip le, a d e sc rip tio n w hich is later to be
tested .15

IJCf. Aristotle, De Partibus Animalium, 642a, 25.

11Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysica, xiii, 4.
14This was of course an extension of the work of the Pythagoreans, cf. Aristotle, Metaphysica, xiii, 4.
15Cf. Plato, Phaedo, 100 ff.; this is the beginning of the doctrine elaborated by Plato. Cf. Adam, J„
The Religious Teachers o f Greece, Edinburgh, Clark, 1908, p. 456.

24
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NTERVAL

A significant m o d ificatio n in th e a ttitu d e s o f th e p h ilo so p h ers o f th is *

p e rio d is b egin n in g to b e m an ife ste d in th e lessened .energy g iven to th e /
c a te g o riz a tio n o f th e u ltim a te s u b s tances o f reality, an d in the g re m e re ffo rt '
d irec ted to w a rd a n e x p la n a tio n o f h o w th ey o nerate. T h e categ o ries
d esc rib in g th e w orld begin to in clu d e th e c o n tro llin g forces o f the changes
o f n a tu re ,10 a m o n g w h ich a re th e L ove a n d S trife o f E m p ed o cles a n d th e
Nous o f A n a x a g o ra s . T h e d e te rm jn a ti onofNoits as a fu n d a m e n ta l cate-
g o ry m a rk s a tu rn in g p o in t in th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f p h ilo so p h y . T h e speci­
ficatio n o f reaso n as a fo rce in n a tu re m a rk s a m o re reflective stag e o f
p h ilo so p h ic al d ev e lo p m e n t, since the fo rm u la tio n s o f a ttitu d e s becom e
p ro b lem s in them selves. T h e g ra d u a l tra n sitio n th a t is tak in g place in
G reek th o u g h t at this p erio d is in d icated by th e fact th a t A n a x a g o ra s
a ttrib u te s to his Nous th e p o w ers o f setting things in o rd er, d iscrim in atin g
a n d se p a ra tin g th em , a n d is c o n se q u e n tly striv in g fo r a m o re scientific
v iew p o in t th a n his p red ecesso rs h ad a tta in e d .11 T h a t the tra n sitio n is very
g ra d u a l is in d icated by th e fact th a t Nous fo r A n a x a g o ra s is still h o m o ­
geneo u s w ith th e objective s tu ff o f th e w o r ld .»
T h e a d v a n c e in in telle ctu al d e v e lo p m e n t w hich A n a x ag o ras rep resen ts
p arallels a g ro w in g interest in m an ’s circ u m stan ces an d co n d itio n s. T h e
G re e ks o f th is g e n e ra tio n , o w in g to th e ir c o n ta c t wit h th e P ersjan s, a re led
to find a n a b s o rb in g in tere st in th e ir o w n perso nalities. It is in this p erio d
th a t A esch y lu s sp ea k s o f th e G re ek s as m en w h o have "n ev er been called ,
th e su b jects o r slaves o f a n y o n e .” T his is th e ag e w hen in dividualism begins A-.
to be th e k ey n o te o f G re ek civilization, an d the advent o f th e period w hen
A th en s assum es th e lead e rsh ip o f th e G reeks. T h e struggle o f A th en s w ith /
S p a rta fo r this lead ersh ip typjfies th e g ro w th o f individualism an d th e
s u p rem acy o f th e in tellect, a c o n d itio n w h ich brings to a focus th e p ro b lem
o f kn ow ledge. F ro m th is tim e o n . Nous becom es a fu n d a m e n tal c a te g o ry „
o f G re ek p h ilo so p h y , fo r A n a x a g o ra s is th e first p h ilo so p h er o f A thens.

//
The Development o f Definite Postulates
in the Platonic Doctrine o f Knowledge
P ra c tic a lly fro m th e b e g in n in g o f th e A th e n ia n perio d th e o rie n ta tio n in
th e w orld o f things is m a d e w ith a fairly critical view to th e validity o f the
categ o ries fu n c tio n in g in th is o rie n ta tio n . A fter passing th ro u g h th e stages
10In contrast with the Ionian philosophers who merely quote the changes to support their doctrines
of fundamental substance. Cf. in this connection Woodbridge. F. J. E.. Philosophical Review, 10.
359-374.
"Comford, F. M.. Op. cil. p. 154.
23
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCES SI ON

f in q u iry as to th e n a tu re o f k n o w led g e, th e a tte m p t is m ad e by th in k e rs to

eterm in e a list o f logical c a te g o ries, w h ich a re p re su m e d to be re p resen ta -
ves o f re a lity ^ F ro m S o c ra te s o n m a y be tra c e d a series o f such d e te rm in a -
ons, re su ltin g in th e A risto te lia n ta b le o f ca te g o ries, w hich sym bolizes th e
u lm in a tio n o f th e G reek c o n c e p tio n o f re a lity ) T h e experience o f th e
ireeks o f the fo u rth c e n tu ry b rin g s o u t a d ecid ed ly different attitu d e fro m
l a t o f p r ev io u s p erio d s. T he in tere sts o f th e th in k e rs becom e cen tered
to re in in tim a te h u m a n h a p p e n in gs, a n d th e p ro b lem s"o f H um an a c tio n
ver a g a in st th e b e h a v io r o f c o sm ic affairs ta k e c u T g re a te r im p o rta n c e .1112
'h u s th e A th e n ia n p erio d a d v a n c e s n o t o n ly th e p ro b le m o f k n o w led g e as
basis fo r th e sp ec u la tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e re ality o f th e w o rld , b u t also a
,ew series o f e v a lu a tio n s o f life. T h e se n ew d e sc rip tio n s are fo rm u late d in
ateg o ries o f a n eth ica l so rt, an d th e “ g o o d ” th u s b eco m es an ex p ressio n o f
o m e fu n d a m e n ta l ch a n g e s in p h ilo s o p h ic a ttitu d e s . S o m e o f th ese
hanges a re rep resen ted by th e ,S o p h ists, w h o tu rn fro m th e co n sid eratio n
>f n a tu re to a n exclusive stu d y o f prin cip les o f c o n d u c t.[N a tu ra lly th e / . .
ih ilo so p h ica l fo rm u la tio n s begin to in clu d e eth ica l a n d political p ro b lem s, / v
ind co n se q u e n tly p h ilo so p h y realizes to a g re a te r e x te n t th a n ever b e f o r e 'V f
h a t its fu n c tio n is to in te rp re t h u m a n c o n d itio n s a n d events.]
T h e a r b itra ry v iew p o in ts w h ich th e types o f p h ilo so p h ic th o u g h t o cca-
iion a re successfully d isp o se d o f b y th e g re a t ac h ie v em en t o f S o cra te s,
v h ich co n sists o f e stab lish in g a firm basis as a c rite rio n fo r m o ra l co n d u c t.
fh e p re cise re su lt reach ed b y S o c ra te s in th is m a tte r is th a t v irtu e based o n
know ledge is a d e q u ately fo u n d e d . H e arg u es th a t th e re is a definite m ean -
n g o f v irtu e w h ich can b e d isco v ered by a n in tense search fo r its ex a ct
n a tu re .13 T o ta k e a n ex am p le: if w e w a n t to k n o w w h a t c o u rag e is, w e m u st
seek fo r th e essential fa c to r o f c o u ra g e o u s c o n d u c t. In th e sam e w ay this
establish m en t o f k n o w led g e in th e w o rld o f n a tu re involves th e d iscovery
a f th e essence o f th in g s.U n b o th cases th e result is th e d isco v ery o f th e
fo rm o r u n iv e rsa l.14 T h e difficulty in is o la tin g these fo rm s in th e re a lm o f
existen ce leads S o cra te s to th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e m e th o d o f o v ert ju d g m e n t
o r ev alu a tio n . H e states th a t since h e h as failed in th e c o n te m p la tio n o f tru e
existen ce, he m u s t assu m e a p rin cip le, a d e s c rip tio n w h ich is la te r to b e
tested .15

11Cf. Aristotle, De Partibus Animalium, 642a, 25.

13Cf. Aristotle, Meiaphvsica, xiii, 4.
14This was of course an extension of the work of the Pythagoreans, cf. Aristotle, Metaphysica, xiii, 4.
15Cf. Plato, Phaedo, 100 ft.; this is the beginning of the doctrine elaborated by Plato. Cf. Adam, J„
The Religious Teachers o f Greece, Edinburgh, Clark, 1908. p. 456.

24
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NT ERVAL

T h e d iscovery o f th e u n iv ersal m a rk s th e b e g in n in g o f d elib erate e v a lu a­

tio n as a fu n c tio n o f k n o w led g e. F ro m th e tim e o f S o c ra te s th e universal
beco m es a s ta n d a rd a n d a c rite rio n fo r all d e te rm in a tio n s o f things.
^ K n o w le d g e c o n sists in th e iso la tio n o f th e type o f a n object in o rd e r to be
c e rta in o f it, fo r it is a ssu m e d th a t every o b ject has its perfect type. T o insist
u p o n iso la tin g th e ty p e o f a th in g m e a n s to a p p re c ia te th o ro u g h ly the
m e a n in g o f th a t th in g , w hile su ch a p rocess o f discovering th e precise
m e a n in g o f ju stic e, fo r e x a m p le , m a k e s possible fo r th e first tim e ac tio n s
w ith a full u n d e rsta n d in g o f w h a t s u c h a c tio n s involve.16
A d irect d ev elo p m e n t fro m th e S o c ra tic th e o ry o f universals o r fo rm s is
th e P la to n ic d o c trin e o f ideas. T h is d o c trin e in its final results is a fairly
co m p le te so lu tio n o f th e p ro b le m c o n c e rn in g th e fu n c tio n o f ju d g m e n ts
w ith resp ect to th e fo rm s. In th e w o rk o f S o cra te s, an d fo r th e m o st p a rt in
th a t o f P la to , co n sid erab le difficulty w as experienced in relating fo rm s w ith
sensible th in g s. T his difficulty is easily u n d e rsto o d w hen we re m e m b er th at
t h g lh eo rv ~ o f p a r tic ip a tio h w as o rig in ally a P y th a g o re a n d o c trin e ,17 w h ich
S o c ra te s a d o p te d fo r his p u rp o se s a n d w h ich n a tu ra lly req u ired m u ch
m a k in g over.' In th e la te r th o u g h t o f P la to th e S o c ra tic u n iv ersals ta k e o n
larg e r a n d m o re im p o rta n t fu n c tio n s a n d b ecom e th e c o rn er-sto n e o f a
co m p lete logical structure} T h e P la to n ic u n iv ersals b eco m e ac tu a l catego-
ries; th a t is, s ta n d a rd e le m e n ts o f th e p re d ic a tio n o rd e s c rip tio n o f things.
S in c e th e S o c ra tic d o c trin e o f fo rm s w as d ev elo p ed o n th e basis o f a
sim p le a n d a n a rb itra ry p h ilo so p h y o f k n o w ledge, P la to ’s task w as to m ak e
th e u n iv ersals in to m o re p e rm a n e n t a n d d e p e n d ab le know ledge elem en ts.'
In c o n tra s t to th e S o c ra tic d e te rm in a tio n s w hich arise th ro u g h a pro cess o f
ex a m in in g co n c rete p a rtic u la rs, a jid w h ich p e rm it va ria tio n o f o p in io n ,
P la to m ean s to estab lish a n a ssu re d ce rta in ty fo r know ledge. T his ideal
ty p e o f k n o w led g e so c learly s k e tc h e d in th e R e p u b lic indicates th a t the
p ro b le m o f ideas is definitely epistem ological.C A s a m eth o d o f know led g e
th e ab so lu te ly objective c h a ra c te r o f th e P la to n ic dialectic is a co nsequence
o f P la to ’s se a rc h fo r c e rta in ty , b u t its o b jectiv ity is m a d e po ssib le by its
g en e ral fu n c tio n a n d th e m a te ria l to w h ich it is applied.)T he fu n c tion o f th e
dialectic is to b ring o rd e r a n d h a r m o n y in to th e fo rm s o r p a tte rn s o f things.
T h e significance o f th e en tire P la to n ic dialectic is to b rin g to g e th e r an
ex te rn a l series o f o b jects w ith a p erfectly valid d escrip tio n o f them .

“ Socrates’ main aim was of course to determine ethical concepts, cf. Windelband, W„ Praludien,
Aufsatze und Reden zur Philosophic und ihrer Geschichte, Tubingen, Mohr, 1915, p. 73.
■’ Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysica, 987b, 10.
“ Plato, Republic, 511.

25
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

|.-
W e m ay d istin g u sh several d ifferent m otives w hich e n te r in to th e fo rm u -
u io n o f th e d o c trin e o f ideas. P ro m in e n t a m o n g these are th e m a th em ati-
al basis o f P la to ’s scientific th in k in g a n d his in terest in m ed iatin g betw een
tie P a rm e n id e a n a n d H e racle itian o p p o s itio n ,19 w ith w hich is co n n n e cted
he related p ro b lem o f th e O n e a n d th e M an jk A n o th e r im p o rta n t m otive
> th e a tte m p t to estab lish th e v alid ity o f p re d ic a tio n over ag ainst th e
ceptical c o n te n tio n o f A n tisth en es.20 A ll these m otives are closely con-
lected a n d in fo rm us c o n c e rn in g th e p e c u lia r d ev elo p m en t w hich P la to
>oes th ro u g h b efo re he reaches a secure logical p osition. It is h ard ly
questionable th a t he is re ally a tte m p tin g to d ev elo p a m eth o d o lo g y o f
(n ow ledge, b u t he is d o in g so u n d e r th e stress o f a m ystical a n d m etap h y si­
cal influence.21 All these d ifferen t m otives w hich a p p e a r in P la to ’s p h ilo ­
sophical fo rm u la tio n find th eir e x p la n a tio n in the cu ltu ra l s itu a tio n o f his
period, a n d it is o n ly by s tu d y in g th e in tellectu al b a c k g ro u n d o f P la to th a t
we ca n get a n y light as to th e a p p a re n tly d irect c o n tra d ic tio n s o f th e
d o ctrin e o f ideas.
T h e logical d e v e lo p m e n t o f P la to reaches th e p o in t at w h ich he e x a m ­
ines very critically th e fu n c tio n o f ju d g m e n t.22 H e clearly ap p reciates th e
necessity o f rigidly an d critically d eterm in in g th e n a tu re o f reality in a n
effort to o rien t h im self in th e w o rld o f things an d events. T h e critical
interest o f his p h ilo so p h ic al p e rio d e m b ra ces th e p ro b lem o f th e validity o f
know ledge, fo r th in k e rs have p ro g ressed b ey o nd the naive n atu ralism o f
th e Io n ia n s a n d are re ach in g o u t fo r a m o re p ro fo u n d in te rp re ta tio n o f
nature.
B ecause o f th e c irc u m sta n ces u n d e r w h ich P la to ’s th o u g h t d evelops, his
w ork does n o t result in a m e th o d by w hich th e co n crete objects o f everyday
events are ev a lu a ted . In ste a d , h e a r r iv e s ja tth e resu lt th a t th e essence o f
things m u st be included in th e term s d escribing th e m . P la to th u s isolates
th e " c o m m o n ” o r g en e ral p re d ic ates w h ich a re logical ab stra c tio n s o f
existence.23 His achievem ent lies in ca rry in g fo rw ard the w o rk o f S o crates
w ho m akes th e P y th a g o re a n fo rm s in to d escriptive functions. P la to co n -

'“'Cf. Aristotle. Metaphvsica. 107Kb. 15.

For probable Platonic references to Antisthenes, cf. Natorp, P., Plains Ideenlehre, Leipzig, Durr,
1903, p. 438; Windelband. W,, History o f Ancient Philosophy (H. E. C u s h m a n , trs.). New York,
Scribner’s, 1899, p. 142.
Comford. F. M., From Religion to Philosophy, p. 243.
11 Cf. Cassirer. E„ Das Frkcnntnissprohlem in der Philosophic und Wissenschaft derneueren Zeit,
vol. I, Berlin, Cassirer. 1906. p. 36.
-' These terms are being, nol-bcing. sameness, difference, unity, and others. Cf. Plato, Theaetetus,
185 ff.

)
26
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NT ERVAL

. v erts t h e d e scriptive te rm s w h ich h e calls th e u n iv ersals o f all th in g s in to

p re d ic ates o f u ltim a te reality.24
T h e fairly well ro u n d e d o u t m e th o d o lo g ic al d o c trin e o f P la to offers th e
te m p ta tio n to re a d in to his w o rk th e re su lts o f m o d e m reflection. T h u s,
N a to r p a n d his fo llo w ers in te rp re t th e d o c trin e o f ideas as a logical
id ealism a n d co n sid er th a t o b jects f o r P la to consist o f c o n stru c tio n s o f
th o u g h t.25 N a to r p believes th a t th e P la to n ic th e o ry o f k n o w led g e d e m o n ­
stra te s in c u rre n t n e o -K a n tia n fa sh io n th e g enetic d ev e lo p m e n t o f objects,
th ro u g h th e m e d iu m o f ju d g m e n ts o r e v a lu a tio n s.26 T h e ideas h e co n sid ers
as p re d ic ates o f scientific ju d g m e n ts ,27 a n d th e P la to n ic logic as a g en u in e
fu n c tio n a l m e th o d f o r th e e v a lu a tio n o f o b jects in all d e p a rtm e n ts o f
scientific in q u iry .28 N a to r p finds th e ca te g o ries e n u m e ra te d in th e T h e a te -
tu s, d ev elo p ed in th e P h a e d o to fo rm p re d icates o f fu n d a m e n ta l ju d g ­
m e n ts.29 T h e se fu n d a m e n ta l ju d g m e n ts a re p re su m e d to be th e m ean s
w h e reb y e x p e rien ce is m a d e p o ssib le . T h e result th u s re ach e d indicates to
N a to r p th a t w e c a n find as f a r b a c k as P la to th e ca p acity o f id ealism to
m a k e p o ssib le a n em p irical in v e stig a tio n o f scientific law .30
L ittle a rg u m e n t is re q u ire d to estab lish th e fact th a t in P la to ’s d o c trin e o f
ideas th e re is a n im p o rta n t m e th o d o lo g ic a l asp ect, b u t th is d oes n o t im p ly
th e c o n c lu sio n th a t P la to h a s d e v e lo p e d a m e th o d o f scientific investiga­
tio n in th e m o d e rn s e n s e fA s tu d y o f th e S o p h is t is en tirely co n v in cin g th a t
P la to has re ach e d a v e ry c le a r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p ro b le m o f p re d ic a ­
tio n , a lth o u g h th a t p re d ic a tio n is fo rm a l a n d inflexible. J u d g m e n t fo r
P la to is a pro cess o f e n u m e ra tio n o f th e a ttrib u te s o f th in g s J T h e P la to n ic
ju d g m e n ts a re n o t e v a lu a tio n s o f o b je c ts in th e sense o f d e sc rip tio n s fo r
specific p u rp o se s, b u t a sse rtio n s c o n c e rn in g th e im m u ta b le qu alities co n -
stitu tin g a th in g . T h is fo llo w s fro m th e f u n d a m e n ta la ttk u d e o f P la to , w h o
h o ld s th a t all tru e s cience is tra n s c e n d e n t a n d d eals w ith o b jects w h ich lie
^ n t j r e i j n f e y o n d th e ra n g e o f a n y p o ssib le ex p e rien ce o f sense. W e find in
th e e n tire ld e v elo p m en t o f th e P la to n ic th e o ry oflknow ledge th e se a rc h fo r
th e essen tial d esc rip tiv e e lem e n ts o f th e ty p e o f a th in g . T h is is as well stated
in th e p re d ic a tio n d o c trin e o f th e 7 S o p h is t o f th e R ep u b lic, as in th e
P a rtic ip a tio n d o c trin e in th e M e n o a n d P h a e d o .

“ Cf. Plato, Sophist. '

“ Natorp, P., Platos Ideenlehre., p. 70 ff., referring to Plato, Phaedrus, 247c.
2bfbid., p. 370.
” Ibid., p. 352.
Klbid., p. 84 ff., Stewart, J. A., Plato's Doctrine o f Ideas. Oxford, Clarendon, 1909, p. 76.
“ Natorp, P., Platos Ideenlehre, p. 111. j
Ibid., pp. 1 2 9 , 1 5 9 . !

L
27
. s>
 .r*'

A
\ P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

T h e view p o in t th a t P la to is a s o p h istic a te d logician o f th e n e o -K a n tia n

ense can be en te rta in e d on ly by a n a rb itra ry re c o n stru ctio n o f his w ritings,
'his w o u ld involve tearin g P la to ’s th o u g h t co m pletely o u t o f its cu ltu ral
o n te x t a n d tre a tin g it as a n iso lated piece o f in tellectual co n stru c tio n .
J a to rp a tte m p ts to d o th is a n d , as a resu lt, he is o b liged to assu m e in th e
•resence o f o v erw h elm in g ev idence, th a t P la to ’s d o c trin e o f ideas is n o t
ntim ately tied u p w ith th e th e o ry o f th e so u l o r its im m o rta lity .31 P la to as a
n an o f science, he believes, c o u ld ta k e little in terest in su ch things. In
.n o th e r in stan ce, in o rd e r to w o rk o u t his th e o ry , N a to rp is forced to
issum e th a t P la to uses th e n o tio n o f p a rtic ip a tio n en tirely as a m e ta p h o r.32
\ s a m a tte r o f fact, th e P la to n ic p h ilo so p h y , as a p ro d u c t o f th e social
:o n d itio n s o f G reece in P la to ’s tim e , is v ery in tim ate ly related to th e
/a rio u s religious a ttitu d e s c u rre n t a t th a t p erio d . T h e d ialo g u es clearly
n d icate a p h ilo so p h ical v iew p o in t w h ich is g ra d u ally d ev elo p in g fro m an
m critical m ystical beginning.
P la to succeeds in ca rry in g o u t th e d o c trin e s o f P arm en id e s an d the
P y th a g o rea n s until they b eco m e self-conscious fu n ctio n s ten d in g to w ard
o rien ta tio n in th e w orld o f p h e n o m e n a . T h e p o in t is reached by P la to in
w hich th e p ro b lem o f k n o w led g e becom es o f fu n d a m e n tal im p o rta n c e in
fo rm u latin g a n a ttitu d e to w a rd events. S u c h a h a n d lin g o f th e k now ledge
pro b lem is a n explicit reco g n itio n o f th e necessity f o r a critical ex a m in a tio n
o f th e w o rld a n d its o b jects, a n d fu rth e r im plies th a t a critical m e th o d o f
d eterm in in g objects o f p h ilo so p h ic al in te re st has been d ev elo p ed . U n­
d o u b te d ly P la to has re ach e d h ere th e id ea o f th e e v a lu a tio n ju d g m e n t, b u t
in his p erio d , how ever, th e d e re rm in a tio n d f o b jects hadliriT ved o n ly at iT
p re lim in a ry stag e in th e a tte m p t to find a re se m b la n ce betw een a n o b ject
an d th e perfect fo rm w h ich is th e s ta n d a rd o f reference. A s we have alre ad y
seem this d ev e lo p m e n t is p ec u lia rly in term ix ed w ith o ld e r a n d m o re
m ythical m otives w hich c o n stitu te th e o rig in al m a trix o f P la to n ic th o u g h t.
It w as left to A risto tle to w o rk o u t th e v iew p o in t to its logical con clu sio n .

/// ty k * 1
The Statical Function o f the Aristotelian Categories
T h e c o n su m a tio n o f th e m e th o d o lo g ic a l ach iev em en t o f G re ek th o u g h t
is A risto tle’s logic, w hich is e s s e n tia lly ^ p ro cess!o f su b su m in g a co n c rete
object T inder a perfect form . T h is process ch aracterizes th e final dev elo p ­
m en t o f G reek science, w hich is a m e th o d o f classification a n d d escrip tio n ,
11 N a t o r p . P „ Plains Ideenlehre, p p . 1 2 6 IT.. 144.
'■Ibid., p. 229.

28
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NTERVAL

ra th e r th a n a m ean s o f e x p e rim e n ta tio n a n d discovery. T h e A risto telian

ty p e o f science is designed to d o n o le s s jh a n o rg an ize th e'en tire series o f th e
w o rld ’s objects acco rd in g to c e rta in d e finite a n d p erm a n e n t principles.
T h u s th e A risto te lia n logic is n ecessarily d e d u c tiv e in n a tu re , a n d rep re­
h sents an infallible ru le by w h ich to m a k e inflexible ju d g m en ts co n c ern in g
things.
B etw een A risto tle a n d P la to n o fa r-re a c h in g difference w ith respect to
fu n d a m e n ta l, scientific a ttitu d e s exists, yet th e fo rm e r h as d ev e lo p e d a ^
th o ro u g h g o in g tech n iq u e fo r th e h a n d lin g o f objects. As c o m p a re d w ith
P la to , A risto tle has a tta in e d to a m o re p ro fo u n d a p p reciatio n o f th e n a tu re
o f scientific m e th o d , a n d fu rth e rm o re , he in ten d s to ap p ly th e la tte r to all
objects, th e p e rc e p tu a l n o t e x c lu d e d .33 A risto te lia n science p erm e ates all
th e c o m e rs o f n a tu re , as th e G re e k n a tio n w ith its M a c ed o n ian im p e tu s
b ra n c h e d o u t o v er th e th re e c o n tin e n ts. ,
A g ain , A risto tle’s criticism o f P la to in d icates th a t he w as a tte m p tin g to ~ \
get c lo se r th a n his te a c h e r to a c tu a l e x p e rie n ta l levels. H is o b jectio n to th e W
P la to n ic th e o ry* m a * y b e ta k e n to m e a n th a t P la to h a d n o a d e q u a te Y
e x p la n a tio n o f a c tu a l ev e n ts as th ey o cc u r. In his M etap h y sics34 A risto tle T r­
ask s w h a t th e fo rm s c o n trib u te to sen sib le th in g s, fo r th e y n e ith e r cau se
m o v em en t n o r ch a n g e in things; th ey d o n o t even aid in th e k n o w led g e o f
o th e r th in g s o r in th eir being if th e fo rm s a re n o t in th e ind iv id u al w hich
sh ares in th e m . A risto tle e n te rta in s a n ideal o f a closer c o n tac t w ith a c tu a l
th in g s, th e p a rtic u la rs, a s he calls th e m , th a n h e will a d m it P la to h a d . T h a t
A risto tle is in terested in th e s tu d y o f th e ac tu a l, co n c rete m aterials o f .
science35 is sufficiently ev id en t fro m his v a rio u s w ritings.
T h e p h ilo so p h y o f A risto tle m u st be lo o k ed u p o n then as a m eth o d for
th e stu d y o f events o f w h a te v e r so rt, fo r he co n sid ered logic l o b e an
o rg a n o n , a n in s tru m e n t by w h ic h th e stu d y o f o b jects co u ld g o o n in th e
m o st effective w ay. T h is m e th o d h e very fully w o rk ed o u t, a n d he m ay well
be said to h a v e d e v e lo p e d ^ * c o m p le te sy ste m o f logic,' th a t is, a science o f J*/
investig atio n , c o g n itio n , a n d p ro o f.^ JA risto tle ’s keen interest in logic as a n PV .
in stru m e n t o f in v estig atio n in flu en ced h im to estab lish a th o ro u g h g o in g
system o f ru les fo r th e p u rp o s e o f d e m o n s tra tio n an d p ro o f. H e also
d eterm in ed a series o f categ o ries w h ich w ere definitely p resu m ed to re p re-

33Cf. Zeller, E„ Aristotle: The Earlier Peripatetics, ‘Philosophy of the Greeks' (B. F. C. Costelloe,
and J. H. Muirhead, trs.), vol. I., New York, Longmans, 1897, p. 162 ft.
MAristotle, Metaphysica, bks. i. xiii, xiv.
35Aristotle, De Partibus Animatium, i, 5.
“ Cf. Windetband, W„ History o f Philosophy(i. H. Tufts, trs.). New York. Macmillan. 1910. p. 132.

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCES S I ON

:nt th e e n tire ra n g e o f e x istin g th in g s as re v ealed in p re d ic a tio n .37 T h ese

itegories a re n o t a rra n g e d w ith o u t re g a rd to sy stem a s K a n t believed,38
ut are definite e n u m e ra tio n s o f all th e ch a rac te ristics o f objects. A ristotle
lean t to fo rm u la te a series o f all p o ssib le p re d ic ates w h ich w o u ld a p p ly to
.1 p o ssib le th in g s, even th o se th a t h av e n o a c tu a l existence.39 T h e presence
f th e te rm “being” m ean s th a t th e sta te m e n t o f d esc rip tio n is tru e, w hile
o t-b ein g indicates th a t it is false.40
T h e categ o ries o f A ris to tle, h o w ever, a re n o tin .a rty sense th e c o n d itio n s
>r th e e x isten c e o f things: th ey a re r a th e r d e sc rip tio n s o f th ings as given.
u rth e rm o re , th e y d o n o t re fe r to a n y specific th in g s, b u t a re definite types
f u n iv ersals w h ich h av e a v icario u s fu n c tio n in g en eral d escription. It is
Dr th is re a so n th a t su b sta n c e o r th in g h e a d s th e list as th e m o st u niversal
n d essen tial elem en t o f d eterm in a tio n s.C T h e fact th a t th e categories o f
tris to tle a re n o t term s o f e m p iric a l d e s c rip tio n is in d ic a te d b y th e ex clu -
io n f r o m th e fo rm u la te d list o f s o m e o f th e m o st c h a ra c te ristic a n d useful
if all th e A risto telian categ o ries. A m o n g su c h p ro m in e n t ex clu sio n s a re
lecessity, co n tingency, p u rp o se , e n d , p o te n tia lity , essence, a n d d ev elo p -
n en t) T h ese categ o ries, h o w ev er, A risto tle a c tu a lly em p lo y ed in scientifi­
cally o rie n tin g h im self in th e w o rld o f things.
A risto tle a p p a re n tly rep resen ts tw o ty p es o f th o u g h t. O n th e o n e h a n d ,
le a p p e a rs as th e m a n o f science in v estig atin g an d in te rp re tin g th e c o n c rete
acts a t his d isp o sal, p la c in g co n fid e n ce o n ly in o b se rv a tio n s a n d th eo ries
>ased o n o b se rv a tio n .4^ O n th e o th e r h a n d , he is d isp o sed to estab lish
je rm a n e n tly th e fu n d a m e n ta l p rin cip les o f th e w o rld . In th e la tte r spirit,
\r is to tle stan d s in th e d irec t line o f th e P la to n ic trad itio n s: T h is v a ria tio n
j f v iew p o in t o n th e p a rt o f A risto tle is n o t b o rn e o u t by a th o ro u g h g o in g
»tudy o f his w o rk ; o n th e c o n tra ry , his p h ilo so p h y co n stitu te s a unified
position w h ich involves a scientific a n d a m e tap h y sical aspect. H e dev elo p s
a tech n iq u e o f o b se rv a tio n a n d d e s c rip tio n o f things w h ich covers alm o st
the e n tire ra n g e o f a v a ila b le in fo rm a tio n , b u t th is te c h n iq u e is w holly
m o tiv ated by a n ideal o f m etap h y sica l p erfection.
>. T h e A risto telian p h ilo so p h y c a n b e m o s t fru itfu lly in te rp re te d a s th e
high est d ev e lo p m e n t o f th e S o c ra tic d o c trin e o f universals. [This d o c trin e
o f d e sc rip tio n o r d efin itio n o f a th in g in te rm s o f its a b s tra c te d fo rm o r
' ” Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysica, iv, 2 and v. 7.
'* Kant, I.. Critique o f Pure Reason (F. M. Muller, trs.). New York, Macmillan, 1911, p . 67.
wCf, Apell, O., Beitfane zur Geschichte tier Griechischen Phitosophie, Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1891,
p. 108.
*' Aristotle, Metaphysica, 1017a. 31. Also Natorp. P. Platos Ideeniehre, p. 383.
41 Aristotle, De Gerwratione Anintalium, 760b, 30.

30
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NT E RVAL

univ ersal becom es w ith A risto tle th e e la b o ra te c o n c ep tio n th a t th in g s m u st

be d e sc rib e d in term s o f a p erfec t ty p e w h ich is in so m e d eg ree a p p ro x i­
m a te d by a c tu a l p a rtic u la rs in th e ir a p p r o a c h to reality. A risto te lia n
science p asses th ro u g h th e P la to n ic stage, in w h ich th e fo rm s d ev e lo p into
a series o f a b s tra c t q u alitie s w ith c o rre s p o n d in g d escriptive categ o ries, a n d
a d o p ts th e ideal o f d esc rib in g a d efinite c o n c rete object. B ecause o f th e
id ea l o f a p erfect ty p e th e A ris to te lia n categ o ries^ how ever, fall fa r sh o rt o f
d esc rib ing a c tu a l th in g s, in sp ite o f th e fact th a t th ey rep resen t a sy stem atic
e n u m e ra tio n o f th e p ro p e rtie s o f a th in g . T h e specific m a n n e r in w hich
A risto tle w o rk e d o u t his c o n c e p tio n o f th e p erfect ty p e is o f co u rse th e
p ro b le m o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o r c o m p le tio n o f a m aterial th in g th ro u g h its
a c tu a liz a tio n by th e fo r m . T h e la tte r fo r A risto tle is th u s a m o d el o f
p erfec tio n w hich a th in g strives to beco m e, as is in d icated in th e crite rio n o f
d esc rip tio n .
The fittest m ode, then of treatm ent is to say, a m an has such and such part, because the
conception o f a man includes their presence and because they arc necessary conditions of
existence.42 _____________ _________________________ _____

T h e em p iric a l in terests o f A risto tle , h o w ev er, fall in to line w ith his c o n c e p t

o f th e id eal ty p e, in th a t h e a s s e rts t h a t th e fo rm realizes itself o n ly in th e
p a jlic u la r. *- _______________ ___ _______________________
T h e c o n c e p tio n o f ty p e s c o n d itio n s th e scientific m e th o d o f A risto tle
a n d m ak es it co n sist en tirely in classification o f thin g s a n d processes
ac c o rd in g to th eir fo rm o r final p u rp o se . T h u s
i n dealing w ith respiration we m ust show that it makes place for such or such a final object .4>

W e in ev ita b ly find in G re e k th o u g h t th e ty p e o f final p u rp o se a s th e

c o n s ta n t g u id e in all s o rts o f th in k in g a n d a c tio n . S o fa r d o es A risto tle ■/
c a rry th is c o n c e p tio n th a t th e F o rm b ec o m e s th e p re d o m in a n t fa c to r in '
a c tu a l o b jects o f e v e ry d a y e x p e rien ce . W h a t j i th in g is d e p e n d s u p o n its •
fo rm , a n d th e p u rp o s e influenegs e n tire ly w h a t a th in g is to becom e.
A lth o u g h th e . m ateria l m u st alw ay s be p re sen t, it is n o t th e im p o rta n t [ Y ,-
elem e n t; it is n o t even o f e q u a l im p o rta n c e w ith th e fo rm a n d in m o st cases 'y f \
it is p re se n t to th e d e trim e n t o f th e o b ject. S in ce th e fo rm is really w h a t a
th in g is, th e cau se o f a n y o b ject n o t b ein g w h at it o u g h t to be o r w h a t it
u su ally is, is fo u n d in th e m a te ria l involved.44
A risto tle ’s d o c trin e o f d ev e lo p m e n t th e n is a d e sc rip tio n o f th e a tte m p t
42 Aristotle, De Partibus Animalium, 640a. 34.
*)*«/., 642a. 30.
“ Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysica, 1027a. 13.

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

th e fo rm to realize itself. T h is a tte m p t is d u e to a n in tern a l n ecessity in

itu re .jv h ic h causes th ings to b e w h at th e y are. T h u s th e A risto telian
jilo so p h y o f n a tu re calls fo r o b jects fully realized a n d ex h ib itin g in th e
st w ay th e p u rp o se a c tu a tin g th e ir presence a n d co n d itio n . A ll irreg u lar
itu ral p h e n o m e n a exist b ecau se o f th e re sistan ce o f m a tte r. S o fa r does
risto tle ca rry th is idea th a t he c o n sid e rs it a n a b o rtio n o f n a tu re w hen
ildren d o n o t resem ble th e ir p a re n ts an d especially th e father.45 an d this
ruse is m ad e to include m o ral qualities. T h e A ristotelian d o ctrin e o f
•velop m enL plainly.does n o t d esc rib e g e n u in e d ev elo p m en t, b u t is m erely
device fo r a bsojute classific a tio n . It m erely strives to reach a series o f
>solute fo rm s to w hich th e ob jects o f ex p erien ce m u st c o rresp o n d .
T h e p re d o m in a n c e o f th e co n c ep t o f types in th e A risto telian p h ilo so p h y
duces his logic to a p ro cess o f s u b s u m p tio n . T h e p ro b lem o f science is to
ing o rd e r a n d h a rm o n y in to th e w o rld o f th in g s by su b su m in g ea ch
»jcct u n d e r its resem b lin g fo rm . T h e very a p p a re n t em p iricism o f A ri-
n le becom es reduced to a d e m o n s tra tio n o f th e presence o f th e universal
fo rm .46 In d u c tio n he ta k e s to be th e a sc e rta in m e n t o f in fo rm a tio n
ro u g h in d iv id u al p ercep tu al processes,47 b u t it tu rn s o u t th a t w h at he
tu a lly d o es is to recognize in th e p a rtic u la r object th e type to w hich it
longs.4* T h is reco g n itio n o f the ty p e in th e p a rtic u la r th in g is th e w o rk o f
ason, w hich fu n ctio n s by m ean s o f intellectual insight, a process w hich is
tirely n o n -p e rc e p tu a l49 A risto te lia n in d u c tio n is sim ilar to th at o f
icrates an d P la to d escrib ed in th e P h a e d o a n d the P h a e d ru s,50 b u t is
irk ed o u t in g reater detail. T h e d ifferr-nor* b e tw een A ristotle an d th e
evious th in k e rs is of co u rse in fa v o r o f the form er, a lth o u g h it is h ard ly
rrect to sav th at A risto tle's d o ctrin e o f in tu itio n m akes him in to a n
tp iric isu 51 A risto tle co m es m u ch clo ser to the exact m eth o d o f k now l-
gc th a n d o his predecessors, a lth o u g h he is him self fa r from it.
Since it w as th e c u rre n t c u ltu ra l c o n d itio n s w hich m a d e it im p o ssib le fo r
■istotle to d e p a rt fro m th e idea o f th e a b s o lu te type, he sh o u ld be given

■'Aristotle. De (jetwraiiane AnimaUum. 767b. 5 ft.

■''•'Induction then meant primarily to Aristotle proving a proposition to be true universally by
jwing empirically (hat it was true in each particular case." Joseph. H W. B.. An Introduction to
xu. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1916. p. J7X.
■'Aristotle. Analytiia Ptnteriora. i. IX.
■' Aristotle, Analynt a Posteriora. i. 31: Analytiia Prittra, ii. 21.
"'Aristotle, Analytiia Posteriora. ii. 19.
•"Plato. Phaet/rtis. 249; Phttetlo. 74.
•' Cf. Altenburg. M .. Die Mcthoi/e tier Hypothesis hei Plato. Aristotle, anti Proktus. Marburg,
vert. 1905. p. 156. Also Pranll. C.. Oe.uhithte tier lagik im Aheruiiamie. vol. I. Leipzig. Hirrcl. 1855,
215

32
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I N T E R V A L

cred it fo r a tte m p tin g to a d a p t his m e th o d to fu n c tio n in c o n ta c t w ith actu al

th in g s.(P erh ap s th e sh o rtc o m in g s o f th e en tire A risto telian p h ilo so p h y are
to b e a c c o u n te d fo r by th e fact th a t A risto tle a tta c k e d co n c rete p ro b lem s
w ith a n in a d e q u a te scientific v ie w p o in t^ H e co u ld n o t get b ey o n d P la to
b e c a u s e he w as m e re ly d e v e lo p in g to th e h ig h e st d e g re e a n o n -
e x p e rim e n ta l view p o in t o f science, b u t A risto tle w as a m o re ad v a n ced
scientist in th a t he assu m ed th a t th e existence o f th e ty p e w ould have to be
d e m o n s tra te d by fin d in g it in th e p a rtic u la rs o r co n crete things. T h e
idealistic critics o f A risto tle w ro n g ly a ssu m e th a t P la to ’s belief th a t th e
universals form
an idea! system o f interconnected concepts which the experiences of sense m erely‘im itate'
o r make approxim ation to

is a sig n o f his clear in tellectu al vision.52 S u c h a v iew p o in t assum es th a t th e

p h ilo s o p h e r is in terested in a possible ab so lu te d escrip tio n o f the w orld in
g en e ral, w ith o u t re g ard to a n y p ra ctical effects w h ich a n in te rp re ta tio n o f
ob jects ca n b rin g a b o u t in th e w o rld o f a c tu a l h ap p en in g s. W hile it is tru e
th a t in his final a ttitu d e A risto tle ag rees w ith P la to th a t all tru e science is
“tra n s c e n d e n t” a n d deals w ith o b jects w h ich lie en tirely b ey o n d th e range
o f a n y “ possible” ex p erien ce o f “sense,”53 yet he is eager to m ak e his
p h ilo so p h y c o u n t fo r s o m e th in g in th e w orld o f actu al facts. In decrying
th e s h a rp se p a ra tio n w h ich P la to m ak es b etw een tru e k n o w led g e a n d
lop in io n , A risto tle lo o k s b e y o n d th e c h a ra c te ristic a b stra c tio n ism o f his
^ te a c h e r.
j F ro m A risto tle’s a d h e re n c e to th e P la to n ic tra d itio n , it follow s th a t his
I m eth o d o f science is p re em in en tly th a t o f p ro o f based u p o n k n o w n
I principles.54 A risto tle is clearly influenced h ere by the E uclidean m eth o d ,
I w h ich in itself is a n ex cellen t sy m p to m o f th e G reek A ttitu d e o f this
j p e rio d .55^ h e ce n tra l p o in t in th is scientific m eth o d is in feren ce o r syllo-
I gism , w hich, a c c o rd in g to its d efin itio n ,56 aim s a t a b so lu te d e m o n s tra tio n
j a n d n o t a t a n y d isco v ery ^ T h e c rite rio n o f ce rtain ty , o f d e m o n stra tio n , is
th e basis o f d istin c tio n b etw een the valid a n d perfect syllogism , th e first
figure being th e o n ly p erfect o n e, b ecau se it a lo n e show s th e necessity o f th e
inference fro m th e prem ises.57
5! Taylor, A. E„ Aristotle, New York, Dover, 1955, p. 339.
i'lb id , p. 34.
“ Aristotle, Analylica Posteriora, i, 2.
55Cf. Allenburg, M„ Op. cil., pp. 135 fT.
“ Aristotle, Analylica Priora, i, I.
5’ Only the first figure proves universal affirmative propositions and by connecting the conclusions
with the rest of our knowledge shows why it is true. Cf. Aristotle, Analylica Posteriora, i. 14.

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

In co rre sp o n d e n c e w ith A risto tle’s g en eral p h ilosophical a ttitu d e his

egories are k in d s o f existence a n d n o t a t all principles o f th o u g h t in a
id em idealistic sense. T h e y are classes o f b eing, heads u n d e r w hich m ay
placed th e qualities a n d c o n d itio n s o f being. In co n so n a n ce w ith the
vely objective co n c e p tio n o f G re e k th o u g h t, th e categories a re a t th e
ne tim e pred icates o r ex p ressio n s o f being. T h u s, th e categories refer n o t |
ly to th e m o st g en eral fo rm s o f c o n c re te objective existence, su ch as I
^stance, q uality, a n d q u a n tity ,58 b u t also to th e m o st ab stra c t predica-
n o f objects.59 T h e tw o m ean in g s w h ich categ o ries have involve A ristotle
th e difficulties a tte n d a n t u p o n m ak in g su b sta n ce ab so lu te individual
ng a n d a t th e sa m e tim e a p re d ic a te o f so m e being. W h en su b stan ce is
livid u al being, it is n o t a ca te g o ry a t all, b u t th a t o f w hich th e categories
Dress a c o n d itio n o r q uality. S u b sta n c e in this sense is th e p erm a n e n t a n d
m utab le essence w h ich is th e ce n tra l elem en t in all variab le objects.
A ristotle’s fo rm u la tio n o f a c o m p le te a n d th o ro u g h g o in g system atic
>le o f categ o ries testifies to th e stag e o f p h ilo so p h ic so p h istic atio n th a t he
; reach ed .(H e clearly sees th a t th e p u rp o se o f p h ilo so p h y a n d science is
d escrib e th e o cc u rre n ce a n d m o d e o f o c c u rre n ces o f th e facts in th e
rid o f s u rro u n d in g things. H e h a s n o t, h o w ev er, arriv ed a t th e stage o f
rstio n in g th e possibility o f d e sc rib in g th in g s a n d th e c o n d itio n s o r th e
iditv o f th o se d esc rip tio n s. E v ery th in g is ta k e n fo r g ra n te d. T h in g s a n d A
ir q u alities are all given, a n d th e p u rp o se o f th e d esc rip tio n is m erely to 1
im erate th em . T h e categories o f A risto tle a re th e b ro a d e st term s, th e \
■st a b s tra c t universals u n d e r w h ich c a n b e su b su m ed a n y possible \
tic u la r.
The failure o f A risto tle to a tta in to a v iew p o in t o f a genuinely descriptive
:nce is well in d icated by th e fact th a t he h a s n o t in cluded so m e o f th e
•st essen tial categories th a t b elo n g in his p h ilo so p h ical system . T h is
ure to in clu d e so m e o f th e m o st im p o rta n t term s is n o t m itig ated by th e
t th a t A risto tle p ro b a b ly derives his categ o ries fro m directly perceived
ects.“ A pelt,61 w h o co n sid ers th is p ro b le m , arg u es fo r th e co m p leten ess
he list o f categories by insisting th a t th e la tte r are possible pred icates o f
gm en ts, th e fu n c tio n o f w h ich is m erely to classify c o n c ep ts a n d p ro b -
ts in th e ir p ro p e r scientific field, so th a t th ey ca n b e assigned to th e m o st
Qualities of things for Aristotle are of course resident in the object.
Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysica, v, 7.
Abstracts them from the content of philosophical judgments as contrasted with Kant, whoderives
ategories from the form of judgments, cf. Apelt, O., Beitrage rur Geschichte der Griechischen
>sophie, pp. 146 If.
Ibid., pp. 159 ft.

34
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NT E RVAL

g en e ral rules fo r h a n d lin g th e m . T h e categ o ries a re n o t in te n d e d to teach us

a n y th in g specifically a b o u t n a tu re o r its forces, b u t as p red icates o f possible
ju d g m e n ts , th ey h a v e th e ir re la tio n o f a c tu a l th in g s a n d u n d e r these
circ u m sta n ces, A p e lt d ec la res th a t ev ery ty p e o f th in g o r q u a lity is su b ­
su m e d u n d e r th e fo r m u la te d categ o ries. I t is precisely th is v icario u s su b ­
su m p tio n , this fo rm a l, u n iv ersa l reference o f th e categories, w h ich invali­
d a te s th e m as a c tu a l fu n c tio n s o f k n o w led g e . B ecause th e ca te g o ries are so
o u t o f re la tio n w ith a n y c o n c re te o cc u rre n ce, it is possible to d eclare th a t
th e A risto te lia n ta b le o f c a te g o ries is sufficient a n d co m p lete b ey o n d a n y
a d d itio n o r su b tra c tio n .62*(S in c e th e A risto telian categories are ab o v e all
e le m e n ts o f d esc rip tio n , th e ir e x tre m e ly fo rm a l c h a ra c te r m ak es th e m in
g re a t m e a su re m ere ly v e rb a l sy m b o ls o f things. It is this a p p a re n tly purely
v e rb a l c h a ra c te r o f m u c h o f th e A ris to te lia n d e sc rip tio n w hich offers us a
clu e to th e th e o ry t h a t i h e c a te g o rie s a re d eriv ed fro m facts o f lan g u ag e^ !
T h a t th e ca te g o ries o f A risto tle a re n o t fu n c tio n s o f k n o w led g e is wellfit "
illu stra te d by th e fa c t th a t th e y a re m e a n t to be ap p licab le to all possible
o b jects a n d c o n d itio n s, t o th e s u p ra se n sib le w o rld as w ell as to th e w o rld o f
a c tu a l p ercep tio n .64 A s th e m o s t a b s tra c t u n iv ersals th e categ o ries en c o m ­
p ass all p o ssib le o b jects.65 T h e y th u s lead d ire c tlv lo G o d w h o is th e h ighest
k in d o f s u b s ta n c e ; in fa c t th e y a re m o s t a p p lica b le in th e d o m a in w hich
A risto tle calls th e o lo g y o r first science. I t is in m etap h y sics th a t th e
ca te g o rie s c a n b est fulfill th e ir fu n c tio n , f o r th e y ca n serve th e re if a n y ­
w h ere as g en u in e d esc rip tio n s; in th e o th e r m o re co n crete realm s th ey c a n
fu n c tio n o n ly as m o d es o f classification. M /erssfrnq ,
S e rv in g a s e le m e n ts o f ju d g m e n t a n d th u s as d efinite fu n c tio n s o f
d e s c rip tio n , th e c a te g o ries o f A risto tle re p re s e n t a h ig h d eg ree o f p h ilo so ­
p h ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t, b u t th e y d o n o t co m p letely fulfill th e req u irem en ts o f
g en u in e , k n o w led g e e le m e n ts, since th e y a re n o t in stru m e n ta l in d ev e lo p ­
i n g new fa c ts. N e v erth eless, th e y re p re s e n t th e highest d ev e lo p m e n t o f th e Mi V
te c h n iq u e o f d e sc rip tio n b a se d o n th e ideal o f types a n d are th u s fixed a n d
p e rm a n e n t o bjective te rm s; th a t is, a n y d esc rip tio n w h ich th ey co m p o se is-'
p re s u m e d to h av e ex iste n tia l im p o rt. T h e A risto telian categories a r e ju d g ­
m e n t fu n c tio n s a p p lie d to fix e d a n d im m e d ia tely given objects. T h e view -
o in t o f A ris to tle is th u s a h ig h ly n a iv e n a tu ra lism , w h ich h as n o t gain ed
uch a s a m e th o d o f scien ce a s a re su lt o f its u ltra ra tio n a liz a tio n o f th e

H Apelt, O., Op. ell., pp. 160-61.

wJoseph. H. W. B., An Introduction to Logic, Oxford. Clarendon, 1916, p. 47.
MLask, E., Pie Logik der Philosophic unddie Kaiegorienlehre, Tubingen, Mohr, 1911, pp. 226 ff.
MAristotle, Metaphysica, vii, 7. Cf. Apelt, O., Op. cit., p. 162.

35
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

tical a n d relig io u s elem en ts w h ich a re p ro m in e n t fa c to rs in th e culturaL

c a ro u n d o f G re e k p h ilo so p h y. T h e e n tire c o n c e p tio n o f categories so
is th ey re p resen t A risto tle’s logic c a n fu n c tio n only in sep aratin g a n d
sifying given objects a c c o rd in g to a b so lu te types a n d in so far as th ey
o d u ce th e given types.

Influence o f Primitive Realism

3reek Science
•ur b rie f re su m e o f G re e k th o u g h t h as co n clusively sh o w n th e devel-
lent o f definite scientific m e th o d o lo g y th ro u g h a series o f stages. F ro m
live e v a lu a tio n o f th e w h o le o f n a tu r e in te rm s o f so m e p e rc e p tu a l
erial, th e science o f th e G reek s d ev e lo p s to a n ela b o ra te o rg a n iz atio n
d e sc rip tio n o f facts in rig id o b jectiv e term s. S in ce th e G re ek a ttitu d e
ard n a tu re w as essen tially o n e o f n aiv e objectivity, th e in stru m en t th a t
' fa sh io n e d f o r th e p u rp o s e o f o rie n tin g th em selves in th e w o rld o f
:cts lack e d flexibility a n d h a d definite p refixed lim itatio n s. A s a conse-
ace G re ek science w as m o re im p e rso n a l a n d seem ingly u n re la te d to
lan n eed s th a n science h a s ever b e e n since. I t is fo r this re a so n th a t o n ly
co m p a ra tiv e ly late p erio d o f G re e k c u ltu re w as science seriously
ressed w ith th e stu d y o f events.66 S y m b o lic o f its im p erso n al a n d
ote c h a ra c te r is th e fa c t th a t th r o u g h o u t its en tire p ro g ress it w as
>ed a n d m o u ld e d by m a th e m a tic a l in terests a n d technique.
J th o u g h th e s tu d y o f e m p irica l fa cts w as a very v ig o ro u s g ro w th w h en
m e to b e p u rs u e d in G reece, th e G re e k s n e v e r dev elo p ed th e ir science
jn d a static o bjective p o sitio Sltl n . T h e fu n d a m e n ta l q u e stio n in G re ek
nee h a s alw ay s been ’V /iy flo es a th in g h ap p e n ?" a n d n o t th e precise.
I n w h ich phenomena occurred. since they considered the ncciirrenra
re n ts a s given. In G re e k b io lo g ical science th e in v estig atio n o f w h at
ally o ccurs is noticeab ly s u p p la n te d by th e p re su p p o sitio n o f w h a t
ild o c c u r in a fixed anc s ta b le w o rld . A fu n d a m e n ta l ch a ra c te ristic o f
A ristotelian science is t< >e x c lu d e all a c tu a l ch ange. T h e c o n c e p tio n th a t
•articular th in g s a r e t h : a c tu a liz a tio n o f ty p es o r fo rm s p o in ts to th e
ilute im m u ta b ility o f species,67 o r o f specific fu n ctio n s o r stru ctu re s.68

.ristotle finds it necessary on s sveral occasions to defend the study of concrete facts. Cf. De
>us Animaliwn, i, S.
'f. Taylor. A. E., Aristotle, p. 41
T. Aristotle's criticism of Demo< ritus*
i doctrine of touch, in Beane, J., Greek Theories o f Bemen-
'ognition, Oxford, Clarendon, |906, pp. 181 f.

36
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NTERVAL

T h e o b jectiv e an d rigid a ttitu d e o f th e G re ek s is also evidenced in their

g en e ral a ttitu d e th a t th e fu n d a m e n ta l psy ch o logical processes a re th o se o f
vision a n d to u ch . T h e e te rn ity o f ex istin g circu m stan ces c a n n o t be b etter
illu stra te d in G reek th o u g h t th a n by A risto tle’s a ttitu d e to w a rd slaves.69
T h e c a te g o ry e te rn a l w as a very im p o rta n t o n e fo r th e G re e k s,70 fo r
th ro u g h it th e w ay w as clea r to th e g o o d a n d perfect.71 It m u st be
c o n s ta n tly re m e m b ered th a t G re e k th o u g h t is a n a d m ira b le m o n u m e n t to
th e effort to ra tio n a lize fu n d a m e n ta l h u m a n actio n s a n d religious desires,
a n effort highly successful in its ac co m p lish m en t. It is tru e th ere fo re th a t
o n ly by placing G re e k p h ilo so p h y in its social a n d c u ltu ra l perspective can
w e h o p e to u n d e rsta n d it.72
T h e fo rm a l an d d e ta c h e d a ttitu d e to w a rd life is excellently exp ressed in
G re e k relig io n a n d a rt. T h e la tte r is essen tially d o m in a te d by th e co n cep ­
tio n o f final p erfectio n , in th a t it strives to get beyond th e accid en tal an d
co n c re te p artic u la rs w hich are n ev er faultless. T h e calculating b alan c e and
sy m m e try o f m a th e m a tic s p u rsu e th e G re e k even in th e realm o f artistic
cre a tio n . Especially n o tic e a b le is th e o rd e r a n d sim plicity o f th e H ellenic
a rc h ite c tu re , th e sty le o f w h o se te m p le s is very sim ilar in its au stere
a d h e re n c e to th e id eal fo rm . In p ra c tic a lly n o n e o f th e G re e k o b jects o f art
c a n o n e find individualistic ex p ressio n s; in every case is ex h ib ited the
idealizatio n o f th e essential n a tu re o f th e w h o le o f G reek culture.
G re e k a r t is essentially d irec t:73 th a t is, th in gs a re ta k e n at th eir o b v io u s
v alu e a n d th u s th e in tim ac y a n d a p p e a lin g affective elem ents o f m o d ern
aesth e tic c reatio n a re en tirely lack in g . B ecause th e G re ek to o k a sim ple and
im m e d ia te a ttitu d e to w a rd n a tu re w e find in th e classic a r t o f H ellas n one
o f th e subjectivistic s e n tim e n t w h ich su p p lies the essential n a tu re o f m o d ­
e m lyric a n d d ra m a tic a rt. L iv in g sto n e 74 p o in ts o u t th a t because the
G re ek s lo o k ed u p o n life w ith p rim itiv e fran k n ess a n d sincerity, th eir
p o e try tre a ts love, fo r ex a m p le , as a n a tu ra l th ing, u n a d o rn e d w ith artificial
sentim entalities.
T h e severe im p e rso n a l a ttitu d e o f th e G reek s is clearly expressed in the
conflicts o f H ellenic trag e d y , in w h ich all h u m a n relatio n s a n d actio n s are

'"Zeller. E.. Aristotle: The Earlier Peripatetics, vol. 2. pp. 216 IT.
,0Cf. Aristotle. Metaphvsica. xii. 6.
''/hid.. 1051a. 20.
’•’ No doubt Aristotle's insistence upon the importance of the individual in his political philosophy
and the reality of particulars in his natural philosophy reflects clearly the current political conditions of
Greece.
” Cf. Livingstone. R. W.. The Creek Genius and its Meaning to Vs. Oxford. Clarendon. 1912. ch. 3.
74/hid.

37
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES SI ON

■whelmed by etern al laws. N o t o n ly d o w e find th a t th e conflicts center

in d so m e a b s tra c t m o ra l o r m ystical p rin cip le, b u t th e m o st h eart-
ling situ a tio n s are accep ted in a sp irit o f n aiv e m a tte r o f course. T h u s,
n g sto n e refers to th e Supplicants o f E u rip id es, in w h ich th e m o th ers
• h av e lost th e ir so n s in b a ttle d o n o t in th e c o n v e n tio n a l m a n n e r
;eal th e p rim itiv e fear o f d e s titu tio n in o ld age, w h ich o b tru d e s itself
the m isery o f th e ir b ereav em en t.75
h e religious ex p e rien ce o f th e G re e k s exem plifies w ell th e ir p rim itive
rn a lity a n d d e ta c h m e n t, fo r relig io n w as n ev er a deep, p erso n al affair,
a fo rm a l m a tte r o f n a tio n a l c o n v e n tio n a lity . T h e state did n o t in q u ire
one’s p riv a te beliefs, p ro v id e d o n e d id n o t d a m a g e n o r insult sacred
Derty o r sacred sym bols.76 O n th e sid e o f th e in dividual, G re e k religion
alw ay s a c o ld in telle ctu al affair, c a p a b le o f fo rm in g th e basis fo r
>nal sp ecu latio n , w h ich co u ld b ec o m e ta k e n u p in to ph ilo so p h y . It is
rte d th a t th e G reek s h a d n o real sense o f sin.77 T h e y reg ard ed th eir
nses as^hartcom ings-and called-them-bacLshQts ”_S uch things were
nd to h a p p e n a n d w h e n th ey h a p p e n e d th ey w ere b est fo rg o tten .78
:n th e G re ek s p rayed it w as fo r s o m e definite o bjective th in g , a victo ry
a r o r fre e d o m fro m p lag u e, th e g o d co m m o n ly being offered a quid p ro
.79
/ith th e rigidly objective b a c k g ro u n d o f th e logic o f science in G re ek
:s th e re co u ld h av e b ee n n o o th e r th a n th e resu lt w h ich w e h av e
:ribed. I f w e lo o k u p o n th e h ig h est d e v e lo p m e n t o f c a te g o ry stu d y in
ek th o u g h t as a n a tte m p t to e v a lu a te th e w o rld o f th in g s a n d events,
ind th e categ o ries fu n c tio n in g in a fo rm a l w ay th ro u g h a d ev e lo p m e n t
;h ran g es fro m a naive n a tu ra lis m to a n aiv e ratio n alism . T h e y d o n o t
my sense re p re se n t th e in tim a te in d iv id u al experiences o f specific
ons. W h e n w e c o n sid e r th e c a te g o rie s as d elib erately d ev elo p ed facto rs
cientific d e sc rip tio n w e find th a t th e ir fu n c tio n fo r th e G re ek s w as a
.c a n d n o n -e x p e rim e n ta l one.80 T h e y d id n o t lead to a n y discovery, b u t
e r served to p e rp e tu a te ex istin g c o n d itio n s. T h u s th e categories o f
ek science in th e ir m o s t a d v a n c e d s ta te s w ere n o t fu n c tio n s o f ex p eri-
ital know ledge; they w ere o n ly fa c to rs in classification a n d static

ivingstone, R. W„ Op. d r , p. 83.

■f. Tucker. T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, New York, Macmillan, 1906, pp. 217 IT.
ivingstone, R. W„ Op. cit., p. 27.
nd., p. 27.
’f. Tucker, T. G., Life in Ancient Athens, p. 214.
■lead, G. H., “Scientific Method and Individual Thinker," in Creative Intelligence, New York,
1917.

38
 THE C O N F R O N T A T I O N A L I NTERVAL

d esc rip tio n . All th e G re ek ca te g o ry d o c trin e s p re su p p o se d a co n tem p lativ e

k n o w led g e a n d n o t k n o w le d g e w h ic h h a d a p o te n tia l ca p acity fo r th e
c o n tro l o f p h en o m en a .
B ut h o w a re w e to re co n cile w ith th e static m etap h y sics d escrib ed , th e
ex p a n siv e in terests in specific d etails o f a n em pirical so rt, w h ich co n stitu te
A risto tle ’s scientific d ev e lo p m e n t? A s w e h av e seen, A risto tle’s studies o f
c o n c re te p h e n o m e n a w ere in flu en ced m u c h m o re by th e m o tiv e o f ex h ib it­
in g o r d e m o n s tra tin g th e p erfec tib ility o f n a tu re th a n by his desire to
achieve a h u m a n istic c o n tro l o v e r n a tu re .81 It is th ere fo re futile f o r th e
n e o -K a n tia n s to try to belittle th e w o rk o f A risto tle by assertin g th a t h e w as
a m ere em p iricist o r sen su alist, since th ey o v erlo o k th e fact th a t h e w as
m erely a tte m p tin g to e stab lish th e p re sen ce o f universals o r perfect types by
th e m o st p lau sib le m ean s. F r o m th e s ta n d p o in t o f m etap h y sics A risto tle
has n o t re d u ced th e P la to n ic id eas in a n y w ay, unless it is to th e ir d isad v an ­
ta g e to b e em p irically d e m o n s tra te d . A s w e h av e alread y seen, th e neo-
K a n tia n s assu m e th a t P la to ’s id eas a re n o t u niv ersals o f a n o b jective sort,
b u t fu n c tio n s o f g en etic th o u g h t. T h is v iew point tak es P la to com pletely
o u t o f his c u ltu ra l settin g a n d ig n o res th e fu n d a m e n ta l religious back­
g ro u n d o f p h ilo so p h y a t th is p erio d .82
T h e significance o f G re e k science a n d p h ilo so p h y is w ell disclosed in th e
c o n sid e ra tio n o f th e final re su lts o f A risto tle’s F irst P h ilo so p h y . oti on o r
th e a c tu a liz a tio n p ro c e ss o f th e w o rld a n d its o b jects m u st h av e a n ad e-
q u a te cause, a n d this m u st finally b e a n u n m o v ed m over. T h e co n tin u ity
a n d p erfectib ility o f th e w o rld a n d its processes d em a n d th e a ssu m p tio n o f
a n a b s o lu te first c a u se w h o se fu n c tio n is m erely to co n tin u e in p ercep tu al
c o n te m p la tio n o f itself. T h is primum mobile, w hile itself u n m oved, m oves
th e re st o f th e w o rld w ith o u t a n y a c tu a l p a rtic ip a tio n in th e w o rld ’s
activities. T h is highest d ev e lo p m e n t o f th e F o rm -co n c ep t in dicates to us the
gen eral m o d e o f th in k in g w h ich h as p e rv a d e d G reece a n d w h ich h a s finally
co m e to b e th e e la b o ra te A risto te lia n p h ilo so phy. M u ch a s th e arg u m e n t o f
th e M etap h y sics seem s to in d ic a te th a t A risto tle deduces fro m his p h ilo so ­
p h ic a l p rin cip les th e id e a o f G o d a s self-conscious intelligence,81 it is still
p o ssib le th a t he b o rro w e d it fro m relig io u s sources; practically all G reek
w ritin g s offer co n v in cin g evidence th a t p h ilo so p h ical principles reflect
religious m otives. I n fact, th e en tire d ev e lo p m e n t o f G re e k th o u g h t as an

*■The concept of the “Good” is probably the most important category in Greek philosophy.
,JThe neo-Kantians overtly assert the uselessness of interpreting Plato from the standpoint of his
cultural background. Cf. Hartmann. E.. Plains Leigik ties Seins. p. v.
*JZeller, E„ Aristotle: The Earlier Peripatetics, vol. I. p. 399.

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSION

:n tatio n to th e w orld o f objects is influenced th ro u g h o u t by vario u s

d am en ta l religious attitu d es, w hich, how ever, are n o t form alized intel-
ual p ro d u cts, b u t ra th e r a general naive a n d w holehearted sta n d ta k e n
ard n a tu re a n d society. O f ex trem e im p o rta n ce in shaping this attitu d e
th e general social conditions, w h ich n atu ra lly form th e m o st intim ate
im m ed iate phases o f m a n ’s su rro u n d in g s. T h e d ev elo p m en t o f a
acity io .ev alu ate those s u rro u n d ings w ith o u t a n overw helm in g pressure-
n th em m ark s th e d ev elo p m en t o f a critic a T scienceT T science w hich
s th e in terp re tatio n o f n a tu re ito'be w h at o n e c a n verify it to be, an d
ch p erm its th u s a m easure o f c o n tro l over -that n a tu re .-; '— —---------

40
 C H A PTER 4

T H E T R A N S C E N D E N T A L IN T E R V A L

THE ADVENT OF A DUALISTIC CULTURE

It is a trite o b se rv a tio n th a t c u ltu re like the h u m a n race itself is c o n tin u ­
ou s, a n d th a t p erso n s o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry a re th e in h e rito rs o f th e
civ iliz atio n o f G reece, R o m e , a n d J u d e a , as well as o f th e less definite E ast.
T h e evidence is to be fo u n d in th e c u rre n t law , m o rality , science, an d
a rc h ite c tu ra l te c h n o lo g y th e y still m a in ta in a n d cherish. B ut o f co u rse it
w as in ev itab le th a t th e c u ltu ra l h e rita g e sh o u ld be m odified in g reat
m easure.
F o r o u r p re sen t p u rp o se s w e are co n c e rn e d w ith the m e ta m o rp h o sis in
th e p h ilo so p h ic a l a ttitu d e s th a t c u rre n t th in k ers have in h erited fro m th eir
cu ltu ra l a n c esto rs. W e refer to th e g re a t shift fro m the n atu ra listic to the
tra n sc e n d e n ta l m odes o f th in k in g . T h is shift is well sy m b o lized b v the
difference betw een P la to n ic d u a lism to th e d ic h o to m iz a tio n o f th e w orld by
th e H ellenistic succession to th e H ellen ic c u ltu re . W h at P la to o nly differen­
tia te d as tw o aspects o f th e n a tu ra l w o rld , n am ely th e c o n s tru c tio n s o f
essence o n th e m odel o f m a th e m a tic s, a n d the qualitative a sp e c t o f events,
b ec am e in th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l p e rio d a d u a lity betw een th e n a tu ra l an d
su p e rn a tu ra l worlds. Transcendentalism p o stu lates tw o realities, th e m ate-
•% rial a n d th e spiritual. T h is d ic h o to m y ex ten d s to m an himself. T h o u g h the
b o d y c a n n o t be d en ied th e re is also th e su p e rio r half, th e im m o rta l soul
w h ich is th e o p p o site o f th e b o d y an d c a n n o t be seen, to u ch ed , o r otherw ise
k n o w n e x c ep t by a b stru se inference. T h is a b stru se inference, o f course,
m ay be an aly zed d o w n to a n ex a g g era te d p erso n alism w ith p o w ers to
p e rfo rm p h a n ta s tic fe a ts o f c re a tio n b y m e a n s o f au tistic language
u tteran ces.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSCENDENTALISM
T h e tra n sc e n d e n ta l ag e is th e a g e o f m a n , an age o f h u m a n is tic p a ra n o ia
w ith freed o m to w a llo w in th e g ro ssest m ythology a n d m ysticism . By
m ean s o f th e spiritistic d ic h o to m y m a n created a p e rso n a l g o d w h o is
o m n isc ie n t a n d o m n ip o te n t a n d w h o m m a n n o t only resem bles b u t is a
p a r t of. T h is is th e a g e o f th e d iv in ity o f m a n a n d also o f th e h u m a n ity o f
go d , th e m a n god.

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSION

■ c o n tra st w ith th e n atu ra listic age o f th e G reeks w ho cultivated

ce, th e tran scen d en tal era is the age o f faith. It is characteristic o f this
>d o f o u r cu ltu re to look d o w n o n th e ach iev em en t o f Euclid and his
en ito rs an d follow ers in m ath em atics, A rch im edes in physics, A ristar-
and E rato sth en es in a stro n o m y , a n d A risto tle in biology. T he thinkers
lis period despised th e w isdom o f th e p ag an A ristotle until they
teed him an d m ade him a creatu re o f spiritism ,
m ong th e m o st rep resen tativ e e x p lo ite rs o f th e ag e o f faith is the
poken T ertu llian (165-220) w ho p ro u d ly p a rad ed his illogicality an d
tuality. his C red o Q uia A b su rd u m .
.n any of them be so foolish as to believe in God who was born, born moreover o f a
i. born with a body o f tlcsh. God who has wallowed through those reproaches of
c?
e Son of God was crucified: I am not ashamed — because it is shameful. The Son of
died: it is immediately credible — because it is silly. He was buried, and rose again: it is
n — because it is impossible.'

n effective su p p o rt o f th e tran sc en d en tal th in k in g o f this period w as the

hasis u p o n th e h idden, th e m y sterio u s c h a ra c te r o f spirit. T his is clearly
ight o u t in th e disquisition o f M inucius Felix, w hich we quote:
cannot be seen — he is too bright for sight; nor grasped — he is too pure for touch; nor
ured — for he is beyond all sense, infinite, measureless, his dimensions known to
elf alone. Too narrow is our breast to take him in. therefore we can only measure him
it in calling him immeasurable. As I feel, so will 1 speak; he who thinks he knows the
ness of God. makes it less; he who would not lessen it. knows it not.
ek not a name for God: God is his name. Terms are needed when individuals have to be
iguished from the mass, by proper m arks and designations; for God, w hoalone is, the
"G od" sums all. Should I call him "Father", you would think o f flesh; o r “ King”, you
d reduce him to this world; or “ Lord", you will surely deem him mortal. Away with
;s and appanages, and you will see him in his splendour.2

in excellent statem en t o f th e c o n tra s t betw een the n atu ra listic an d the

iscendental period we lind in th e follow ing q u o ta tio n fro m M urray.
nyone who turns from the great writers of classical Athens, say Sophocles or Aristotle,
ose of the Christian era must be conscious of a great difference in tone. There is a change
e whole relation of the writer to the world about him. The new quality is not specifically
istian: it is just as marked in the Gnostics and Mithras-worshippersas in the Gospels and
Apocalypse, in Julian and Plotinus as in Gregory and Jerome. It is hard to describe. It is
e of asceticism, of mysticism, in a sense, of pessimism; a loss of self-confidence, of hope
ris life and of faith in normal human effort; a despair of patient inquiry, a cry for

c n u llia n . On the Flesh of Christ - Dr Carne Christi, E . E v a n s, Tertullian's Treatise on the

mutton. L o n d o n . S . I*. C . K ., 1 9 5 6 . c h . 4 , 4 1 -4 .1 a n d 4 , 2 3 -2 6 .
d i n u c i u s F e li x . Ottavios, in Tertullian-Minucius Felix ( G . H . R e n d a l l . tr s .) . l . o e b C la s s ic a l
a r y . re v . e d . . p p . .1 1 4 -4 3 7 . L o n d o n . H e i n e m a n n . 1 9 5 3 . c h . 18, 8 -1 0 .

42
 THE T R A N S C E N D E N T A L I NTERVAL

infallible revelation; an indifference to the welfare of the stale, a conversion of the soul to
God. It is an atmosphere in which the aim of the good man is not so much to live justly, to
help the society to which he belongs and enjoy the esteem of his fellow creatures; but rather,
by means of a burning faith, by contempt for the world and its standards, by ecstasy,
suffering, and martyrdom, to be granted pardon for his unspeakable unworthiness, his
immeasurable sin. There is an intensifying of certain spiritual emotions; an increase of
sensitiveness, a failure of nerve.
Now this antithesis is often exaggerated by the admirers of one side or the other. A
hundred people write as if Sophocles had no mysticism and practically speaking no
conscience. Half a dozen retort as if St. Paul had no public spirit and no common sense. I
have protested often against this exaggeration; but, stated reasonably, as a change or
proportion and not a creation of new hearts, the antithesis is certainly based on fact. The
historical reasons for it are suggested above, in the first of these essays.
My description of this complicated change is, of course, inadequate, but not, I hope,
one-sided. I do not depreciate the religions that followed on this movement by describing
the movement itself as a “failure of nerve". Mankind has not yet decided which of two
opposite methods leads to the fuller and deeper knowledge ol the world: the patient and
sympathetic study of the good citizen who lives in it, or the ecstatic vision of the saint who
^"rejects it. But probably most Christians are inclined to believe that without some failure and
sense of failure, without a contrite heart and conviction of sin, man can hardly attain the
religious life. 1can imagine a historian of this temper believing that the period we are about
to discuss was a necessary softening of human pride, a P ra e p a ra lio E v a n g e lic a l

B ecause tra n sc e n d e n ta l c u ltu re w as b o m o u t o f po v erty , need, a n d the

p e re n n ia l desire o f a - b e tte r life, it is n o t su rp risin g th a t th e p rim ary
intellectual interest o f th e tim e w as p erso n al salvation. It is typical o f the
tim e to be o ccu p ied w ith th e p ro b le m o f “ W h a t can 1 d o to be saved?” T h is
is effectively p o rtra y e d in th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n fro m St. A ugustine
(354-430).

Wherefore, when it is asked what we ought to believe in matters of religion, the answer is not
to be sought in the exploration of the nature of things (re ru m n a u tra ), after the manner of
those whom the Greeks called “physicists.” Nor should we be dismayed if Christians are
ignorant about the properties and the number of the basic elements of nature, or about the
motion, order, and deviations of the stars, the map of the heavens, the kinds and nature of
animals, plants, stones, springs, rivers, and mountains; about the divisions of space and
time, about the signs of impending storms, and the myriad other things which these
“physicists” have come to understand, or think they have. For even these men. gifted with
such superior insight, with their ardor in study and their abundant leisure, exploring some
of these matters by human conjecture and others through historical inquiry, have not yet
learned everything there is to know. For that matter, many of the things they are so proud to
have discovered are more often matters of opinion than of verified knowledge.
For the Christian, it is enough to believe that the cause of all created things, whether in
heaven or on earth, whether visible or invisible, is nothing other than the goodness of the
Creator, who is the one and the true God. Further, the Christian believes that nothing exists

' Murray. G.. Five Stages of Greek Religion. New York. Doubleday. Doran. 1955. pp. 119 f.

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

jod himself and what comes from him; and he believes that God is triune, i.e. the
;r, and the Son begotten of the Father, and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the same
;r, but one and the same Spirit of the Father and the Son.*

hile in general, cu ltu res m ay b e m ain ly h o m o g e n e o u s o r m ainly

•ogeneous, th ere a re alw ay s p o ten tialitie s f o r m ix tu res o f in stitu tio n al
s. S u c h m ix tu re s o f tra its m ay b e sy m b o liz ed by th e dissim ilarity o f
nical th in k in g a s c o m p a re d w ith th e g en e ral level o f a ttitu d e s w hich
be elem e n ta rily m y th o lo g ica l a n d m ystical. T h e c o n d itio n s in th e
>cendental p erio d a re ch a ra c te ristic a lly h o m o g en eo u s as is easily
ible w h en p h a n ta sy a n d re m o te n ess fro m n a tu re prevail,
h at is n o tic e a b le a n d e v e n strik in g a b o u t th is p erio d is th a t a n en tire
ire is b ased u p o n m ira c u lo u s beliefs. T h e g o d -m a n id ea fro m th e
ip o in t o f n a tu ra l h ap p e n in g s is q u ite a n im p o ssib le one. B ut n o less
t is th e a c c e p ta n c e o f m iracles su c h a s h u m a n p a rth e n o g e n e sis,^
ically feeding a m u ltitu d e , w a lk in g o n w a te r, a n d ra isin g p erso n s fro m **
lead.
u m a n c o n d itio n s c o n sta n tly c h a n g e a n d w ith th e increase ol
ila tio n s d e m a n d in g m o re efficient a d a p ta tio n s to th e en v iro n m e n ts oi
d d u als a n d g ro u p s th e p resen ce a n d tra its o f n a tu ra l th in g s stim u late d
ralistic in terests w hich resulted in c u ltu ra l alte ratio n s. F ro m th e ten th
ury o n w a rd s th e re a c c u m u la te d k n o w led g e o f th in g s a n d events
ing to w a rd th e e v o lu tio n o f science.
/ th e 13th c e n tu ry th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l civ ilization w as well o n th e w ay
.rd th e a ssim ila tio n o f th e w isd o m o f th e G reeks a n d o th e r n atio n s. In
oentury th ere a re o u ts ta n d in g p erso n a g e s like T h o m a s A q u in a s an d
rt th e G re a t w h o stu d ied th e w o rk o f th e G reek P h ilo so p h e rs b u t o f
se w ith o u t d e p a rtin g fro m th e ir b asic sp iritistic p o stu latio n s. A n excel-
illu stratio n o f th is fact is th a t w h e n A q u in a s becam e in terested in the
nim a o f A risto tle he tra d u c e d it, m a k in g o u t th at A risto tle d ea lt w ith
rn a tu ra l m ind o r spirits, w h ereas th e G re ek treated psychological
;s a s th e a c ts o f o rg a n ism s in re la tio n to th in g s w ith w hich th ey w ere
ronted.
hile a tte m p tin g to a c c o u n t fo r th e tra n s fo rm a tio n o f the n atu ra listic
objective ty p e o f th in k in g o f th e c o n fro n ta tio n a l p erio d to the m ystical
m ythical in terv a l w e d o w ell to c o n s id e r th e societal asp ects o f th e tw o
ids. C o n fro n ta tio n a l th in k in g c o rre la te d closely w ith th e social, politi-
igusline. Saint. The Manual on Faith. Hope and Line* Enchiridion de Fide. Speset Camas, in
Jhrary o f Christian Classics (Baillie, McNeill, and van Dusen. gen. eds.), vol. 7: Augustine:
ssions and Enchiridion (Ouller, irs.J. London. SCM. 1955. ch. 3. 9.

44
 THE T R A N S C E N D E N T A L I NTERVAL

cal, a n d e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s o f th e G re e k a n d R o m a n civilizations. W ith

th e g re at d e stru c tio n o f th e glories th a t w ere G reece a n d th e g ra n d e u r th a t
w as R o m e th e re fo llo w ed a v ery d iffe ren t k ind o f h u m a n existence. T h e
p e o p le o f E a ste rn E u ro p e felt h o m eless a n d fo rlo rn . A ll th e g re at ro c k s o f
ages a n d islands o f se c u rity w ere g o n e , a n d m a n w as left w ith o u t th e
Im p e ria l s tro n g h o ld s t h a t h e en jo y ed befo re. T h e n th e th in k e rs o f th e
p erio d , w h o w ere b y th a t tim e clerics in v en ted a tra n sc e n d e n ta l o r a n
e x tra -s p a tia l w o rld , as th e g re a t reality. T h a t w as th e beg in n in g o f w h a t we
n o w k n o w a s sp iritism . T h e C h u rc h F a th e rs in v en ted h eav en s f o r th e
salv a tio n o f th e g o o d a n d hell fo r th e p u n ish m en t o f th e w icked. T his
o th e r-w o rld ly a ttitu d e p ersisted fo r m a n y cen tu ries a n d even n o w influen­
ces g reatly th e cu ltu re o f th e p e o p le o f th e m o st ad v an ced n atio n s. In a
critical vein, o n e m u st c o n c lu d e th a t th e tra n sc en d en tal perio d has play ed
h a v o c w ith th e th in k in g o f p h ilo s o p h e rs a n d h as co n sisten tly p erv erted
th eir tre a tm e n t o f n a tu re a n d o f m a n ’s d irect co n ta c t w ith it.

45
 CHAPTER 5
SCIENCE INTRUDES UPON FAITH

CONFRONTATIONS VS. BELIEFS

)n c e th e tra n sc e n d e n ta l v iew p o in t b e c a m e e stab lish ed it co n g ealed in to
fo u n d a tio n o f th e c u ltu ra l edifice o f W e ste rn civilization. A b o v e all,
isc e n d e n ta lism em erg ed a s th e b a sic p re m ises a n d p o stu la te s o f all
d lectu al en terp rises. T h ro u g h o u t all its v a ria tio n s it still d o m in a te d th e
ik in g o f p h ilo so p h e rs w h o o n ly differed in so m e d etailed fe atu res o f
ir sp ec u la tio n s. U p o n th e sp iritistic fo u n d a tio n th in k e rs erected system s
ich reflected th e ir b ew ild erm en t as to th e n a tu re o f th e ir im m e d ia te a n d
re d is ta n t su rro u n d in g s. S p ecu lativ e activ ities a tta in e d g re a t fre e d o m as
lo so p h e rs co n stru c te d v erb al a b s tra c tio n s c o n c ern in g them selves a n d
ir p lace in th e w o r ld jjn th is p e rio d th e a d v a n c e m e n t o f science precipi-
id a crisis as b etw e en th e o b s e rv a tio n s o f th in g s a n d ev e n ts a n d th e
m acies o f th e ir fa ith ip W h ile a tte m p tin g to d istin g u ish b etw een a p p e a r-
:es a n d reality th e y re so rte d to so m e fo rm o f d eity to secu re th e ir
ellectual eq u ilib riu m . A t o n ce o n e recalls S p in o z a ’s D e u s S ive N a tu ra ,
i B erkeley’s G o d w h o p ro m p ts e x p la n a tio n s w h e re v e r req u ired . A m o n g
ter illu stra tin g in cid en ts th e re a r e th e stru g g les o f D a rw in to achieve a
:uralistic view in biology.
W ith resp ect to p h ilo so p h y 's o w n n a tu re th e d u alistic a s s u m p tio n w as
ide th a t asid e fro m the e a rth ly b o d ily p o rtio n m a n w as p a rtly sp irit o r
n d c a p a b le o f k n o w in g th e e n tire u n iv erse a n d th u s c o u ld d ea l w ith
im ates, a b so lu te s, a n d e te rn itie s . I t w as th e b asic fu n c tio n o f p h ilo s-
hers to ac h ieve c e rta in ty a m o n g th e a c c id e n ts.
S in ce p h ilo so p h y zin g is o n ly a m in o r c u ltu ra l o c c u p a tio n a m o n g all th e
te r w o rk s o f p eo p le, th e v a ria tio n s in p h ilo so p h ic a l sy stem s a re p ro -
tn d ly in flu en ced b y th e ex ig en cies in c id e n ta l to th e lives o f p e rso n s a n d
:ir c o m m u n itie s. E co n o m ics, life styles, a n d tec h n o lo g y m o d ify th e
tg u a g e a n d th in k in g o f p h ilo so p h e rs. A n esp ecially in fo rm in g situ a tio n
n c e m s th e v a ria tio n s in p h ilo s o p h y w ro u g h t b y th e ev o lu tio n a n d e x p a n -
>n o f science. T h o u g h scientific w o rk b rin g s m a n y ch an g es in p h ilo so p h i-
I th in k in g , th e g rip o f tra n sc e n d e n ta l a s s u m p tio n s is seld o m lo o sen ed .

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 SCI ENCE I N T R U D E S UPON FAITH

SPIR IT ISM A SS IM IL A T E S SC IEN C E

S in ce h u m a n beings c a n n o t a v o id c o n ta c ts w ith th in g s an d events,

d esp ite th e ir (dichotom izing p ro p e n sitie s, th e a c c u m u la tio n o f ex p erien ce
forces th e c u ltiv a tio n o f te c h n o lo g y a n d science. T h e civ ilizatio n o f the
S & s.
W est fro m a b o u t th e te n th c e n tu r y is c h a ra c te riz e d by th e e x p a n d in g
k n o w led g e o f a stro n o m ic a l, b io lo g ic al, m ech an ical, a n d h u m a n istic lore.
B ut th e tra n sc e n d e n ta l influence w as h ere a n d th e re a m e lio ra te d by new er
reflection. P rim a rily th ro u g h th e so u l-m in d c o n v ersio n scientific k n o w l­
X
ed g e w as a c c u m u la te d to a p h ilo s o p h y w h ich stressed th e p o w e r o f m in d to
k n o w an d v a lid ate beliefs a b o u t G o d , th e freed o m an d im m o rta lity o f the
so u l a lo n g w ith d esc rip tio n s o f o b serv ed th in g s a n d events. E ssentially the
d o c trin e bec am e c u rre n t th a t n a tu re is th e k n o w led g e o f n atu re. By th e 18th < ± )
c e n tu ry , th e e m in e n t K a n t f o r m u la te d th e n o tio n th a t th e th in k e r o r his
m ind p rescrib ed th e law s o f n a tu re .

T H E P R E E M IN E N C E O F S P IR IT
By th e 17th ce n tu ry scientific a c h ie v em en ts sto o d o u t w ith a c k n o w l­
ed g ed a p p re c ia tio n . In th e re g istry o f h o n o r th ere w ere th e rev o lu tio n izin g
o f th e S u n -E a rth re la tio n s, h e lio c e n trism w as well estab lish ed , th e law s o f
G a lileo (1564-1642) a n d o f K e p le r (1571-1630) lead in g to th e w o rk o f
N e w to n ’s ( 1642-1727) law o f g ra v ita tio n . A ccepted to o w as th e h y p othesis
th a t th e so u l o r m in d w ith th e a id o f G o d a n d m a th e m a tic s w as c a p a b le o f
p en e tra tin g to th e v ery basis o f all existence.
In th e 17th c e n tu ry F ra n c e b e c am e th e m o d el o f h u m a n p ro sp e rity and
ach ie v em en t. P o litically , ec o n o m ic ally , a n d cu ltu ra lly th a t n a tio n sh o n e
w ith so la r brilliance. T h a t su ccess w as reflected in th e m irro r o f p h ilo so p h y .
It w as a F re n c h m a n , D e sc a rte s (1596-1650), w h o set th e p ace fo r th a t
discipline. H is o u ts ta n d in g p rin c ip le w as th e p o w er a n d c o n q u e st o f th in k ­
ing. U p o n his b a n n e r w as e m b la z o n e d th e m o tto C o g ito E rg o S u m .
T h in k in g g u a ra n te e d all e x is te n c e a n d all kn o w ledge. W ith th e fu n d a m e n ­
tal p re m ise ex p ressed b y his m o tto D e sc a rte s filled th e pages o f the h isto ry
o f p h ilo so p h y b o th w ith a d h e re n ts a n d o p p o n e n ts.
D e sc a rte s is o fte n c h a ra c te riz e d as a lead e r a n d fo re ru n n e r o f m o d e m
th in k in g , a n d o f c o u rse o n th e b asis o f c o n v e n tio n a l m o d e m p h ilo so p h y he
richly deserves his acclaim . By a ll m e a su re s he w as a tru ly em in en t an d
v ersatile scentist. A p ro d u c tiv e m a th e m a tic ia n , physicist, a n d physiologist,
he achieved g reatn ess in th e q u e s t fo r k n o w led g e o f thin g s a n d events.
A n d o f c o u rse he w as a p rim e d u a list. H e d eclared the universe is m ad e

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES SI ON

o f tw o fu n d a m e n ta l essences o r su b stan ces; [they are e x te n sio n a b le

itte r, a n d k n o w in g spirit OTensrationis b esid e it^ T h o u g h the tw o e n titie s
i so fa r a p a r t as sp atiality is fro m n o n sp a tia lity , they still ca n in teract. A n
:eresting sidelight o n D e sc arte s’ d u a lism is his c o n tra s t o f m ach in es o n
e h a n d a n d so u l o n th e o th e r. M e c h a n ic a l c o n tra p tio n s a n d in fra h u m a n ;
im als p o ssess n o souls, th a t is th e c h e rish ed a ttrib u te o f h u m a n b ein g s.'
;re is a n illu stra tio n o f th e m ed iev al c a p tiv ity o f th e m a ste r w h ich raises
t q u e s tio n w h e th e r D e sc arte s is th e last o f th e sp iritu alists o r th e first o f
; m o d e rn ph ilo so p h ers.

SOUL AS SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE

T h e h isto ry o f p h ilo so p h y re c o rd s th e g re a t d e b a te a s to the o rig in a n d
lidity o f kn o w led g e. O n o n e side sp e a k s L eib niz (1646-1716), th e m a th -
la tic ia n a n d th eo lo g ia n , a n d o n th e o th e r L o c k e (1632-1704), a p h y sician
id e d u c a to r. B o th a c cep t th e tra d itio n a l p o stu la te s o f du alistic ph ilo s-
ihy b u t clash vigorously. L eib n iz insists u p o n the so u l's in n ate capacities
r in tu itiv e kn o w led g e, w hile L o c k e a d o p ts th e view o f th e soul as b la n k
blet u p o n w h ich k n o w le d g e is im p rin te d th ro u g h e x te rn a l effectors. A n
terestin g featu re o f th e d e b a te is th e d e m o n s tra tio n o f ho w local c u ltu re s
fluence w h a t a p p e a rs to th e d e b a te rs as a b so lu te s u p p o rt fo r b o th the
iposing beliefs. L eib n iz, a C o n tin e n ta l, inclines to w a rd s h o lism a n d
>mmunistic u n ity w hich c o n tra s ts w ith th e in su la r tre n d o f individualism .
E ach o f th e view s th o u g h b ased o n c o m m o n tra d itio n a l fo u n d a tio n s
w eloped in to im m en se ep istem o lo g ical m o v em en ts. T h e L eibnizian sym -
ithizers b a n d e d to g e th e r as a n im p o rta n t R a tio n a listic g ro u p , w hile th e
llow ers o f L o ck e’s “new w a y o f id eas” issu ed into th e m o v em en t k n o w n
E m piricism . E a c h o f th ese o p p o sin g view s h a s ex e rted its influence to the
11 n o t o n ly in th e d o m a in o f p h ilo s o p h y b u t also u p o n th e sciences
eluding p sy ch o lo g y d esp ite its u n w h o le so m e origin. It is one o f th e m o st
m a rk a b le facts o f h u m a n c u ltu ra l e v o lu tio n th a t th e g re at d ev e lo p m e n t
’ science a n d tec h n o lo g y sh o u ld b e a p p a re n tly p e rm a n e n tly u n a b le to
/ercom e th e b la n d ish m e n ts o f re lig io n a n d sp iritu ality th e w hile h isto ry
akes clear th e frailty o f th e b o u n d a rie s o f du alism .

SUBSTANCES AS ASSOCIATED PSYCHIC ATOMS l

A lth o u g h p h ilo so p h y h a s n ev e r w o n its fre e d o m fro m sp iritism it h as
:en m o d ified fro m tim e to tim e b y e v e n ts th a t co u ld n o t be ig n o red . T h u s
e u n ity o f so u l o r m in d w a s q u e s tio n e d th ro u g h v ario u s p erio d s o f

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 SCI ENCE I N T R U D E S UPON FAI TH

p h ilo so p h ic a l h isto ry . A n o u ts ta n d in g illu stra tio n is the d iv ersity o f L eib­

niz’s m o n a d s w ith in th e g ra n d u n iv e rsa l m o n a d . B ut even th is c le a rin g o f
so u l w as o u td o n e b y th e su cc esso rs o f L o ck e in th e E n g lish b ra n c h o f
idealistic p h ilo so p h y . H ere is ev id en ce th a t th e d ev e lo p m e n ts o f science
p ro d u c e d a p o w e rfu l influence u p o n th e co u rse o f W e ste rn p h ilo so p h y .
It is e v id e n t th a t th e e n tire p h ilo so p h ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t in E n g lan d
beg in n in g w ith L o ck e w as g re atly fa sh io n e d by th e c o rp u sc u la r view o f
N e w to n . S cien ce in th e N e w to n ia n era w as en m esh ed w ith specific th in g s
b o u n d u p in v a rio u s system s. T h e g ra v ita tio n a l p rin cip le as th e achieve­
m e n t to b rin g o b jects o r b o d ies in to re la tio n p ro d u c ed system s o f p h ilo ­
so p h y b ase d o n a sso c ia tio n o f ideas o r m en tal particles. F o llo w in g u p o n
B erkeley’s id en tificatio n o f th in g s w ith asso c ia tio n o f idea's, H u m e re a c h e d
the co n c lu sio n th a t th e so u l o f m a n w as im possible to capTure!
For my part, when I enter most intimately into what 1call m y s e lf, 1always stumble on some
particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or .
pleasure. 1 never can catch m y s e l f at any time without a perception, and never can observe
anv thimuhut iheperccDlum. When my perceptions are remov’d for any time, as by sound 7
sleep; so long am I insensible of m y s e lf, and may truly be said not to exist. And were all my
perceptions remov’d by death, and could I neither think, nor feel, nor see, nor love, nor hate,
after the dissolution of my body, 1 shou’d be entirely annihilated, nor do 1conceive what is
farther requisite to make me a perfect nonentity.1

It is c e rta in ly c le a r th a t th e e p iste m o lo g ic a l p erio d in E n g la n d lessened

th e influence o f p sy ch ism in p h ilo s o p h y b u t in n o sense d id th e sp iritism o f
an c ie n t tim e s lose its d o m in a n c e o v e r p h ilo so p h ic al th in k in g . It shifted
fro m o n e p h ase to a n o th e r b u t it still c o n stitu te s th e m o rta r o f th e p h ilo ­
so p h ic a l edifice. C o n d itio n s re m a in th e sam e as in th e d a y s o f N e w to n
w h e n h e localized th e c o lo rs o f his s p e c tru m ex p e rim en t in the sen so riu m
o r soul.

SU B ST A N C E S A S PSY C H IC SY N T H E SIS
O f K a n t (1728-1804) it is re p o rte d th a t he never left his beloved K oriigs-
b u rg th o u g h h e c o m p o s e d a tre a tis e o n P h y sical G e o g ra p h y . It w as this
v ic a rio u s p e re g rin a tio n th a t in d u c e d h im to cro ss th e c h a n n e l a n d find
in sp ira tio n in th e w o rk o f H u m e . S in ce h e c o u ld n o t fo rsa k e th e teac h ings
o f L eib n izian in tu itio n ism he s ta n d s as th e great synthesizer o f d iverse
co g n itiv e p sy ch ism s. S o h e d e c la re d th a t w hile all k n o w led g e certain ly
'C begins w ith ex p erien ce it d o es n o t arise fro m experience. N o th in g is m o re
c e rta in fo r h im th a n th a t th e re a re a p rio ri principles o f so u l n o t derived

1Hume, D., A Treatise o f Human Nature (L. A. Sclby-B ed.). Oxford, Clarendon. 1896. p. 252.

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o m ex p erien ce. In fact, fo r K a n t th e ex isten ce o f a p rio ri p rinciples

u ara n te e s th e existence o f the soul.
By a n y c o u n t K a n t re p resen ts th e effective assim ila tio n by p h ilo so p h y o f
le science o f th e tim e, especially as it is sy m b o lized by th e th in k in g o f
lew to n . K a n t’s tra n sc e n d e n ta lism like th a t o f o th e r p h ilo so p h ers is o f
o u rse based o n his u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m ath e m a tics. H is ap p re c ia tio n o f the
e rta in ty o f E uclid an d th e p h ilo so p h e rs w h o built u p o n him m ad e his a
rio ris in d estru ctib le. T h e successes o f K epler, G alileo, a n d the N ew toni-
ns in a s c e rta in in g th e secrets o f n a tu re th ro u g h m ath em atics p ro v ed to
im th e cap ab ilities o f th in k ers to prescrib e th eir laws.

TH E REALITY O F K N O W L ED G E A N D TH IN K IN G

A n ex tre m ely in tere stin g an g le o f th e ep istem o lo g ical interval is th e

tte m p t to ju stify co n fid en ce in th e psychic asp ect o f know ledge. T h e
•u tstan d in g e x a m p le is th e w o rk o f H e rb a rt, w h o o p p o sed th e view o f
la n t, w h o denied scientific validity to m en tal states because they w ere n o t
ubject to m ath em atical tre a tm e n t.
T h e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n clarifiies th e view o f Ka n t w hich H e rb a rt
riticizes.

. . . I maintain that in every special nalural doctrine onlyso much science proper is to be met
/ith as mathematics; for. in accordance with the foregoing, science proper, especially
science) of nature, requires a pure portion, lying at the foundation of the empirical, and
ased upon a priori knowledge of natural things. Now to cognize anything a priori is to
ognize it from its mere possibility; but the possibilit.y_.of determinate natural things can not _
■eTnow-'n from mere conceptions; for from these the possibility of the thought (that it does_
ot contradict itself) can indeed be known, but not of the object, as a natural thing which
an be given (as existent) outside the thought. Hence, to the possibility of a determinate
ratufarifiing. and therefore io cognise it a p r io r i , it is further requisite that the in tu itio n
orresponding a p r io r i to the conception should be given: in other words, that the concep-
ion should be constructed. But coEnilion of the reason through construction of conceptions,
s mathematical. A pure philosophyof nature in general, namely, one that only investigates
vh'afconstitutes a nature in general, may thus be possible without mathematics; but a pure
loctrine of nature respecting d e te r m in a te natural things (corporeal doctrine and mental
loctrinc). is only possible by means of mathematics; and as in every natural doctrine only so
nuch science proper is to be met with therein as there is cognition a p r io r i, a doctrine of
tature can only contain so much science proper as there is in it of applied mathematics.
So long, therefore as no conception is discovered for the chemical effects of substances on
>ne another, which admits of being constructed, that is, no law of the approach or retreat of
he parts can be stated in accordance with which (as, for instance, in proportion to their
Icnsitics) their motions, together with the consequences of these, can be intuited a p r io r i (a
Icmand that will scarcely ever be fulfilled). chemistry will be nothing more than a systematic
irt or experimental doctrine, but never science proper, its principles being merely empirical
md not admitting of any presentation a priori-, as a consequence, the principles of chemical

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 SCI ENCE I N T R U D E S UPON FAI TH

phenomena cannot make their possibility in the least degree conceivable, being incapable of
the application of mathematics.
But still farther even than chemistry must empirical psychology be removed from the
rank of what may be termed a natural science proper; firstly, because mathematics is
inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense and its laws, unless indeed we consider
merely the la w o f p e r m a n e n c e in the flow o f its internal changes; but this would be an
extension of cognition, bearing much the sime relation to that procured by the mathematics
of corporeal knowledge, as the doctrine of the properties of the straight line does to the
whole of geometry, forjhc pure internal intuition in which physical.phenomena arc
constructed js time^ which has only one dimension. But not even as a systematic art of
analysis, or experimental doctrine, can it ever approach chemistry, because in it the
manifold of internal observation is only separated in thought, but cannot be kept separate
and be connected again at pleasure; still less in another thinking subject amenable to
investigations of this kind, and even the observation itself, alters and distorts the state of the
object observed. It can never therefore be anything more than an historical, and as such, as
far as possible systematic natural doctrine of the internal sense, i.e. a natural description of
the soul, but not a science of the soul, nor even a psychological experimental doctrine.2

H e rb a rt an alo g izes th e c o rp u s c u la r th e o ry o f N e w to n by m a k in g the

m ind co n sist o f id ea-p articles w ith d y n a m ic p ro p erties su ch th a t en a b le d
th e m to fo rc e th e ir w ay in to th e a p p e rc e p tiv e m ass o r soul. H e rb a rt lacked
all a p p re c ia tio n o f th e n o n -e x iste n c e o f p sy ch ic en tities o r processes. H e
sw am w ith th e sp iritist c u rre n t o f tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y . F ro m th e s ta n d ­
p o in t o f valid science his en tire sch e m e o f static a n d d y n am ic a to m s an d
c o m p o u n d s w as purely verbal.

^ KNOWING AND EXISTENCE

T h r o u g h o u t th e e n tire h isto ry o f p sy ch o lo g y a n d p h ilo so p h y in clu d in g
th e p re se n t, k n o w led g e a lo n g w ith ev ery o th e r p sychological ac t o r process
has b e e n a ttrib u te d to th e m in d o f th e k n o w e r. L ittle if a n y th in g in the
k n o w in g p ro cess h as b ee n c re d ite d to th e th in g s o r events k n o w n . T h is
circ u m sta n c e , n o d o u b t, is a n in e v itab le o u tc o m e o f th e ac c e p ta n c e o f th e
- a ssu m p tio n th a t psy ch o lo g y is p rim a rily c o n c ern e d w ith th e soul. A l­
th o u g h th is fallacy is m o re fla g ra n tly o b se rv a b le a m o n g p h ilo so p h e rs like
th e E m p iricists w h o a b s o r b k n o w n th in g s a n d ev en ts in to th e m in d o r
co n sc io u sn e ss, n o d u alistic o r m en ta listic p sy ch o logy escapes this neglect o f
th e field w h ich c o n stitu te s k n o w in g , lea rn in g , a n d every o th e r ty p e o f
psychological e v e n t.
A c o n s p ic u o u s b re a k in th is c o n s e n s u s o f view is to be c re d ite d to
T h o m a s R eid (1710-1796), a S c o ttis h p h ilo s o p h e r w h o a tta c k e d th e E n g ­
lish E m p iricists L ocke, B erkeley, a n d H u m e . By his refusal to accep t th e
2Kant. I., The Metaphysical Foundations o f Natural Science (E. B. Bax, trs.), 2nd rev. ed., London,
Bell, 1891, pp. 138-142, pref.

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ill-inclusive role o f m ind in th e k n o w led g e process, he is regarded as a naive

ealist a n d n o t a n ide a lis t- N o t th a t R eid w as a n y th e less a spiritistic
ihilosopher. A s a m a tte r o f fact his p rim a ry in terest w as to glorify the m ind
nd to w a r a g a in st th e H u m e a n a to m iz in g o f th e soul. A lso his th eism w as
io w e ak er th a n th a t o f Berkeley. B ut his c u ltu ra l b a c k g ro u n d ch an n eled
lis th in k in g m o re like th e C o n tin e n ta ls th a n th e o th e r B ritains. T h e en tire
h ru st a n d q u ality o f his th in k in g is ex cellen tly p resented in his d o ctrin e o f
he div ersity betw een sen sa tio n a n d p ercep tio n .
When I smell a rose, there is in this operation both sensation and perception. The
grceable odour 1 feel, considered by itself, without relation to any external object. is merely
sensation. It affects the mind in a certain way; and this affection of the mind may be
onceived. without a thought of the rose, or any other object. This sensation can bejtothing.
se than it is felt to be. Its very essence consists in beinufelt: and when it linot felt, it is not.
here is no difference between the sensation and thg_feding.of.it — they are one and the
ime thing. ItTsfor this reason that we before observed that, in sensation, there"is no object
istinct from that act of the mind by which it is felt — and this holds true with regard to all
msation.
Let us next attend to the perception which we have in smelling a rose. Perception has
ways an external objecL- and the object of my perception, in this case, is that quality in the
>se which I discern by the sense of smell. Observing that the agreeable sensation is raised
hen the rose is near, and ceases when it is removed. J am led, by my nature, to conclude
une quality to be in the rose, wKichls the causcof.lhissensatiQnJrhis quality in the rose is
ie object perceived; and that act of mv mind by which,Lhave the conviction and belief of
Is quality" is what in this case 1 call perception.
But it is here to be observed, that the sensation I feel, and the quality in the rose which I
:rceive, are both called by the same name. The smell of a rose is the name given to both; so
at this name hath two meanings; and the distinguishing its different meanings removes all
rrplexity, and enables us to give clear and distinct answers to questions about which
lilosophers have held much dispute.
Thus, if it is asked, whether the smell be in the rose, or in the mind that feels it, the answer
obvious; That there are two different things signified by the smell of a rose; one of which is
the mind, and can be in nothing but in a sentient being; the other is truly and properly in
e rose. The sensation which I feel is in my mind. The mind is the sentient being; and as the
se is insentient, there can be no sensation, nor any thing resembling sensation in it. But this
nsation in my mind is occasioned by a certain quality in the rose, which is called bvthe
me name with the sensation, not on account of any similitude, but because of their
nstant concomitancy.
ATTThe names we have for smells, tastes, sounds, and for the various degrees of heat and
jd, have a like ambiguity: and what has been said of the smell of a rose may be applied To
em. They signify both a sensation, and a quality perceived by means of that sensation. The.
st 1s~the sign, the last the thine signified. As both are conjoined by nature, and as the
iTposes of common lifedonot require them to be disjoined in our thoughts, they are both
pressed by the same name; and this ambiguity is to be found in all languages, because the
tson of it extends to all.1

1Reid, T.. Essays on the A etive Powers o f the Human Mind, in The Works o f Thomas Reid. D. D.
'. Hamilton, ed.), 2nd ed.. pp. SI 1-679, Edinburgh. Maclachlan. Stewart. 1849. essay 2. ch. 16.

52
 SCI ENCE I N T R U D E S UPON FAITH

D esp ite all th e psychism a n d th eism o f R eid we m u st a p p la u d his

o b se rv a tio n a l ca p a c ity in seeing th a t k n o w in g is a n in teractio n al process.
T h a t is o n e step tow-ard th e re alizatio n th a t psychological events are field
ev e n ts in w hich reciprocal a c tio n s o f tw o fa cto rs in terb eh av e o n the basis o f
u n iq u e sets o f a m b ie n t c irc u m sta n c e s. W h a t is p ara d o x ic a l in R eid ’s
p h ilo so p h y is th a t he h as u n w ittin g ly o p e n ^H thp w ay tmvarH a psychology
an d p h ilo so p h y w hich goes c o n tra ry to all his cherished spiritism .

SCIEN C E A N D T H E IN FIN ITE

As we h av e re m a rk e d ab o v e in stitu tio n a l spiritism was little affected by
th e a d v e n t o f science. In fact th e g re at scientists interm ixed tra d itio n a l
a ttitu d e s in th e ir d e sc rip tio n s a n d e x p la n a tio n s o f observed events. W e
recall L eibniz’s criticism o f New-ton’s co sm ology w hich required G o d ’s
co n sisten t su p erv isio n . B ut L eib n iz relied ju s t as m u ch as N ew ton o n divine
existen ce an d g u id an ce in m a tte rs p h ilo so p h ical a n d scientific. T h e sam e
m ay be said o f all th e e m in e n t scientists o f th e present historical interval
an d m a n y e m in en t w o rk ers th r o u g h o u t th e entire history o f ph ilo so p h y
an d science.
A n o u ts ta n d in g ch a ra c te ristic o f the p h ilo so p h y a n d science o f the 17th
an d 18th c e n tu rie s is th e lack o f a basic re a liz a tio n th at p h ilo so p h y an d
science a re w o rk s o f in d iv id u als u n a b le to tra n sc en d the ac tu a l w orld they
live in. ex cep t by th e v erb alism o f m e ta p fio r an d general au tistic c re a tion.
—X h e je s u lt^ o f su ch a b s tra c tio n istic activ ity is to m a in ta in in p h ilo so p h y
co n stru c tio n s a b o u t universals, a b so lu te a n d u ltim ate reality, an d tru th .

53
 CHAPTER 6
THE MATERIALISTIC INTERVAL

T H E P A R A D O X O F M A TER IA LISM

S uperficially ex am in ed , th e m ateria listic interval ap p ears' as a g ian t

a r a d o x . It does n o t seem to be a su b set in th e class o f spiritistic intervals
la t h a v e d o m in a te d W estern p h ilo so p h y sin ce th e G re c o -R o m a n age. O n
le c o n tra ry , it a p p e a rs to be a re v o lu tio n a ry w ay o f th in k in g , a tu rn a b o u t
1 p h ilo so p h y zin g . M a teria listic p h ilo so p h e rs a p p e a r to be less co n ten te d
’ilh sp iritistic so lu tio n s to w o rld p ro b le m s th a n th in k ers in th e m ain-
re am o f tra d itio n a l d u alism . M a te ria lism p re su m a b ly co n cern s th e
a tu re o f th in g s a n d h ow th ey b e c o m e k n o w n . H ow ever, a m o re critical
p p ro a c h to th e subject o f m a te ria lism reveals th a t it really is m erely a
ir ia n t in th e gre at c h a in o f sp iritistic system s. It is this indefiniteness a b o u t
te m ate ria listic interval th a t raises a p h e th o ra o f p ro b lem s co n cern in g
hilosophical d o c trin e an d th e re fo re invites th o ro u g h analysis.

W H A T IS M A TER IA L ISM ?

A lth o u g h m a teria listic w ays o f th in k in g su stain resem b lan ces to scien-

fic p h ilo so p h y , o r at least su g g est a n a u ra o f n a tu ra lism , it is strictly a
letaphysical en terp rise. It do es n o t to u c h u p o n th e tra its o f co n crete
lings a n d events b u t p e rta in s to th e a b stra c tio n istic p o larity o f sp iritism
id m aterialism . E ssentially, th en , m ateria lism arises an d is cu ltiv ated in
tu a tio n s th a t a re social, ec o n o m ic , p o litical, an d religious ra th e r th a n
ientific. In co n se q u en ce m a te ria lism is w ro n g ly related to the n a tu ra listic
lilo s o p h y o r th e p re tra n s c c n d e n ta l in terv al. M ateria lism o f th e E n lig h t-
im ent p e rio d is in n o w ise related to th e th in k in g o f D e m o c ritu s, A ris-
tle, H ip p o c ra te s, o r L ucretius.
It is th e co n sid ered a s s u m p tio n o f th is w o rk th a t the m ateria listic
terval is a p erio d d a te d in th e 18th a n d 19th cen tu ries w h e n th in k ers
d ib erately q u estio n ed th e au th e n tic ity o f th e spiritistic trad itio n s. W e
iclude th e m a n y m o v e m e n ts d esc rib ed by L an g e (1828-1875) in his
x e lle n t w o rk en titled , The History o f Materialism. L an g e includes as
p u te d m a te ria lists L eibniz, H o b b e s, L o ck e, S p in o z a , H u m e, a n d B erke-
y w ith o u t even sp a rin g K a n t, o r o th e rs o f th e idealist’s cam p. N o w it is
:re!y n o t p ro p e r to label as m ateria lism revolts against th e teachings o f th e
i
54
 THE M A T E R I A L I S T I C I NTERVAL

c h u rc h , th e inequalities o f e c o n o m ic life, o r th e d e m o n stra tio n s ag ain st

po litical d iscrim in atio n a n d o p p ressio n .

M A TERIA LISM AS SY M BO L O F EN LIG H TEN M EN T

N o m ystery a tte n d s th e a d v e n t o f m aterialism in th e 18th an d 19th

cen tu ries. In fact, m ateria lism is m o re o r less a co n crete co n seq u en ce o f th e
c u ltu ra l circu m stan ces o f th e day. C o n sid e r th a t E n g lan d h a d reach ed
re m a rk a b le stages o f in d u stria l a n d tech n o lo g ical ad v a n cem en t. T h e
F re n c h h a d experienced th e social a n d political rev o lu tio n th a t stressed
in d iv id u a lity an d h u m a n affairs. In a d d itio n G e rm a n y w as d istin g u ish in g
itself w ith scientific k n o w led g e a b o u t g en eral o rg a n ic n atu re, a n d espe­
cially h u m a n biology. C u r ren t b e h a v io r o f persons in so litary an d g ro u p
w o rk situ a tio n s b ecam e o f focal in terest. T h e tim e w as rip e fo r a m odifica­
tio n o f th e tra d itio n a l line o f th in k in g .

FR EN CH M A TER IA L ISM IN T H E 18th CENTURY

It is p ro b a b ly n o t in c o rre c t to re g ard th e a d v e n t o f m aterialism in the

18th c e n tu ry to be a t least a re m o te c o n se q u en ce o f the th in k in g o f J . J.
R o u sse a u (1712-1778), a n d th e b o o k o f P . H . T . H o lb a c h (1728-1789)
System of Nature1as a m o d e l o f m ate ria listic literatu re. H o lb a c h is n o t so
m u c h a n o b serv er o f n a tu ra l th in g s a n d events as a m o ralist, religionist,
a n d social a n th ro p o lo g ist. H is g reat em p h asis w as to a tta c k religion as a
m isle ad in g a n d m ischiefous in stitu tio n . T h is a ttitu d e is w ell expressed in
th e p reface to his b o o k .
Man is unhappy only because he misunderstands nature. His mind is so infected with
prejudices that one would think him condemned to error forever the veil of opinion with
which he is covered from infancy is too strongly attached, that it is with the greatest
difficulty that he is rid of it. A dangerous leaven mixes with all his knowledge and renders it
necessarily wavering, obscure and false: he wanted, for his unhappiness, to surmount the
boundaries of his sphere; he attempted to soar up beyond the visible world, and without
cease cruel and repeated falls have uselessly warned him of the folly of his enterprise: he
wanted to be Metaphysician, before being Physician: he scorned realities, to meditate on
chimeras; Keneglected experience, to nourish himself with Systems and conjecture; he did
not dare to cultivate reason, against which he was carefully and early cautioned: he claimed
to know his lot in the imaginary regions of another life, before thinking to make himself
happy in the dwelling where he was living. Inaword man has disdained the study of nature
to run after phantoms, which, similar to those false fires encountered by the traveler during
the night, terrify him, dazzle him, and cause him to abandon the single path to the true,
without which he cannot arrive at happiness.

1Holbach, P. H. T., Systeme de la Nature, ou les loix du Monde Physique et du Monde Moral. 2
vols., London, Mirabaud, 1774.

55
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCE S S I ON

t is. then, important to seek to destroy the influences which are good only to mislead us.
; time to draw from nature the remedies for the evils done us by Enthusiasm: reason
ded by experience must finally attack at their source the prejudices of which mankind
so long been victim. It is time that this reason, unjustly degraded, sloughs off the
.illanimous tone which has made it the accessory of falsehood, and of folly. The truth is
it is necessary to man, it can never harm himJtsjnyincible power will make itself felt
nerorTater,Ti must be unveiled' then, to mortals who must be shown its charms with the
of arousing their disgust for the shameful worship given to error, which too often
rps their homage under the disguise of truth, whose brilliance can wound only the
mies of mankind whose power subsists only by the obscure darkness they spread over
ids.
t is not at all to these depraved men that reason must speak; its voice is heard only by
uous hearts, accustomed to thinking, sensitive enough to lament the calamities without
iber with which religious and political Tyranny tries the earth; enlightened enough to
:cive the immense chain of evils suffered by disheartened humans in all ages from error.
; error which strengthens the crushing chains forged by the Tyrants and the priests
•ywhere in the nations. It is error to which is due Slavery, which, in almost all countries,
;t her are the downfall of the people, whom nature destined to strive freely for their own
piness. It is error to which is due these religious terrors which everywhere wither men in
or ruin them for chimeras. It is error to which is due these inveterate hates, these
barous persecutions, these continual massacres, these revolting tragedies for which,
er the pretext of heavenly interests, the earth has so often become the theatre. Finally it
i errors consecrated by Religion which are due the ignorance and uncertainty in which
1 finds himself with respect to his most evident duties, his clearest rights, the most
tonstrable truths: he is in almost all climes no more than a degraded captive, destitute of
grandeur of soul, of reason, of virtue, who is never permitted by the inhuman Jailers to
the light of day.

v laterialism b ein g so p ro te a n a n e n tity c o m p re h e n d s a g reat v ariety o f

w p o in ts so th a t idealists o r sp iritists find th e ir p lace a m o n g th e m any
ik ers g ath ered u n d e r th e m ateria listic b a n n e r. C o n sp ic u o u s a m o n g the
alists w h o c o n trib u te s o m e th in g to th e m ate ria listic tra d itio n is E tierine
nn o t d e C o n d illa c j C.LZj4 = .l780). In o r d e r to e sta b lish his sen su -
tic a n d asso c ia tio n istic p rin cip les he in v en ted his w ell-k n o w n m a rb le
ue w h ich b ecam e a co m p letely m en talized p erso n ality . A llo ttin g only
se n sa tio n o f sm ell to his statu e, he p ro ceed s to d ev elo p th ere fro m all th e
chic pow ers. T h e follow ing e x tra c ts fro m his w o rk 2 reveal C o n d illac’s
ticu lar id eatio n al m aneuvers.
. We imagined a statue internally organized like us, and animated by a mind deprived
ty ideas. We supposed, further, that its marble exterior did not permit the use of any of
:nscs, and we reserved the liberty of opening them at our convenience to the different
ressions of which they are susceptible.

Condillac, E. B. de. T w ite ilex ,w‘m otions, in O euvresphilosophiques tie Condillac, vol. I (G. Le
ed), Corpus general des philosophies framjais (R. Bayer, ed.), Auteurs modemes, vol. 33,.pp.
114, Hans. Presses Univcrsitaires de France, 1947. Cf. also English translation by G. Carr. Los
des, Univ. of Southern California, 1930.

56
 THE M A T E R I A L I S T I C I NTERVAL

We thought we should begin with smell, because of all the senses it is the one which
appears to contribute the least to the awareness. The others were, following that, the objects
of our inquiries, and after having considered them separately and together, we saw the
statue become an animal capable of guarding its own preservation.

The awareness of our statue limited to the sense of smell can extend only to odors. It can
no more have the ideas of extension, form, or of anything outside of itself, or outside of its
sensations, than those of color, of sound, of taste.
Ifwe present the statue with a rose, it will be in relation to us a statue smelling a rose; but
in relation to itself, it will be the odor itself of this flower.
The statue will be, then the smell of rose, pink, jasmine, violet, according to the objects
which act on its organ. In a word, odors are only its own modifications or modes of being; \
and it could not think itself anything else, since these are the only sensations of which it is )
susceptible.
Let those philosophers* to whom it appears so evident that everything is material put
themselves fora moment in the statue's place, and let them imagine how they could suspect
there exists something that resembles what we call m a iler.
One may, then, already convince himself that it would be sufficient to augment or to
diminish the number of the senses to cause us to make completely different judgments from
those that are today so natural; and our statue limited to the sense of smell can give us an
idea of the class of being whose awareness is the least extended.
/•

. . . With the first odor, our statue's capacity to sense is entirely directed to the impression
being made upon its organ. This is what 1 call attention.
From this moment the statue begins to enjoy or to suffer for if the ability to sense is
totally directed to an agreeable odor, this is enjoyment; and is totally directed to a
disagreeable odor, suffering. 7 .

But the odor that the statue smells does not escape it entirely as soon as the odoriferous
body ceases to act on its organ. The attention that it gave to this color still holds the statue;
and there remains of it a more or less strong impression, accordingly as the attention itself
had been more or less active. That is memory.^

A judgment is then only the perception of a relation between two ideas that one
compares.

/ Thus we can establish that there are two degrees of action in the faculty of memory the
1 weaker is that where the memory can with difficulty cause enjoyment of the past: the more
^ active is the_one-where-ilcauses enjoyment of the past as if it were present. ------- -
So this faculty is given the name of m e m o r y when it recallsthings only as being past; and
it takes the name of im a g in a tio n when it retraces them with such strength that they appear
present. Imagination occurs, then, in our statue as well as memory, and these two faculties
differ only in degree. The mem.ory.is the beginning of an imagination which has as yet little
strength; imagination is the memory which has reached the full activity of which it is
susceptible.

Having proved that our statue is capable of giving its attention, of remembering, of
comparing, of judging, of discerning, of imagining; that it has abstract notions, ideas of
number.and duration; that it knows general and specific truths; that it forms desires, has
passions, loves, hates, wants; that it is capable of hope, of fear, and of astonishment; and
r.
57 1}
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SlICCESSIO N

ly. lhai it acquires habits: we must conclude that with a single sense the understanding
is many faculties as with the five senses together. We shall see that those which appear to
eculiar to us are only these same faculties which being applied to a greater number of
cts are more fully developed.

)u r tre a tm e n t o f F re n c h m a te ria lism so fa r c o n c ern s m ainly w h at m a p

erm ed th e h u m an istic a n d p h ilo so p h ical tre n d . N o w we tu rn to w ard the
re scientific asp e ct w h ich fe atu res th e p ro n o u n c e m e n ts o f L aM e ttrie
39-1751) a n d C a b a n is (1757-1808). O f th e tw o. Ju lie n O flray D e La
ttrie is th e m o re n o tab le figure th o u g h b o th derive th eir view points fro m
now ledge o f th e biology o f th e ir d ay , a n d in g eneral are deeply
ccrned to im p ro v e u p o n th e so u l tra d itio n w hich en th ralls them .
:o r La M e ttrie th e so lu tio n o f th e so u l p ro b le m lies in the o rg a n iz atio n
he body.
jiasall the faculties of the soul dcpcndso muchontheproper organization of the brain
of the whole body, as they are, indeed, visibly nothing but this organization: there is an
ihlenetf machine! For. in the end. should man alone have received a share of the natural
would he be less a machine for that? Some wheels, a few more springs than the most
:ct animals, the brain proportionately nearer the heart and receiving also more blood,
hat reason; what do I know in the end? Unknown causes might always produce this
live conscience, so easily wounded, this remorse no more foreign to matter than
ght. and in a word, all the differences that one supposes here. Could the organization
:e. then, for all this? Once again, yes. Since thought develops visibly with the organs,
should the matter of which they arc composed not also be susceptible to remorse once it
icquired with time the faculty of feeling?’

a M e ttrie ’s b asic idea here is v ery im p o rta n t. It is th e idea o f in h eren t ^

;tion. A c e rta in stru c tu re , a type o f o rg a n iz a tio n , fo rm s the basis f o r a
e sp o n d tn g type o f fu n c tio n , w h e th e r described as biological o r
ihological. A m o n g th e psychological fu n c tio n s is thinking.

ic soul is therefore but an empty term of which no one has any idea, and which an
htened mind must not use except to indicate the part in us which thinks. Set down the
principle of motion; animated bodies will have everything necessary to move, feel,
it. and in a word, to conduct themselves in the physical realm and in the moral realm
h depends on it.-1

Ian, like an y a n im al, is a m e c h a n ism so p u t to g e th e r as to be a b le to d o

t he d o es. “ E ac h tiny fibre, o r p a rt, o f o rg a n iz ed b o dies m oves by a
ciple w hich is p ecu liar to it.” 5 L a M e ttrie believes th a t his list o f ten

a Mettrie. J. O. de, Stan, a Machine (G. C. Bussey and M. W. Calkins, trs.). French-English text;
igo. Open Court, 1912, pp. 128 f.
a Mettrie. J. O. de. Man. a Machine, p. 128.
itl.. p 130

58
 THE M A T E R I A L I S T I C I NTERVAL

ex p e rim e n ts, as he calls th e m , sh o u ld co m p letely satisfy an y scep tical o r

h e sita n t person.
1. The flesh of all animals palpitates after death. This palpitation continues longer, the
more cold blooded the animal is and the less it perspires. Tortoises, lizards, serpents, etc. are
evidence of this.
2. Muscles separated from the body contract when they arc stimulated.
3. The intestines keep up their peristaltic or vermicular motion for a long time.
4. According to Cowper, a simple injection of hot water reanimates the heart and the
muscles.
5. A frog's heart moves for an hour or more after it has been removed from the body,
especially when exposed to the sun or better still when placed on a hot table or chair. If this
movement seems totally lost one has only to stimulate the heart, and that hollow muscle
beats again. Harvey made this same observation on toads.
6 . Bacon of Verulam in his treatise “Sylva Sylvarum” cites the case of a man convicted of
treason, who was opened alive, and whose heart thrown into hot water leaped several times,
each time less high, to the perpendicular height of two feet.
7. Take a tiny chicken still in the egg, cut out the heart and you will observe the same
phenomena as before, under almost the same conditions. The warmth of the breath alone
reanimates an animal about to perish in the air pump.
The same experiments, which we owe to Boyle and to Stcnon, are made on pigeons, dogs,
and rabbits. Pieces of their hearts beat as their whole hearts would. The same movements
can be seen in paws that have been cut off from moles.
8 . The caterpillar, the worm, the spider, the fly, the eel — all exhibit the same phenom­
ena; and in hot water, because of the fire it contains, the movement of the detached parts
increases.
9. A drunken soldier cut off with one stroke of his sabre an Indian rooster’s head. The
animal remained standing, then walked, and ran: happening to run against a wall, it turned
around, beat its wings still running, and finally fell down. As it lay on the ground, all the
muscles of this rooster kept on moving. That is what I saw myself, and almost the same
phenomena can easily be observed in kittens or puppies with their heads cut off
10. Polyps do more than move after they have been cut in pieces. In a week they
regenerate to form as many animals as there are pieces. I am sorry that these facts speak
against the naturalist’s system of generation; or rather 1 am very glad of it, for let this
discovery teach us never to reach a general conclusion even on the ground of all known (all
most decisive) experiments.6 ______
M a n is a m ach in e; “th e b o d y is b u t a clo ck o f w h ich th e new c h y l e s the
clo c k m a k e r."7
. .. man is but an animal, or an assemblage of springs, all of which wind each other up,
without our being able to tell at which point of the human circle nature began. If these
springs differ among themselves, it is only in their position and in their degrees of strength,
and never in their nature; wherefore the soul is but a principle of motion, ora materia land
.^sensible part of the brain which can be regarded, without fearing error, as a main spring of
. the whole machine, having a visible j nfluence on all the oiher.DartS4if.lhft system ancLesen—
appear to have been made first, such that all the others are only an emanation from it---- K
■■Y .r
6 La Mettrie, J. O. de, Mart, a Machine, p. 129.
''Ibid., p. 135.
• Modified quote from La Mettrie, J. O. de, Man, a Machine, p. 135.
y

u (;l „v y
59
W v ;
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES SI ON

)u ts ta n d in g as a F re n c h m a te ria list is P ie rre , J e a n , G e o rg e C ab an is

57-1808), a physician like L a M e ttrie b u t b e tte r eq u ip p e d as a biologist
I p sy ch o lo g ist w h o u n d e rto o k to e sta b lish th e th e m e th a t th e soul o r
n tality is n o th in g m o re th a n se c re tio n s o f th e b rain . In his fa m o u s w o rk
sports duphysique el du moral de I’homme h e w ro te as a n observer a n d
rstig ato r, o r a t least as o n e w h o is in tere ste d in a scientific tre a tm e n t o f
i*s n a tu re a n d action. A ctually, he w as a p h y sician w h o was learned in
siology a n d w h o ob serv ed carefu lly w h a t h e saw in his p ractice a n d
it o th e r ph y sician s re p o rte d a b o u t th e ir ex p erien ces w ith p eo p le in
Ith a n d disease.
: is a d istin c t m erit o f C a b a n is th a t h e s p u rn e d w h a t he t o o k j o b e
a ph y sical d isp u ta tio n , d ee m in g it u tterly fu tile to speculate a b o u t th e
Mute orig in s o f things. O n this g ro u n d it h as b een den ied th a t C a b a n is
a m a te ria list . 9 L an g e a n d o th e rs ag ree, b u t in d icate th a t he inclined
ard a stoic-like p an th eism . C e rta in ly he w as n o t free fro m tran scen d en -
.ssu m p tio n s. H e sim p ly a d o p te d a view sim ila r to th a t p ro p o u n d e d by
5 relate B ossuet (1627-1704) th a t m a n s h o uld b e lo o k ed u p o n as a w hole
igTincluding th e m in d as w eii aT th e b o d y. T o u n d e rs ta n d th e n a tu re o f
i it is n ecessary to co n sid e r him fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f his c o n stitu tio n
his su rro u n d in g s. T h u s w e m u st c o n sid e r th e influence o f sex, tem p er-
nt, disease, d iet, clim ate, a n d so o n . In re a d in g C a b a n is ’ views o n these
ences o n e is im pressed w ith his g en eral h isto rical a p p ro a c h a n d w ith
act th a t h e m u st have a b s o rb e d fro m th e G re e k p h y sician s a m o d icu m
itu ra lis m .
o d isag re em en t is p o ssib le as to C a b a n is ’ a ttitu d e to w a rd m an. H e
lta in e d stro n g ly th a t th e m edical a p p r o a c h w h ich ex p lo its th e various
litions o f th e o rg an ism is th e p ro p e r one. H e fo rm u la te d this view in the
w in g w ords.
auld the time be that medicine no longer had in the soothing and healing of disease a
practical goal, it would still merit great attention as the base of all sound rational
iophy. It alone, in effect, can make known to us the laws of the living machine, the
ir course of the sensibility in the healthy state; it lays bare forjisjh e whole physical
of which the moral man himself is but a part, or. ifvou will, another aspect. From the
•aTsensibility, the physician sees not only the birth of the ideas and the passions; he
further, in some manner, how they are formed; he sees, at least, what favors or
irages their formation; and it is always in certain organic states that he finds the
>n to each problem.
is then, one may consider medicine as furnishing bases equally solid for this philos-
vhich traces the source of ideas, and for this other philosophy which traces the source
passions. On the one hand, its views must direct every good system of education; on
evy-Bruhl, L., History o f M odern Philosophy in France, Chicago, Open Court, 1899, p. 306.

60
 THE M A T E R I A L I S T I C I NTERVAL

the other, it finds in the eternal laws of nature the foundations of the rights and the duties of
man. In a word it illuminates the study of the understanding, and delineates the art of
guiding and perfecting it, while recognizing in the impressions and needs peculiar to each
sensible nature the true causes or the true laws of the relations amongatl the beings deriving
from that nature or included in its domain: and from the same principle flow, in the eyes of
medicine, the rules of their reciprocal behavior, and the reasoned art of their happiness; that
is. morality. 10
B ecaus£-of C ab a n is' tre a tm e n t o f v a rio u s bodily influences u p o n psycho­
logical a c tio n he has been called th e fa th e r o f physiological psychology.
C e rta in ly h e sto o d fo r th e p h y sio lo g ic al m o d e o f a tta c k u p o n th e m in d -
b o d y p ro b le m [C a b a n is is th e p a r a g o iy o f all th o se w h o hav e reg ard ed the
m en tal as d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e p hysical o r n eu ro lo g ical p ro cesses. In
a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e p rin c ip le o f e x p la in in g psychological activity as th e
fu n c tio n in g o f specific s tru c tu re s h e p u t g re at stress u p o n th e b ra in as an
o rg a n ic unity. A lth o u g h C a b a n is arg u ed th a t th e secretion o f th o u g h t by
■i th e b ra in is n o g re a te r a m y stery th a n th e d ig estio n o f food by th e sto m ach ,
still h e w ent o n to e la b o ra te his belief th a t th a t is ju s t w hat h appens. T h u s,
by a p ro cess o f irrelevant a n a lo g y he a ttrib u te d to th e b ra in fu n ctio n s o f
consciousness a n d th o u g h t.
T o develop a correct idea of the operations which result in thought one must consider the
brain as a particular organ, specially designed to produce it; as are the stomach and
intestines to produce digestion, the liver to filter the bile, the parotids and maxillary and
sublingual glands to secrete the salivary juices. The impressions, on arriving at the brain, set
it in activity; as food, on falling into the stomach excites it to more abundant secretion oQhe__
gastncjmceandtoJhe_moYpments which facilitate its own dissolution. The proper function 7
of the one is to perceive each particular impression, to attach signs to them, draw from that
comparison judgments and conclusions; as the function of the other is to act on the nutritive
substances whose presence stimulates it, to dissolve them, to assimilate the resultant juices >
into our own being.
Will it be said that the organic movements by which the functions of the mind arc carried
out are unknown to us? But the action by which the stomach nerves determine the different
operations which constitute digestion, the manner in which they mix the gastric juice with
the most active dissolving power, are no more revealed to our inquiries. We see the aliments
fall into this organ with qualities peculiar to them; we see them leave it with new qualities:
and we conclude that the organ has truly caused them to undergo this alteration. We see.
likewise, the impressions arrive at the brain through the medium of the nerves: they are, at
that time, isolated and without coherence. The organ begins to act on them: and sootLiL
sends them back metamorphosed into ideas which facial expression and gesture, or symbols
or word and writing manifest externally. We conclude, with the-same certituderthat the
, brain in some way digests the impressions; that it secretes thought organically."
10Cabanis, P. J. G., Du degre de certitude de la medicine, in Oeuvres Philosophiques de Cahanis (C.
Lchccand J. Cazeneuvre, eds.), vol. I.pt. I, Corpus general dcs philosophes frangais(R. Bayer, ed.),
Auteurs Modemes. vol. 44, I, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1956, pref.
11Cabanis. P. J. G., Rapports du physique et du moral de I'homme, in Oeuvres Philosophiques de
Cahanis (C. Lehec and J. Cazeneuvre, eds.), vol. 1, pt. I, Corpus general des philosophes fracais (R
Bayer, ed.). Auteurs Modemes, vol. 44, 1, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1956. Memoire 2,
sec. 7.
61
V /V it*- *' . /!•,< / ^ >>
' ' ^ 4 j' .
■ / ' ' ^r •' . »x
P H I L O S O P I N C A l SYSTEMS IN SUCCES SI ON

C ab a n is^ d e sp ite th e in e p titu d e s o f his p sy ch o lo gy, su c h as th e n o tio n o f •.

o u g h t' as a secretio n o r p ro d u c t o f a n o rg a n , a n d th e o b v io u s m isin terp re- ‘
tion o f th e n a tu re o f th e b ra in a n d its role in th e biological eco n o m y , ^
c o u ra g e d view s o f th e b ra in w h ic h h av e b ec o m e c o n v e n tio n a l a n d
d u ri n g iy a c c e p t a bl e. F o r e x a m p le , w ith his in te g ra tio n o f th e m ental a n d s
e physicaT he u n d o u b te d ly influenced th e p h re n o lo g ical tra d itio n o f G all •
758-1828), S p u rz h e im (1776-1832), a n d th e ir follow ers. If th e b ra in is th e
at o r th e se c re to r o f m e n ta l processes, th e n its obvio u sly d ifferentiated
.rts co u ld be co n n e c te d w ith th e different kin d s o f m en tal faculties o r *1
ocesses. P h re n o lo g y see m e d to b e a d o c trin e th a t co u ld be very re a so n a -
y d ev e lo p e d o n th e basis o f th e assu m e d secretory' fu n c tio n s o f th e b rain .
ib an is in n o w ay realized th a t his h y p o th esized “ fun ctio n s” o r m en tal
o d u c ts o f the. b ra in w ere as tra n sc e n d e n ta l as an y th in g in th e w hole
id itio n o f spiritistic psychology, ft/t-S.i " ‘ r ■ - ' L t r . (O'- '
I t is o fc o n s id e ra b le in te re st to n o te th a t C a b a n is w as never clear o n his
vn p h ilo so p h y a n d co u ld c o n te n t h im self w ith in co m p atib le beliefs an d
en d o w n rig h t c o n tra d ic tio n s. D e sp ite his em p h asis o n physical stru ctu res
clu n g to e x tre m e v italistic view s in bio lo g y a n d in his p h ilo so p h y w as in
• sense av erse to v a rio u s ty p es o f m ysticism a n d sp iritu al co sm o lo g y . A
ading o f C a b a n is leaves n o d o u b t th a t his view s o n th e relatio n s o f the
y s ic a l an d th e m o ra l a n d o n th e influences o f th e physical u p o n th e
ental h ad no t aro u se d in him a n y scepticism as to th e existence a n d
ieratio n o f tra n sc e n d e n ta l events. W hile th e re is, th u s, little w a rra n t to
11 C a b a n is a scientist in a n y sense, he d id in th e long ru n influence th e
rning o f psychology in th e d ire c tio n o f science by helping g reatly to
nim ize a n d m o d ify th e o ld a n d s ta n d a r d tra d itio n o f th e soul as a unified
tity. A lth o ugh fro m th e p o in t o f view o f scientific psychology he in ad -
rte ntlv illu strated , as o th e rs have d o n e, h o w th e b ra in d o g m a was really
unded o n tra d itio n a l a u t h ority co m b in e d w ith an igno ra n ce o f biology so
at his v le w s fa th e r e d a lo ng su ccessio n o f b r a in d o c trin e s s u p p o rte d only
a u tistic beliefs, w e m a y c o n c ju d e o u r p res e n tatio n o f C a b a n is' place in
; h is to ry o f p h ilo s o p h y by p o in tin g o u t th a tJ iis im p o rta n c e lies precisely
t he fact th a t in his o w n d a y he m a d e p a lp a b le th e fallacies th a t h a d been
ilt u p a b o u t b o th the tra d itio n a l m in d -b o d y fa cto rs. E ven his only p artial
ift o f em p h asis fro m tra n s c e n d e n ta l co n cep ts to a t least partly o b servable
gans a n d b eh av io r m a d e fo r progress.

62
 THE M A T E R I A L I S T I C I NT E RVAL

G E R M A N M A T E R IA L ISM IN T H E 19th C EN TU RY
A s we sh o u ld ex p e ct th e m a te ria listic tra d itio n in th e 19th cen tu ry
p ro v e d to be m o re precise a n d d e ta ile d th a n in th e p reced in g p erio d .
S cientific k n o w led g e h a d g re a tly a c c u m u la te d , especially in th e biological
b ra n ch es. W rite rs inclined to w a rd th e m aterialistic tra d itio n co u ld ta k e
a d v a n ta g e o f th e n ew er findings in physics a n d ch em istry as in terre lated
w ith biological a n d p sychological m atters.
T o be m e n tio n ed a m o n g th e m o st rep resen tativ e o f th e G e rm a n m ate­
rialists is J . M o le sc h o tt (1822-1893), o n e o f th e m o st c o m p eten t an d
a ttra c tiv e w riters w h o in sisted u p o n o b s e rv a tio n an d research , a n d n a tu ra l
law s as ag a in st rev elatio n . In his fa m o u s v o lu m e en titled , Der Kreisfaufiles
Lebens'2 he criticized th e e m in e n t ch em ist L iebig (1803-1873) o n th e
g ro u n d th a t th e la tte r held th a t ev en ts revealed th e w isd o m a n d th e m ight
v o f th e creato r.
B u t M o le sc h o tt like m a n y scien tists is a m u ltip le p erso n ality . H is em ­
p h asis u p o n ev en ts a n d th e ir o b se rv a tio n sta n d s o u t as o n e o f his m ost
fa v o ra b le aspects as a p h ilo so p h e r. T h is a d m ira b le scientific trait paralleled
a d e e p sp iritistic a ttitu d e w h ich w as p ro b a b ly a h o ld o v er fro m his early
S ch e llin g ia n a n d H e g elia n stu d y a n d his sy m p ath ies w ith F e u rb a c h ’s
(1804-1872) spiritism .
C o n s o n a n t w ith his intellectual b a c k g ro u n d an d d ev e lo p m e n t M ole-
sc h o tt’s p h ilo so p h ic al m ateria lism is clearly evident in his fo rm u latio n .

All facts, every observation of a flower, or an insect, the discovery of a world, or the
J detection of the characteristics of man, what else are they but relations of objects to our
r' senses? • /.
* i f t ‘ .. '
• ' .; /. t r j J' "
F u rth e rm o re , /> x '
. . . because the knowledge of the object resolves itself into the knowledge of their relations,
all my knowledge is an objective knowledge. 13 /

K a rl C h ris to p h V o g t (1 8 1 7-1895) a s a firm m ate ria list a p p e a rs as a

sta u n c h s u p p o rt o f M o le sc h o tt. L ik e M o le sch o tt, V ogt is a n a tu ra list an d
g eo lo g ist so w e m a y re g ard h im as a n active p a rtic ip a to r in the cu ltiv atio n
o f science. L ik e th e o th e r m a te ria lists, V ogt jo in s b attle w ith a u th o rity . His
b o o k en title d , Lectures on Man, His place in Creation and in the History o f
the Earth (1864), is a tra c t in fa v o r o f freeing m an fro m th e fetters o f
12 Moleschott, J., tier Kreistaufdes Lebens, Physiotogische antworten auf IJebig's Chemisette Briefe.
Mainz, von Zabem, IB52.
IJQuoted from Lange, F. A.. The History o f Materialism and Criticism o f its Present Importance ( E.
C. Thomas, trs.), 3rd ed.. vol. 2, New York, Humanities Press, 1950. p. 277.

63
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES SI ON

litio n al beliefs. In g en eral, as a n a tu ra lis t an d scientist h e p ro p o se s

rn ativ e s to th e u n d e sira b le h isto ric a l tra d itio n s a n d is fa m o u s fo r his
•rtion th a t th e b ra in o f m a n secretes th o u g h t as gall is secreted by th e
r an d u rin e by th e kidneys.
'Ic a rly V o g tis a tte m p tin g to m ak e.u se oX th e kin d o f science fa m ilia rin
lay to s u p p o rt his belief in th e p o te n c y o f m a tte r to e x p lain ev en ts in the
n al k in g d o m in clu d in g m a n an d his in tellectu al b e h a v io r in th e general
ta in o f science a n d religion. It is to b e n o ticed th a t V ogt is re sp o n sib le
deas w hich h ave alre a d y b een sta te d in th e p rev io u s ce n tu ry especially
-a M ettrie.
he c a re fu l re a d e r will n o tice o f c o u rse, th a t ju s t as is th e case w ith all th e
:r m aterialists, th ere is n o a p p re c ia tio n o f psychological m a tte rs w hich
tld o b v ia te th e necessity o f ta lk in g a b o u t m a tte r a n d its p reem in en ce
i cosm ically a n d as p a rt o f the individual. ....
he p a rtic u la r m o d e o f m ateria listic a tta c k o f L u d w ig B u ch n er ( 1824-
)) is fo u n d in his fa m o u s b o o k en title d , Kraft und Stojff( 1871). B tichner
m es th e a ttitu d e th a t all th in g s a n d ev en ts a re red u cib le to m o v e m e n t
:h is o rig in ated a n d intensified as u n iv ersal force. It is th is universal
e th a t m ak es u p all th in g s a n d th e ir a c tio n s w h ich science stu d ies an d
rds. S in ce B u ch n er like all th e o th e r m a teria lists is identified as a
oso p h er, his views c o n c e rn a b s tra c tio n s fro m all co n c rete events. M ind
m a tte r o f all s o rts a re red u cib le to th e m o v em en ts activ ated by th e >.
ersal forces. \
nee m ateria lism »s_a p h ilo s o p hical m o v e m e n t desig n ed to co n tro v e rt
general p h ilo so p h ical ideas o f p reclassica l tim es it em phasizes th e r
-fte-ryc/
ests m a d e by B u ch n er in th e jo llo w in g w a y ; H e declares th a t th ere is n o
, n o final cause, no im m o rta iity o f th e so u l, a n d n o freed o m . A lso,
ally, th e re d o e s n o t ex ist fo r h im a n y so u l su b stan ce. M ind like light
heat, electricity o r m ag n etism is m erely a m o v em en t o f m atter.

M A TER IA LISM IN PSY C H O L O G IC A L PERSPEC TIV E

ncc d u alistic p h ilo so p h ies have alw a y s b een co n stru c te d o n a spiritistic
o f p sy ch o lo g y , it is im p o rta n t to an a ly z e th e .p sy c h o lo g y o f th e
rialistic interval. T h e re a re tw o b asic a s s u m p tio n s rT irs t th ere is a shift
_the exclusive p re o c c u p a tio n w ith th e so u l to the activities o f persons,
e is a n em p h asis u p o n th e v alu e a n d im p o rta n c e o f individuals. T h ere
tress o f h u m a n dig n ity a n d th e freed o m fro m political d o m in a tio n o f
; an d o th e r fo rm s o f a u th o rity . P sy ch o lo g y h as becom e m o re concrete,
ever, th ere is n o d e p a rtu re fro m tra d itio n a l dualism . S o u l is n o t

64
 v $ i'( L S/s/'Sj — /sa t' ^>Sif /
i'C’tS'fstStO d e* j a.
sfiC /. C i - A ' s * / r / u - r . zfcs ^ ,
/
THE MATERIALISTIC INTE R V AL </,
■r- ■J',t <f i,'
■&'/'<-!■?/Utl ---
e x tru d e d b u t m erely re d u ced to se n su o u s states a n d id eatio n al co n sc io u s­
ness. T h ere is n o lessening o f th e b elief in th e ex istence o f m in d in its v ario u s
fo rm s o f k n o w in g , th in k in g , feeling, a n d so on.
— A ssim ila tin g so m e o f th e n a tu ra lis tic d e v e lo p m e n ts in biology, th e m a te ­ f
rialistic p h ilo so p h e rs s o u g h t a b asis in th e psychological view th a t m en tal­ i
ity is a fu n c tio n o f o rg a n ic s tru c tu re ^ C o n sc io u sn e ss in its va rio u s fo rm s is J
l_ p ersisten tly re g ard e d as secre tio n s o f th e b ra in . . ____
T h a t th e m a te ria listic p sy ch o lo g y is e n tire ly m e n ta lis ts a n d d u a listic is
clea r fro m th e fact th a t p sy ch o lo g ical b e h a v io r is fa r re m o te fro m the
in te ra c tio n s o f o rg a n ism s w ith o th e r o rg a n ism s a n d o b jects in co n crete
situ atio n s. P sychological ev en ts a r e p re su m a b ly processes o ccu rrin g in the
h ea d . T h e re is n o th e o re tic a l a p p r e c ia tio n o f p sy ch o lo g y as a n objective
scien ce sim ila r in a ll re sp ects to th a t o f all th e sciences w ith o n ly th e
differences b ase d o n th e in te rb e h a v io r o f d ifferent p ro tag o n ists a n d a m ­
b ien t circum stances.

SIG N IFIC A N C E O F T H E M A T E R IA L IST IC INTERVAL

In d ra w in g u p a b ala n c e sheet o f the m ateria listic p h ilo so p h y th e re a r e to
be n o ted so m e definite m erits t o its c re d it. T o begin w ith , th o u g h the
m o v e m e n t in g en e ral is th o ro u g h ly fa n ta stic it signalizes a definite u rg e to
re ch a n n e l p h ilo so p h y a w a y fr o m its p u re ly th eo lo g ical d irec tio n a n d to ­
;/
w a rd a m o re h u m a n istic a n d n a tu ra listic d im en sio n . A g ain , in d etail,
m ateria listic p sychology h as m o v ed in th e d ire c tio n o f co u p lin g th e p sy ch o ­
logical discipline to active b iological ev en ts. T h is is n o slight gain.
O n th e d e b it side th e a c k n o w le d g m e n t o f th e asso c ia tio n o f psychology
, w ith b iology a n d o th e r sciences has o n ly b ee n em p lo y ed to glorify th e
j psychic a sp ects o f th e ir d u a lism . T ru e , th e m aterialists have insisted u p o n
’ th e p rim ac y o f m atte r, b u t th is o n ly a c c e n tu a tes th e soul o r m in d -b o d y
c o m p le x jif psycho-physical d u alism .
O n th e w h o le th e m aterialistic in terv al is essentially a m etaphysical type
o f p h ilo so p h y . M aterialistic th in k in g is fa r fro m ac tu al c o n fro n ta b le
events. It is essentially a n a b s tra c t d y ad ic m o d e o f a p p ro a c h co n cern ed
w ith u n iv ersal, an d ab so lu tistic a ttitu d e s . It h a rd ly to uches th e actual
scenes o f inorganic, o rg an ic, o r psy ch o lo g ical events.

M A TER IA L ISM : P E R IO D O F H O PE A N D DOUBT

T h e m aterialistic in terv a l p re se n ts a ty p e o f p h ilo so p h y zin g w h ich
reflects g re at co n fid en ce in in telle ctu al o rie n ta tio n w h ich science a n d gen-

65
P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES S I ON

iltu ra l e v o lu tio n p ro v id es. By c a te g o riz in g ev e ry th in g a s m a te ria l it is

I th a t m a n k in d c a n b ec o m e versed in th e n a tu re o f all things.
1, d o u b ts p ersist co n c e rn in g th e c o m p e te n c ie s a n d efficacy o f this type
lo so p h y . T h a t is ev id en ced b y th e tu rn in g a w a y fro m close c o n ta c t
:hings a n d e v e n ts w h ich science d e m a n d s , a n d v ee rin g to w a rd th e
al a sp e c ts o f h u m a n living. M a te ria listic p h ilo so p h y is th u s g re a tly '
m e d w ith th e failings a n d th e im p ro v in g o f social living, in clu d in g
alities, civil re v o lu tio n s a n d th e p ro s p e rity o f n a tio n a l a n d societal
s.
a c c o u n t f o r th e deficiencies o f m a te ria listic p h ilo so p h y , it is suggested
it b o tto m th ese a re o w in g to th e c o m m o n b asic p o s tu la tio n o f
n tio n a l th in k in g . L ike m o st p h ilo s o p h ies, m a te ria lism rests u p o n th e
a tio n o f u n o b ta inable a n d illeg itim ate a b s o lu tism a n d universalism .
ever m ateria lism g ain s by c o n d e m n in g sp iritism it loses by its co m -
w ith au tistic fo rm u la tio n s.

66
 CHAPTER 7
THE POSITIVISTIC INTERVAL

PO SITIV ISTIC PH ILO SO PH Y

f D u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , p h ilo so p h y to o k o n a very different

c o m p le x io n fro m th e tra n sc e n d e n ta lly d o m in a te d th in k in g o f earlier in te r­
vals. E ssentially th e re a p p e a re d a lessening o f th e g reat em p h asis u p o n the
religiocosm ic sp ec u la tio n th a t prev ailed since th e G re c o -R o m a n d eclina­
tio n . T h ro u g h th e a d v a n c e m e n t o f c u ltu re s, th e stabiliza tio n o f states, an d
th e increase o f p o p u la tio n s a n d u rb a n iz a tio n , th in k ers focused their intel­
lectu al lab o rs m o re a n d m o re u p o n th e p ro b lem s o f peo p le th an u p o n
th eo lo g ical a n d tra n se x p e rie n ta l in tere sts^N o t th a t th e o th erw o rld ly in ter­
ests w ere ex clu d ed fro m th e ir th in k in g , b u t th e em p h asis was different.}
S y m p to m a tic o f th e ch a n g e o f stress w as th e d e c la ra tio n o f C o m te (1798-
1857), th e p resu m ed fo u n d e r o f sociological science, co n cern in g th e th ree
stag es o f h u m a n th o u g h t. F irst w ere th eo lo g ical interests, th e n m etap h y si­
cal, a n d finally th e positivistic tu rn in g aw ay fro m first causes, th in g s in
them selves, a n d u ltim a te re ality, to w a rd p h en o m en a, t he findings of
science.
In th e case o f C o m te h im self, his linkage w ith tran scen d en talism
revealed itself in his d e v e lo p m e n t o f a religion o f h u m an ity in w h ich the
deity o f historical religion b ecam e displaced by the god h u m an ity . H ow ­
ever, th e g ro w in g em in en ce o f science in th e n ineteenth ce n tu ry led such
scientists as G . R. K irch o ff (1824-1887), H. H ertz (1857-1894), a n d E.
M ac h (1838-1916) to en ro ll u n d e r a b a n n e r o f critico-em piricism , w hich
rep resen ted th e re d u c tio n o f scientific d a ta to the delivery o f th e senses, o r a
ty p e o f m en talism w h ich ex c lu d e d tra d itio n al rationalistic elements.*'
T h o u g h th e te rm “p o sitiv ism ” is n o lo n g er in vogue, th ere is n o d im in u tio n
o f tra n sc e n d e n ta l fa cto rs a m o n g p h ilo so p h ical scientists o r scientific spe­
cialists. T h is is n o t to o v e rlo o k th e tre n d a m o n g som e p h ilo so p h ers to tu rn
aw ay fro m m etap h y sica l a ttitu d e s to w a rd events to co n c en trate u p o n the
criticism o f p h ilo so p h ical lan g u ag e .1 ,
i. i'

1Such philosophies are discussed in our next chapter.

67
P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCES SI ON

PO SITIV ISM : N A T U R E A N D O R IG IN
ause th e te rm “ P o sitiv ism ” is em p lo y ed in so m an y d ifferent w ays, it
sable to identify th e p a rtic u la r in terv a l w ith w h ich w e are concerned.
lly p o sitiv ism consists o f a m o v e m e n t designed to a m e lio ra te -th e . ;iA /

f p h ilo so p h y arisin g fro m its d o m in a tio n b y theistic and, a p rio ri ^

hvsics. W hile th e m o v e m e n t in n a m e u n d o u b te d ly stem s fr.Qm, -K
:’s p o sitiv istic p h ilo so p h y , d o c trin a lly it h a s developed fro m o n e o f
id a m e n ta l asp e cts o f B ritish E m p iricism ^A m o n g th e ch a rac te ristic
o f_ p p sitivismj s t h a t .a l l valid p h ilo so p h y is co n stru c te d o n the
itio n o f m en talistic elem ents, n am ely , sen satio ns.
etailed ^ co n sid eratio n o f C o m te ’s th in k in g p ro m in e n tly reveals th e
hases th a t m a k e u p his essential a ttitu d e s as a philosopher.
> 4
vism consists essentially of a Philosophy and a Polity. These can never be dissev-
; former being the basis, and the latter the end of one comprehensive system, in
ur intellectual faculties and our social sympathies are brought into close correlation
:h other. For in the first place, the science of Society, besides being more important
is
V.
y other, supplies the only logical and scientific link by which all our varied V, Vs
lions of phenomena can be brought into one consistent whole.2
%
itivism fo r h im signified a b o v e all a religious system co n stru c te d o f \

s a b so lu te s o f a societal an d scientific so rt. A lth o u g h C o m te w as well

ed in science, his in tellectu al life style w as th a t o f a re fo rm e r a n d
irm e r o f th e n a tu re a n d m o d e o f living o f peopleJ^Science fo r him
lued as p o ten tial p o w e r to im p ro v e th e p light o f p e o p le )
a n u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e scientific a sp e cts o f C o m te ’s system we S V-
er th e psychological basis o f his th in k in g . A s was only to be •^ V
ed, p sy ch o lo g y in his d a y a n d fo r a long tim e to co m e w as fixed
ly in th e m in d -b o d y tra d itio n , (ft is to th e cred it o f C o m te th a t he
d th a t to co n cern oneself w ith th e m in d as a tran sp a tia l en tity o r y,\
s w as n o t in a c c o rd a n c e w ith his p o sitiv istic tenets. A cco rd in g ly he / /
lim se lf fam iliar w ith th e p h re n o lo g y o f G all a n d accep ted th e belief .p v r
u
le m e n ta l co n sisted o f invisible processes o f the~nervous syste n ifj t cV,\
ly,T iecfiticized G all b ecau se he asse rted th a t th ere w ere m a n y m o re
es o f m in d th a n a p p e a re d to C o m te as p o ssib le. It is o f g reat in terest
:rve t h a t th e p o sitiv ism o f C o m te a n d o f th e scientists w h o follow ed
o o tste p s w as really a p a r t o f a tra n s p a tia l system w h ich c o n tra ste d
■ w ith th e m ain ten ets o f th e n a tu ra l sciences su ch as physics,
;try, a n d biology. Yes, C o m te rejected m etaphysical philo so p h y
e, A., System o f Positive Polity (J. H. Bridges, trs.), vol. I, New York, Burl Franklin, 1875,

68
 THE P O S I T I V I S T I C I NT E RVAL

j w h e n ta k e n as a n a b s tra c tio n , b u t p o sitiv ism w h e th e r in th e ea rly stages o f

I C o m te o r w ith th e la te r scien tists is o f c o u rse p u rely a m etaphysical
l d o c trin e . T h is is n o t to d en y th a t in th e critical ab stra ctio n istic fo rm
p o sitiv ism w as a step in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f scientific p h ilo so p h y . B u t as it
• e x iste d in its o w n tim e it is a ty p e o f d o c trin e w h ich scientific p sy ch o lo g y
m u st re p u d ia te in w h o le a n d in p art.

PO SITIV ISM IN P E R S P E C T IV E
W h ile all th e intervals o f m o d e rn p h ilo so p h y a re in terre lated , p o sitivism
reveals a special re la tio n sh ip to th e m aterialistic interval. B o th seek w avs to
f */
. av o id m etap h y sical m e ta p h o rs in d esc rib in g th in g s a n d th e ir b eh a v io r. In -
th e ir a tte m p t to d o so th in k e rs em p h asiz e a n d generalize th e j? s y c h ic
fa c to rs p re s u m e d to be th e c ru cial b ase s o f all co g n itio n s.^ In detail,
f h o w e v er, th ey differ in th a t m a te ria lism inclines to w a rd o n to lo g ical a tti-
* tu d e s w hile positivism is sla n te d to w a rd e p istem o lo g y a nd t h e p rocesses o f
valid m e th o d s o f in v estig atio n a n d e x p la n a tio n . - ■j

PO SITIV ISM : T H E P H IL O S O P H Y O F SCIEN TISTS

O n e o f th e u n iq u e fe a tu re s o f th e positivistic view p o in t is th e a p p e a l it

r m ad e to p ra cticin g scientists. T h o u g h n o t usually recognized, it qualifies as

t he p a re n t o f m o st versions o f th e p h ilo so p h y o f science. P h ilo so p h ical u
lite ra tu re is replete w ith th e w ritin g s o f scientists m a n y o f w h o m pro ceed ed
v
y

Tv 5 *
o n th e basis o f a g en eral sp iritistic p h ilo so p h y , w hile o th e rs co n cern ed
k them selves w ith th e psy ch ic a sp e c ts re la tiv e to specific p ro b le m su ch as 1)
c a u s a tio n , o r th e influence o f in v e stig a to rs o n th e ir o p e ra tio n s, findings,
a n d in te rp re ta tio n s . T o th e fo rm e rly m e n tio n e d list o f p ro m in e n t scientific
1^
W- *
p ro p o n e n ts o f p o sitiv ism m ay b e a d d e d K. P e a rs o n (1857-1936), H . s - V
v.
H e lm h o ltz (1821-1893), P . W . B rid g m a n (1882-1961), H . D in g le (1890- V, \
1978), a m o n g m an y o th ers.
A s w e sh o u ld expect, th e re a re specific v aria tio n s in view s o f scientists
D ^ v
g ro u p e d u n d e r th e b a n n e r o f p o sitiv ism . S u c h early m em b ers as K irchoff, 1
H e rtz, a n d M a c h sim ply w ished to s e p a ra te o u t fro m physics su ch a b s tra c ­
tio n istic c o n stru c ts as “fo rces” a n d “p o w e rs.”6 'h e y m e rito rio u sly h o p ed to
b uild system s o f physics o n th e basis o f o b serv ab le d a ta , an d n o t to
c o n fo u n d c o n stru c ts w ith e v e n tsT A d o p tin g th is defensive a ttitu d e signal­
'vT
ized a d iscrim in atin g science w ifn a n a m b itio n to achieve k n ow ledge o f
ac tu a lly o c c u rrin g events. T h ere is n o d e n y in g th e p o ten tiality o f su ch
view s fo r scientific en terp rises ev en th o u g h th eir a u th o rs m ight so m etim es
o v e rlo o k th e c o n s ta n t c o rrig ib ilitv o f h y p o theses co n c ern in g th e p rocesses
\
69
') -,V'|
!•»
• I I I LOS OPHI CAL SYSTEMS IN S UCCES S I ON

yed w hile seeking k now ledge a b o u t th e n a tu re of th in g s and events,

ales o f su ch shifts o f v iew point in clu d e th e d enial by E. M ach , W .
Id, a n d M . P la n ck th a t a to m s ex ist a n d th e ir later conversion,
le fro m th eir different an tim e ta p h y sic a l fo rm u la tio n s, th e positiv-
ien tists a re u n ited in th e ir re d u c tio n o f th in g s an d events to include
tim e, e x tra s p a tia l sensa tio n s o r elem en ts. A n excellent statem en t by
o f th e re d u ctio n ism is th e follow ing.
he world consists of colors, sounds, temperatures, pressures, spaces, limes, and so
hich now we shall not call sensations, nor phenomena, because in either term an
y, one-sided theory is embodied, but simply e le m e n ts . The fixing of the flux of these
s, whether mediately or immediately, is the real object of physical research.5
• ' '■.i
:h ’s view is definitely d eriv e d fro m th e sp iritism o f th e B ritish
cists L ocke, B erkeley, a n d H u m e. A s h e says,
t my starting-point is not essentially different from Hume’s is of course obvious.4

assertion, then, is correct that the world consists only of our sensations^ \ v

tin,
rs do not produce sensations, but complexes of elements (complexes of sensations)
p bodies^ If, to the physicist, bodies appear the real, abiding existences, whilst the
its" are regarded merely as their evanescent, transitory appearance, the physicist
in the assumption of such a view, that all .bodies are but thought-symbols for
xes of elements (complexes of sensations). Here, too, the elements in question form
, immediate, and ultimate foundation, which it is the task of physiologico-physical
1 to investigate. By the recognition of this fact, many points of physiology and
assume more distinct and more economical forms, and many spurious problems
iosed of.
us, therefore, the world does not consist of mysterious entities, which by their ■
ion with another, equally mysterious entity, the ego, produce sensations, which I
e accessible. For us, colors, sounds, spaces, times,. . . are provisionally the ultimate; /,
s. whose given connexion it is our business to investigate. It is precisely in this that ( >
loration of reality consists. !n this investigation we must not allow ourselves to be'
d by such abridgments and delimitations as body, ego, matter, spirit, etc., which
en formed for special, practical purposes and with wholly provisional and limited
view. On the contrary, the fittest forms o f thought must be created in and by that
n itself, just as is done in every special science. In place of the traditional, instinctive
' thought, a freer, fresher view, conforming to developed experience, and reaching
ond the requirements of practical life, must be substituted throughout.6
h. E., Popular Scientific Lectures (T. J. McCormack, irs.), Chicago, Open Court, 1895, pp.

:h, E„ The Analysis o f Sensations and the Relation o f the Physical to the Psychical (C. M.
s. trs.). New York, Dover, 1959, p. 46.
.p. 12.
:h, E.. The Analysis o f Sensations and the Relation o f the Physical to the Psychical, pp. 29-31.

70
 THE P O S I T I V I S T I C I NTERVAL

F inally,

In the investigation of purely physical processes we generally employ concepts of so

abstract a character that as a rule we think only cursorily, or not at all, of the sensations
(elements) that lie at their base. For example, when I ascertain the fact that an electric
current having the intensity of I ampere develops \0'A cubic centimetres of oxyhydrogen
gas at 0°C. and 760 mm. mercury-pressure in a minute, 1 am readily disposed to attribute to
the objects defined a reality wholly independent of my sensations. But I am obliged, in order
^ to arrive at what I have defined, to conduct the current, for the existence of which my
sensations are my only warrant, through a circular wire having a definite radius, so that
the current, the intensity of terrestrial magnetism being given, shall turn the magnetic needle
a certain angular distance out of the meridian. The determination of the magnetic intensity,
of the volume of the oxyhydrogen gas, etc. is no less intricate. The whole statement is based
uponan almost unending series of sensations, particularly if we take into consideration the
adjustment of the apparatus, which must precede the actual experiment. Now it can easily
happen to the physicist who does not study the psychology of his operations, that he does
not (to reverse a well-known saying) see the trees for the wood, that he overlooks the
sensory elements at the foundation of his work. Now I maintain that every physical concept
means nothing but a certain definite kind of connexion of the sensory elements which I have
denoted by A B C . . . These elements — elements in the sense that no further resolution has___
as vet been made of them — are the simplest materials out ofwfilch the physical, and also
the psychological, world is built up.7

L a te r scien tists ta k e a m o re aggressive stan d . W hile M ach suggested

th a t th e b asic p ro cess in k n o w le d g e o r g en eral c o g n itio n consisted o f
m e n ta l states, t h a t is sen sa tio n s, m o re recen t w orkers u n d e rto o k to analyze
e la b o ra te ly th o se basic psychic s ta te s as th ey su p posedly o p e ra te in scien­
tific situ atio n s.
<■/: *'> '
^ /T h ere is no better exercise for the mind than the endeavour to reduce the perception we '
have of “external things” down to the simple sense-impressions by which we feel them. The •*''
arbitrary distinction between outside and inside ourselves is then clearly seen to be one
merely of everyday practical convenience.8 * ^ ''

When we find that the mind is entirely limited to the one source, sense-impression, for its
contents, that it can classify and analyze, associate and construct but always with this same
material, either in its immediate or stored form, then it is not difficult to understand what,
and what only, can be the facts of science, the subject-matter of knowledge. Science, we sav
^at once, deals with conceptions drawn from sense-impressions, and its legitimate field is the
whole content of the human mind. Those who assert that science deals with the world of
external phenomena are only stating a half-truth. Science only appeals to the world of
phenomena — to immediate sense-impressions — with the view of testing and verifying the
accuracy of its conceptions and inferences, the ultimate basis of which lies as we have seen in
such immediate sense-impressionsj^cience deals with the mental, the “inside” world, and
the aim of its processes of classification and inference is precisely that oTinitinctive or
mechanicarassociation. namely, to enable the exertion, best calculated to preserve the race
7Ibid., pp. 4 |, 42.
8 Pearson, K„ The Grammar o f Science, London, Walter Scolt, 1892, p. 79.

71
 /') p /.-/• I
" , 'V

P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON ^
f. ■-/•
f r ■/ ,:U IP'/*
: individual, to follow on the sense-impression with the least expenditure of time a nd
lectual energy. Science is in this respect an economy of thought — a delicate tuning
nterestsoTthe mind of the organs which receive sense-impressions and those which
te activity.’ ~ ^
v?Yv •
i the problem round and ponder over it as we will, beyond the sense-impression,
I the brain .terminals of the sensory nerves we cannot get. Of what is beyond them, of
-in-themselves,” as the metaphysicians term them, wexan know but one characteris-
! this we can only describe as a capacity for producing sense-impressions, for sending
jes along the sensory nerves to the brain. This is the sole scientific statement which-
made with regard to what TiesTieyond sense-impressions. But even in this statement
st be careful to analyze our meaning. The methods of classification and inference,
hold for sense-impressions and for the-conceptions based upon them, cannot be
ed outside our minds, away from the sphere in which we know them to hold, into a
which we have recognized as unknown and unknowable. The laws, if we can speak __ ' n f o j
i, of this sphere must be as unknown as its contents, and therefore to talk of its / y <'"'c
:s as p r o d u c in g sense-impressions is an unwarranted inference, for we are asserting ?
I ffle ffe c t— a~law of phenomena or sense-impressions — to hold in a region bevond
oerience.10

in terestin g to o b serv e h o w th e b asic p o stu la te s o f th e sp iritistic /; 'i ‘‘

ions affected th e th in k in g o f scien tists w h o follow ed in the H o b b e s- J j l
;-B erk eley -H u m e E m p iristic line o f d ev e lo p m e n ts. A n o u ts ta n d in g
pie is B rid g m an w h o fo rm u la te d th e o p e ra tio n a l view w h ich cu lm i- 1 ^
in th e n o tio n th a t science is essen tially a so lip sistic psychic process.
d g m a n ) m o d els his p a rtic u la r e x p o s itio n o f p ositiv ism u p o n th e
sT oT m e a su re m e n t. H is a s s u m p tio n is th a t only th ro u g h th e o p era-
o f th e scientist ca n e x p e rim e n ta l a n d valid c o n c ep ts c o n c ern in g th e
; o f things be d eriv ed . Q u ite o b liv io u s is he t o (th e fact th a t h e ’
tingly c o n fo u n d s th in g s w ith c o n c ep ts,'/a n d c o n c ep ts w ith psychic
sses. H is stress o f o p e ra tio n s to achieve resu lts a m o u n ts m erely to 7a
lg use o f a n ev id en t fact as a b a se fo r a sp iritistic in te rp re ta tio n o f
:s a n d ph ilo so p h y .
assu m in g th a t science m u s t tu r n aw ay fro m p ro p erties o f th ings to
tions, B rid g m an s tresses a c ts o T o p e r a to rs, th e n b y c o n v e rtin g acts
n en ta l sta te s a<T p ro cesses h e lan d s in to th e b ria rs o f m in d -b o d y
ism. P hysics becom es fo r him a d o m a in in w hich o n e m ind c a n n o t
a n o th e r m in d even w h e th e r it ex ists o r n o t.
rational analysis is applicable not only to the meaning of terms or concepts, but to
matters of meaning, as for example, to the meaning of questions. From this point of
lo not know what 1 mean by a question until I can picture to myself what 1 would do
k the correctness of an answer which might be presented to me. Analysis of questions
..pp. 80-81.
irson, K., The Grammar o f Science, pp. 81-82.

72
 THE P O S I T I V I S T I C I NTERVAL

from this point of view leads to the recognition that tiueslions-can be formulated which
allow no possible procedure for checking the correctness of a hypothetical answer. An
example is the celebrated question of W. K. Clifford, “Is it possible that as time goes on the
ij dimensions of the universe may be continually changing, but in such a way that wc can I
I never detect it, because all our measuring sticks are shrinking in the same way as everything |
* else?""

To start as far back as possible, it is obvious that I can never get outside of myself; direct
experience embraces only the things in my consciousness — sense impressions of various
sorts and various sorts of cerebrations — and naught else. In the material of direct
experience I distinguish features which 1 describe as external to myself and others which I
recognize as internal, and possibly there are features where the decision is difficult, as for
example whether the pain in my foot is due to a sliver beneath the skin or due to a stone in
my shoe. The external features often arouse in me reactions of adjustment of one sort or
another, and there are certain conventional devices which I use in making the adjustments.
Success in making these adjustments I recognize as desirable, and is something that I strive
for, but I do not always attain the success that 1 could desire.1*

This position, which I suppose is the solipsist position, is often felt to be absurd and
contrary to common sense. How, it is asked, can there be agreement as to experience unless
there are external things which both you and 1 perceive? Part of the hostility to the solipsist
position is, Hhink, merely duejo confusion of thinking, and there isa stronjielement of the
pseudp-problemTnixjed up here. If 1say that an externa) thing is merely a part of my direct
experience io which I findlHai you react in certain ways, what more is there to be said, or
indeed what other operational meaning can be attached to the concept of an external thing?
It seems to me that as I have stated it. the solipsist position, if indeed this be the solipsist
position, is a simple statement of what direct observation gives me, and we have got to
adjust our thinking so that it will not seem repu gn ant." ^ >/>Vi/. X +* y
, r■*£. ' /.'•
PO SITIV ISM — C R IT IC A L ANA LYSIS & iX, &
m - t ■-
E a c h in terv al flushes u p its o w n covey o f p ro b lem s. T h e positivistic
in te rv a l p e rh a p s m o re d efin itely th a n o th e rs brings to th e su rface th e
fu tility o f a p h ilo so p h y b ase d u p o n ab so lu te n e ss, univ ersality , a n d sp irit­
ism . N ev erth eless, such v acu ities a re fe a tu re d as b asic to th e p h ilo so p h y
p ra cticed by p ro fessio n al scientists.
A s in th e d e m o n s tra b le cases o f th e o th e r p h ilo so p h ic al in terv als o r
types o f th in k in g , so here we o b serv e th e irresistible p o w e r o f spiritistic
p o stu la tio n s. S cientists a re in flu en ced , h o w e v er unw ittin g ly , by ab so lu tes ?
a n d u n iv ersa ls to the d is a d v a n ta g e o f a c tu a l o b se rv a tio n o f th in g s an d &
events. T h e resu lt is co m p le te m is u n d e rs ta n d in g o f ex p erien ce a n d n a tu re . "

"Bridgman. P. W., The Nature o f Physical Theory, Princeton, Princeton Univ. Press, 1936, pp.
11-12.
'-‘Ibid., p . 13.
"Bridgman, P. W., The Nature o f Physical Theory, pp. 14-15.

73
 r 'itv tiiC '? ' •
/ '/ft n- ■‘ ■
r t s . r •"/'* y '
PHI LOS p 'P II I C A L SYSTEMS IN S U C C E S S I O N

goes so fa r a s th e “ logical c o n s tru c tio n o Iih e jw .q rld 3 4) A t b o tto m , th e

jsal o f p o sitiv ism by b o th th e o re tic a l a n d e x p e rim e n ta l scientists is
1 u p o n th e assim ila tio n o f a fa lla cio u s p sy ch o lo g y , o n e erected u p o n
ad itio n s o f b o d y -m in d d ich o to m y .
n o s t in tere stin g featu re o f th e d o m in a tio n o f p h ilo so p h ies by m ental-
isy ch o lo g y is th a t w hen criticism is m a d e o f t he p h e n o m e n o lo gical__
ts o f positivism , it tak es th e fo rm only o f a d issen sio n fro m th e view
‘sense d a ta ” a re b asic to all k n o w le d g e .15 B ut th e re is lack in g then
iciation th a t “sense” d a ta a n d ev e ry th in g p e rta in in g to th em a re l ^
ic c o n s tru c tio n s based o n n o c o n f ro n ta tio n w ith th ings a n d events
o n seq u e n tly n o o b serv atio n s.
th in g in science is m ore d estru c tiv e th a n th e im p o sitio n o f religious -/
ine u p o n th e events s tu d ied , th e o b s e rv a tio n s m ad e, a n d th e in terp re-
is o f th e e n tire pro cess o f lo c a tin g p ro b le m s a n d th e precise w ays they
tack ed . T h e c e n tral issue here is th e fallacy o f a ssu m in g th a t events
no existence e xcept in th e m in d s o f th e scientist, this is n o th in g o th e r
Ringing to a belief in theistic c re a tio n . /%(?/«it M /
----------------- ~ ------------ 1 • A ? - / S'/
BASIS O F PO SIT IV IST IC E R R O R S ‘>/V
the e rro rs a n d v irtu es o f a n y p h ilo so p h ic a l system m ay be isolated by
m sid eratio n o f th e en tire field in w h ic h it d ev e lo p e d in d etail; th is field
les th e civ ilizatio n al lo cu s w h ere it is d ev e lo p e d , a lso th e ca p a c ity o f
ig in a to r a n d th e v ario u s c o n trib u to rs . T h e a c c o m p a n y in g d iag ra m
1) clearly indicates th e v ario u s fa c to rs in c u ltu ra l fields,
iny o f th e e rro rs o f th e positivistic p h ilo so p h y are n o d o u b t ow ing to
tct th a t sp ecialized v iew p o in ts m a y , w h ile m o re o r less co rrectly
ive so m e p h ase o f a m o re gen eral sy stem , still suffer fro m th e erro rs o f
n eral system . T h u s p ositivism w hile in sistin g u p o n th e im p o rta n c e o f
ience a s co n ta c ts w ith things, m a y w reck itself by th e m en talistic
lates o f c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y .
th e d ia g ra m indicates a p h ilo so p h ic a l sy stem arises o u t o f a m atrix o f
n e v e n ts o rg a n iz ed in to a c u ltu ra l c o m p le x . T h is m a trix co n sists o f a
o r q u a n tity o f p e rso n s o cc u p y in g a p a rtic u la r te rrito ry s h a re d w ith a
e r o f o th e r species o f o rg an ism s. T h e p e rso n s are o rg an ized in a m o re
s closely b in d in g re la tio n sh ip . D e p e n d in g u p o n th e e v o lu tio n a ry
Carnap, R., Die Logische Aufbau der Well; Seheinproblem in der Philosophic, Hamburg,
1966.
Nagel, E„ The Structure o f Science; Problems in the Logic o f Scientific Explanation, New
arcourt, Brace, 1961.

74
 THE P O S I T I V I S T I C I NT E RVAL

Philosophical
Systems
in Multiple
Variations

System
Postulates

Metasystems

Protopostulates

M etapostulates

Cultural Matrix

Type o f Civilization

Institutional Equipment

Fig. 1. Evolution o f philosophy through intellectual stages.

s ta tu s o f th e in d iv id u a ls th e re m a y be little o r n o b e h a v io r p ro p e rly called

reflective.
W h e n th e life c o n d itio n s o f g ro u p s re a c h levels a b o v e th e struggles for,
b are o rg a n ic ex isten ce, reflective b e h a v io r o f a p rim itive o r ad v an ced type
will b e influenced by th e fa c to rs o f th e c u ltu ra l m a trix , lan g u ag e, religion,
a n d th e tra d itio n s o f trib a l e x p e rie n c e a n d w isd o m p e rp e tu a te d as cu ltu ra l
in stitu tio n s. In th e m o re a d v a n c e d so cieties, o f co u rse, scientific fa cto rs are
included.

75
I* n 1 L () S O I* I I I C A l . S V S T E M S IN S !' f C F. S S I () N

SPE C IM E N S O F C U L T U R A L IN FLU EN CES

ommunal Style. B ecause th e e sse n tials o f h u m a n g ro u p s consist
o f th e in te rb e h a v io r o f in d iv id u a ls w ith th e in stitu tio n s evolved in
o m m o n life a n d in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e prev ailin g a m b ie n t c o n d i-
those life styles will influence th e b asic prem ises o f the logic an d
on o f th e in d iv id u a ls n o w p re sen t. E x am p les are th e intuitive p rem -
co n tin e n ta l p h ilo so p h ies as a g a in st th e em p iristic in clin atio n s o f th e
Islanders. It is such influences th a t affect the specific styles o f
nics. a r t. law , science, a n d o th e r th eo ries.
echnology. N o o n e c a n fail to be im pressed by th e c o m p a riso n o f
ferences in th e a rc h ite c tu re , sh ip fo rm s, jew ellry, h o u se furnishings
ips even th o se w h o o ccu p y te rrito rie s in close p ro x im ity . W hile care
■e ta k e n to a v o id c ru d e view s o f th e c a u sa l im p act o f c u ltu ra l d etails
:ach o th e r, it m u st still a p p e a r e v id en t th a t c e rtain to tal cu ltu res
; p atte rn in g s o f all local entities n o t affected by diffusion from
o rin g cu ltu res.
unguage. It is a fairly well e stab lish ed p rin cip le th a t the style o f a
ge m a y g re atly influence th e o th e r fa c to rs in a societal co m p lex . A n
'le is th e g re a t p referen ce in scientific circles fo r m a th e m a tic a l sym -
vcr w ords. M o re strik in g is th e g en e ral belief th a t the R o m a n
)n h a m p e rs th e p ro g ress o f m a th e m a tic a l enterprises. T h ere is also
i m th a t A risto telean logic was e n o rm o u sly h am p ered by being based

G reek L anguage.
’eligion. A n a p p a re n tly cle a r-c u t e x a m p le o f th e influence o f reli-
n stitu tio n s u p o n p h ilo so p h y a n d science is th e to ta lita ria n psychol-
’ s o u th e rn G e rm a n y as o v er a g a in s t a to m istic asso c ia tio n ism o f
;rn E u ro p e . T h e sam e so rt o f in te ra c tio n is n oticeable in th eo ries o f
al science a n d eco n o m ics.
•ience. T h e lo n g stru g g le b etw een C a rtesia n ism a n d N ew to n ian ism
edly exem plifies th e influence o f scientific fo rm u la tio n s o v er o th er
il facto rs. M a n y fu rth e r specific ex a m p le s are av ailab le fro m th e
ice o f science o n p h ilo so p h y a n d th e p ro b le m s o f th e su p e rio rity o f
ed n a tu ra l sciences o v er th e social a n d h u m an istic types.

76
 CHAPTER 8
THE INTERVAL OF LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS

T R A N S F O R M A T IO N O F P H IL O S O P H IC A L INSTITUTION S

P h ilo so p h ic a l attitu d e s m irro r ev en ts in th e lives o f people. A ccordingly

ch a n g es in h u m a n situ a tio n s find th eir c o u n te rp a rt in th e ph ilo so p h ical
system s o f p a rtic u la r th in k e rs o f the ag es in w hich they live a n d w o rk .
P h ilo so p h e rs in th e tw en tieth c e n tu ry a re definitely influenced by th e g reat
ev o lu tio n in tech n o lo g y , social o rg a n iz a tio n , rise a n d d ecline o f n atio n s,
ch a n g es in in te rn a tio n a l re la tio n sh ip s, a n d in local cu ltu re a s well a s in
o th e r v a ria tio n s in levels o f civilization. T h ese changes are reflected in the
lessening o f in terest in t r a d itio n a l m etap h y sics a n d in th e d ev elo p m en t o f a
u n iq u e p h ilo so p h ical in terv al c e n terin g a b o u t linguistic p ro b le m s. T h e
significance o f linguistic p h ilo so p h y w as a p tly ch aracterized by B ertran d
i R ussell w h en he suggested th a t it d e p a rte d fro m th e desire to u n d e rsta n d
' the w o rld in o rd e r to ex p lo re the m ysteries o f w ords a n d sentences.1
O b serv ers o f th e p h ilo so p h ic a l scene m ight well re p o rt th a t linguistic
s tu d y a p p e a re d to ta k e o v er entirely the w o rk o f p h ilosophy zing. W hile not
all th e m em b ers o f th e p h ilo so p h ic al fra te rn ity cu ltiv ated th e new field, th e
m o st activ e a n d creative w riters p a rtic ip a te d in th e new w ay o f th in k in g .
In c id e n tally , linguistic p h ilo so p h y has d ev elo ped aces2 w h o like th e g ra n d
h ero s o f p h ilo so p h ical h isto ry set th e stag e fo r a u th o rita tiv e d o ctrin e s an d
p re cip ita te d cliques o f a g re e m e n t a n d d ivergence. In this w ay th e linguistic
p h ilo so p h ic al m o v em en t h as been e x p a n d e d to colossal p ro p o rtio n s, a n d
ex tre m e a b stra ctio n ism .

LANG UAGE IN T H E SER V IC E O F PH ILO SO PH Y

S o in tim a te a re speech a n d lan g u ag e in th e lives o f h u m an beings a n d so

serv iceab le th a t it is n o t su rp risin g th a t w h e n p h ilo so p h ers in th e tw en tieth
c e n tu ry becam e d isillu sio n ed w ith m etap h y sical p h ilo so p h y they tu rn e d to
lan g u ag e as th e m ean s o f a v o id in g th e futilities o f tra n sc e n d e n ta l th in k in g ,
t All th e e rro rs in p h ilo so p h ic al e n terp rises th ey assu m ed co u ld be c o rrec te d

1"The desire lo understand the world, is they think, an outdated folly." Russell. B„ My philosophical
Development, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1959. p. 219.
1An excellent example is Wittgenstein about whom contentions have raged, and whose every word
has been the subject of excgetical disputation.

dH tin f 77
t., rein-* *HjCy. rL, »
• H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES S I ON

analysis o f language. T h e p ro p o n e n ts o f th e m o v em en t to im p ro v e
)p h y asserted th a t to a v o id m etap h y sics it is sufficient to an aly ze an d
e th e lan g u ag e used b y p h ilo so p h ers.
s th e re a ro s e th e in stitu tio n o f L in g u istic o r S e m a n tic A nalysis
ng a n u m b e r o f p h ilo so p h ic al sects o p e ra tin g u n d e r v a rio u s n am es
s L o g ical P o sitiv ism , L ogical E m p iricism , A n a ly tic P h ilo so p h y ,
itical C ritic ism , L ogical A nalysis, a n d so on.CN o n e o f th e m envisage
>phy as a ttitu d es o f p erso n s to w a rd n a tu ra l o r c u ltu ral events, b u t
: a discipline c o n c e rn e d w ith w o rd s a n d sentences^ By c o n tra st w ith
to ric a l n o tio n th a t p h ilo so p h y h a s n o su b ject m a tte r o f its o w n,
rs tu rn e d to lan g u ag e as th e p ro p e r o b ject o f p h ilo so p h ical investiga-
he p re se n t c h a p te r is d e v o te d to th e e x a m in a tio n o f th is m o v em en t.

ESSEN TIA LS O F L IN G U ISTIC P H IL O SO PH Y

piistic p h ilo so p h y b eg an a s a m o d e st an aly sis to a v o id m etaphysics

uistically scru tin izin g th e lan g u a g e in o rd e r to p re v en t tra n sc e n d e n -
ions fro m in v ad in g th e stru c tu re s o r system s o f p h ilo so p h y . A p p a r-
how ever, la n g u a g e as a n in s tru m e n t o f th in k in g a n d w ritin g h as
o u t to b e th e p rim a ry o b ject o f stu d y . N o d o u b t th e re is d iscern ib le
n influence o f m a th e m a tic a l p ro c e d u re s. H o w closely L inguistic
ophy clu n g to lan g u ag e is clearly in d ic a ted by a d e c la ra tio n o f x
sor W isd o m , a m e m b e r o f th e L in g u istic P h ilo so p h y gro u p .
sophy one does not study physics, but the language of physicists; not political' ‘
but the language of political scientists; not history, but the language of historians; j
ion or theology, but religious or theological languages.3 I r.

sim ilar vein, P ro fe sso r A y e r declares,

rge against the metaphysician is not that he attempts to employ the understanding
I where it cannot profitably venture, but that he produces sentences which fail to
to the conditions under which alone a sentence can be literally significant4
ain ,
✓
ropositions of philosophy are not factual, but linguistic in character — that is, they
escribe the behavior of physical, or even mental, objects; they express definitions, or
tal consequences of definitions.(Accondingly, we may say that philosophy is a
ienl of logicJFor we shall see that the characteristic mark of a purely logical enquiry
t is concerned with the formal consequences of our definitions and not with
:S of empirical fact.3

h, H. B., Language and Ethics, in Proceedings and Addresses o f the American Philosophical
on, 1970-71.
A. J., Language, Truth, and Logic, New York, Dover, 1946, p. 35.
A. J., Op. cit., p. 57.

78
 I NTERVAL OF L I N G U I S T I C ANALYSI S

L IN G U ISTIC PH ILO SO PH Y :
^ VALID P R E M ISE S, IN V A LID CONCLUSION S

It is u n d e n ia b le th a t linguistic an aly sis is a useful p ro c ed u re for checking

th e lan g u ag e used in a n y d iscu ssio n in clu d in g th e p h ilo so p h ical in o rd e r to
a sc e rta in w h a t. if .anything, is b ein g re ferred to o r w h e th e r th e w riter o r •■
sp e a k e r is m erely exercising his p o w e rs o f p ro d u c in g w o rd s. O n th e o th er
h a n d , is it sufficient fo r p h ilo so p h ic al p u rp o se s fo r th in k ers to p ractice so
sim p le a n o c c u p a tio n ? Is th ere n o t g re a t sco p e fo r reflection an d intellec­
tu al ach iev em en t in a d d itio n to th e p ro p e r use o f speech a n d language? /<**
W e m ay th u s re g ard th e p h ilo so p h ic a l in ju n ctio n to g u ard language
a g a in st m isrep re sen tatio n , co n fu sio n , a n d m isguidance as a valid prem ise.
B ut it is th e grossest e rro r to c o n c lu d e th a t a d e q u a te philosophyzing will
result fro m su ch p re c a u tio n a ry m easures. Even th e m ost g u ard ed an d
precise references m ay still allo w m etap h y sical views to in tru d e in to one's
g en eral o rie n ta tio n a n d s p e c u la t io n ^ ! o reo v er, w h at value ad h eres to the
c o n stru c tio n a n d p ro c la m a tio n o f a system w hich does n o t include th e
c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e n a tu re a n d o p e ra tio n o f things a n d ev en ts^ )r o p hilos­
o p h ize significantly a n in d isp en sab le m in im u m is to p o stu late p ro p e rly
co n cern in g language a n d p h ilo so p h y . ✓

INA DEQUA TE A TTITU D E T O W A R D PH ILO SO PH Y

L in g u istic P h ilo so p h y fails b o th as a p h ilo so p h y a n d as a c o rre c tio n fo r
p h ilo so p h y . D espite all th e c laim s o f linguistic p h ilo so p h ers to free th e m ­
selves fro m tra d itio n a l m etap h y sics, th ey achieve n o such result. P lainly
they a re still subject to th e cjassical^not ions o f universality an d a b s o lu te n e s s
a n d in n o w ay desc rib ab le a s h u m a n p ro d u c ts based u p o n t h e e x p eriences
o f p a rtic u la r p erso n s living u n d e r th e auspices o f physiochem ical, biologi­
cal, a n d c u ltu ra l c o n d itio n s. U p o n th e p h ilo so p h ical basis in d icated . L in­
guistic P h ilo so p h e rs erect fallible n o tio n s o f h u m a n n a tu re an d h u m a n
experience. T his extends o f co u rse to p ro b lem s o f language,

INA D EQ U A TE VIEW O F LANGUAGE

A lth o u g h linguistic p h ilo so p h e rs ca re o n ly a b o u t language a n d not

a b o u t th e th in g s a n d ev en ts re ferred to , still th ere a re m an y flaws in the
view s th ey en te rta in a b o u t linguistic m atters. A serious fu n d am en tal e rro r
o f th e L inguistic P h ilo so p h e rs is th e a s s u m p tio n th at language consists o f
a rtic u la te d o r te x tu a l w o rd s b o th w ith in d ep en d e n t status. W riters o n
speech a n d language d o n o t a d e q u ately co n sid er th a t language alw ays

79
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES SI ON

J
ves p erso n s w h o sp eak o r w rite a b o u t th in g s a n d events. Basically
reduce lan g u ag e to in d e p e n d e n t signs o r sy m b o ls th a t p re su m a b ly
sen t th in g s a n d events. W h e n w e in q u ire w h a t th e linguistic p hilos-
rs u n d e rs ta n d b y lan g u ag e w e find th a t th ey re g ard language as
s o r sy m b o ls, b u t n o t a n y c o n c re te a c tiv ity o f p erso n s w h en th ey refer
jects o r events.
i ex cellen t e x a m p le o f h o w lin g u istic p h ilo so p h e rs tre a t w o rd s is
;enstein’s d en ial th a t “n o t” is th e n a m e o f a re la tio n , su c h as “rig h t” o r
n a m e re latio n s. H e th in k s “ n o t” is n o t a n a m e a t all, since if it w ere
n o t-P ” w o u ld be differen t fro m “ P ” a s n am in g tw o nots w h ich “P ”
n o t m e n tio n .6 L a n g u a g e , h o w e v er, c a n n ev er b e d isso ciated fro m
in activities a n d in terests b asic to ad ju stm en ts o r a d a p ta tio n s to
oning th in g s a n d circ u m sta n ces. T h e c o n v e n tio n a l view o f lan g u ag e
:es all th e a d ju stm e n ta l fe a tu re s o f lan g u ag e w ith a rc a n e “m eanings"
:d b y w o rd s o r signs. L a n g u a g e in n o sense re q u ires th e in v o catio n o f
scendent m ean in g s” in o rd e r to fit sp eech o r lan g u ag e as references o r
ols to deal w ith things a n d events.7 ^

T H E EXTEN SIVE R A N G E O F LA NG U A G E
TH IN G S A N D LA N G U A G E EVENTS

jp e rly to u n d e rsta n d th e n a tu re a n d o p e ra tio n o f language in its

us situ a tio n s it is necessary to c o n sid e r its ra n g e o f m u ltip le o rg a n iz a-
an d fu n ctio n s. N o t o nly is lan g u ag e a m o n g th e ex trem ely im p o rta n t
ties o f individuals, co v erin g a w id e ra n g e o f p erfo rm an ces, b u t it also
ices m o re o r less lastin g p ro d u c ts . D o u b tle ss th e b asic fo rm o f
age is speech, th e activ ities o f re fe rrin g to thin g s, events, as well as
ns. B ut w h en th e activities leave a p r o d u c t in th e fo rm o f w o rd s o r
they b ec o m e statisized to serve a ll s o rts o f p u rp o ses, fo r ex am p le,
ds a n d an n a ls, a n d in g en e ral su p p ly th e m ean s o f conveying in fo rm a-
cro ss long stretch es o f tim e a n d sp ace. L inguistic re co rd s p ro d u ced in
us w ay s as by p ictu res, sy m b o ls, a n d w o rd s co n serv e an d convey
-al in stitu tio n s o f m an y v arieties. L in g u istic fu n c tio n s serve, to o , to
d s ta tu s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t to p e rso n s in m a n y so rts o f p riv ate an d
: situ a tio n s. S .o J a r .a s j j h i l o s o p h y is c o n c ern e d , linguistic fa cto rs
te to c o n stru c t a n d p reserv e p ro p o s itio n s . In sh o rt, la n g u a ge helps to
d a te th e a ttitu des o f in d iv id u a ls as p ro p o sitio n s in th e guise o f
more, J. A., Hundred Years o f Philosophy, Harmondswonh, Penguin, 1968, p. 355.
a comprehensive study of naturalistic linguistics see Kantor, J. R., Psychological Linguistics,
, Principia, 1977.

80
 I N T E R V A L OF L I N G U I S T I C A N A L Y S I S

d e sc rip tio n s o r in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e a c tiv ities o f p erso n s a n d th e o b jects

th a t th ey c o n fro n t a n d re p o rt a b o u t.
S in ce L in g u istic P h ilo s o p h y is in te n d e d as a co rrectiv e fo r th e tra d i­
tio n al system s n o w e x ta n t, w h e th e r spiritistic o r n o n spiritistic, the q u estio n
arises w h e th e r it c a n b rin g a b o u t a U to p ian co n d itio n in th e general
p h ilo so p h ic a l d o m a in ? U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e a n s w er is n o , m ain ly because o f
a n in a d e q u a te n o tio n o f p h ilo so p h y a n d lan g uage. Basically th e th in k e rs o f
th e L in g u istic in fe r v a rd o n o t g o lfe e p ly enougfT in th eir o b se rv a tio n th a t
p h ilo so p h y zin g consists o f c o m p le x b e h a v io r o f persons w hile d ev elo p in g
p ro p o s itio n s a b o u t them selves a n d th e ir e n v iro n s a n d a re n o t ju s t e v a lu a ­
to rs o f p ro p o s itio n s a lre a d y fo rm u la te d o n a n a r b itra ry a n d insecure basis.
P h ilo so p h ic a l m is in te rp re ta tio n is in e v itab le w h en th e ex p erien ces a n d
p e rfo rm a n c e s o f th in k e rs a re n o t sufficiently ta k e n in to ac c o u n t. W h a t
m u s t b e so u g h t afte r a re th e fa c to rs th a t e v e n tu a te in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f
sta te m e n ts o r p ro p o sitio n s reflecting th e th in k e r an d his th in k in g . T h in k in g
itself m u s t o f c o u rse b e b ased o n th e results o f o b serv atio n a n d reaso n in g . *9

^ THE ROLE OF PROPOSITIONS IN PHILOSOPHICAL SITUATIONS

P h ilo so p h y c o n stitu te s a n a c c u m u la tio n o f p ro p o sitio n s encased in

speech a n d te x ts. P ro p o s itio n s a re c o n s tru c tio n s th a t su m u p th e a ttitu d e s
o r re a c tio n s o f in d iv id u als to th e ev e n ts w ith w hich they a re in c o n ta c t
d irec tly o r in d irec tly th ro u g h c o rre c t o r in c o rrect in fo rm a tio n im p a rte d by
o th e r p e rs o n s . In g en eral, th e p ro p o s itio n s o f p h ilo so p h y a re c o n tin u o u s
w ith th o se o f ev ery d ay s itu a tio n s b u t su b ject to th e criteria o f ex p e rtn ess
a n d relev an cy fo r o rie n ta tio n a l p u rp o se s a n d su b seq u e n t ac tio n . *'
- In d iv id u al differences in p ro p o s itio n c o n s tru c tio n a re o b v io u sly fu n c ­
tio n s o f th e in tellectu al co m p e te n c e o f th e c o n stru c to rs as b ased on th e ir
p rio r ex p erien ces w ith sim ila r th in g s a n d situ atio n s. A lso th e e n v iro n in g
circ u m sta n ces influencing each .
N ow it fo llo w s th a t th e significance o f a p h ilo so p h ic a l system o r m eth o d
d e p e n d ^ d e fin ite ly u p o n its p ro p o s itio n a l c o n stitu en ts, th a t is, th e u n it
"co m p o n en ts. T h e c o n sid e ra tio n o f c o m p o n e n t p ro p o sitio n s suggests guid e
lines fo T th e c o n s tru c tio n o f p h ilo so p h ic a l system s in w hole o r p art. S u ch
guide lines will serve to reco g n ize a n d g u a rd a g a in st su p e rn a tu ra l prem ises
in th e ir v a rio u s p h ase s o f m in d -b o d y , m in d -m a tte r, a p rio ri- a p o sterio ri,
a n d so o n . ^ i t h th e e lim in a tio n o f all tra n sc e n d e n ta l en tan g lem en ts, a
stu d e n t o f p ro p o sitio n s c a n lo o k u p o n th e m as definite facto rs in th e events
o f h u m a n e x p e rie n c e .^

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L S Y S T E M S IN S U C C E S S I O N

PROPOSITIONS AS BEHAVIORAL PRODUCTS

o p o sitio n s c o n stitu te p ro d u c ts o f h u m a n a c tio n in precisely th e sam e
as a m usical co m p o sitio n , a p a in tin g o r d ra w in g , o r a table. In each
th e in d iv id u al o p erates u p o n specific m ateria ls w ith a m o re o r less
itely o rg an ized plan. W hile in m ak in g a tab le th e m an ip u latio n s
ved a re th e m o st o b v io u s, th e p e rfo rm a n c e s in th e o th er cases m en-
d a re n o t o n e w hit different in p rin c ip le . S ince this is so, we need n o t
ite to in clu d e the th ree kinds o f p ro d u c ts in the sam e class.
ie m a te ria ls in tera cted w ith in th e p ro d u c tio n o f p ro p o sitio n s include
• type a n d v ariety o f object. T h ey ra n g e fro m th e m o st crassly m an ip u -
o b jects to im agined (c rea te d ) th in g s o r th e m aterials o f scientific
itio n s. W h en ev er we h av e a n a u th e n tic field o f h u m a n in terb e h av io r
ive a p o te n tia l lo catio n fo r th e process o f p ro p o s itio n p ro d u c tio n . T h e
w ing ta b le suggests th e ra n g e o f su ch m a te ria ls a n d th e p ro p o sitio n s
.ructed fro m th em .
Materials Proposition Field
;y changes The quantity of heat produced by the
transformation of mechanical work is Physics
equivalent to work performed.
•y changes Energy radiation is discontinuous and
is measurable in definite quantity. Physics
gical trait The characteristics of organisms are
nsmission transmitted to their offspring by means Biology
of chromosomal material.
rical Essential incidents in national and in­ Philosophy
ternational relations recur in whole of History
or part.
asitions Logical propositions are basic to all Logic
science.
ties • Spiritual essences are the most real. Philosophy .
: numbers If n is any integer whatsoever and if pis
a prime number, then the binomial np Mathematics
— n is a multiple of p.
lophysics Every psychosis is correlated with a Philosophy ?
neurosis.
asitions Propositions within a system must be
demonstrated by apparatus not com­ Logic
prised in that system.
1c con- When individual muscle fibres are
ction stimulated they give a maximal con­ Physiology
traction or none at all.

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 I N T E R V A L OF L I N G U I S T I C A N A L Y S I S

Human behavior Haste makes waste. Folk Wisdom

Light rays In an inhomegeneous medium, a light
ray travelling between two points fol-
lowsa path along which the time taken Applied
is a minimum with respect to all paths Mathematics
joining the two points.
Algebraic Any algebraic equation must possess
equations at least one solution real or complex. Mathematics
Origin of Necessity is the mother of invention. Folk Wisdom
inventions
Great men Great men are the products of com­
plex historical events. History

(R e f le c tio n as well as o u r e x a m p le s in d ic a te s th a t p ro p o sitio n s a re n o t _

o n ly o rg a n iz a tio n s o f fe atu res d eriv e d b y a b s tra c tio n fro m co n c rete o r n
en tire ly cre a te d th in g s, b u t th a t th e y a re c o n s tru c te d o r p ro d u c e d n o v elties.) £<e**t
D e p e n d in g u p o n th e field in w h ic h th e y a re c o n stru c te d they m a y be
v ario u sly d esc rib ed a s h y p o th eses, guesses, sp ec u la tio n s, o r ju s t p lain
fantasies. F ro m the s ta n d p o in t o f objective a n d n atu ra listic psychology,
p ro p o s itio n s b elo n g to th e g en e ral ra n g e o f ev en ts in w h ich su ch creatio n s
as in v en tio n al ideas a n d scientific a n d a rtistic c o n c ep ts are p ro d u ced .

AN INTERBEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO
„ PHILOSOPHICAL PROPOSITIONS
T h o u g h th e P n ilo s o p h ie a rIn te r v a l h a s failed to co rre c t th e w ro n g s o f
p h ilo so p h y , it m erits th e a p p ro v a l o f a ll w h o a b h o r th e e n ta n g le m e n t o f
p h ilo so p h y w ith spiritistic m e tap h y sics. In a sense, to o , th e fo u n d e rs a n d
follo w ers have d e m o n s tra te d th e n ecessity f o r a n im p ro v ed a p p re c ia tio n o f
th e ro le o f lan g u ag e in th e reflective d o m a in w ith its re la tio n sh ip to
th in k in g a n d system m ak in g . S in c e th e w riter assu m es th a t su ch a n
im p ro v ed a ttitu d e to w a rd p h ilo so p h y is av ailab le in th e In te rb e h a v io ra l
a p p ro a c h , th e re m a in d e r o f th is c h a p te r is d ev o ted to th e ex p o sitio n o f th a t
v iew p o in t a n d its im p act o n the g en e ral p h ilo so p h ic al trad itio n .
j(? T h e basic a ss u m p tio n o f th e in te rb e h a v io ra l a p p ro a c h is th a t all
scientific a n d p h ilo so p h ic a l w o rk c o n sists o f in te rb e h a v io r o f in d iv id u als
w ith (1) th in g s a n d events, a n d (2 ) th e p ro d u c ts o f such in terb eh av io r.
^ a. Interbehavior with Events. S cien ce a n d logic like all o th e r h u m a n V>

en te rp rise s a re essen tially ac tiv ities o f p e rs o n s by w ay o f m an ip u la tin g ,

ta lk in g , o r sp ec u la tin g a b o u t all s o rts o f m a te ria ls w ith w h ich they a re

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L S Y S T E MS IN S U C C E S S I O N

;ctly in c o n tac t o r in d irectly a c q u a in te d th ro u g h speech a n d s c r ip t E ven

en o n e believes th a t o n e is en d o w ed w ith s u p e rn a tu ra l p o w ers o n e is still
;rb eh a v in g w ith oneself, th o u g h h ere w e m u st distin g u ish betw een
■per a n d im p ro p e r a c tio n . M o re o v e r, w h e n p erso n s in teract w ith things
t ex ist only as v erb al o r p ic to rial c re a tio n (P eg asu s, dim ensionless
nts, m erm a id s, o r th e p a ra n o ia c ’s trillio n d o llars o r id en tity w ith i
poleon ), they a re sim ilarly d e m o n s tra tin g in terb eh av io r.
n a n tic ip a tio n o f later d iscu ssio n th e in te rb e h a v io r w ith w o rd s o r '
guage deserves special m e n tio n . H e re a re to be d istinguished (1) referen-
a n d sy m b o lic a n d (2) sc rip tu ra l a n d e p ig ra m m a tic language. T h e
m er belo n g s to situ a tio n s in w h ich p e rs o n s a re referred to o r o therw ise
)t in c o n ta c t w ith s p a tio -te m p o ra l o b jects a n d ev ents.Qn th e la tte r case
c o n ta c ts d o n o t go b ey o n d th e w o rd s , a n d a re exem plified by th e
gram s: “T h e re exists a n a b s o lu te m o ra l law ," “ I a m m aster o f all I

\ t th is p o in t it is ex p e d ie n t to c o n sid e r th e q u e stio n o f novelty. A

n m o n p la c e o f e le m e n ta ry p sy ch o lo g y is th a t novel c re a tio n s exist only
virtue o f v ario u s definite in te ra c tio n s w ith th in g s w h ich are tra n sfo rm e d
su ch in te rb e h a v io r as a b stra c tin g , e x tra p o la tin g , in term ix in g , e m p h a -
ng, an a lo g iz in g , a n d re a rra n g in g . W h a t is really k n o w n by ev ery b o d y is
ingely o v erlo o k e d by s tu d e n ts o f logical d e d u c tio n a n d scientific m eth-
S u re ly th e y.forget th a t th e y c a o it m a s e n s e tra n sc en d th e h u m a n scene
dictate to n a tu re ex c ep t by acts o f th e strictest o b ed ien ce.
tfH en w e c o n sid e r th e c o n tin u ity b etw een o rig in al th in g s a n d events a n d
e la b o ra te tech n o lo g ica l c re a tio n s w e find n o necessity to c o n stru c t
c rip tio n s o f ev en ts o n different levels o f ex isten ce o r subsistence. T h e
;rb e h a v io r o f p erso n s w ith th in g s is in p rin cip le like th a t o f th e in terb e-
ijor o f a n v th in e w ith a n v o th er, so th a t psychic en tities o r pow ers are
n in a t e d / S in ce ev e n all o b jects c o n stitu te in te rb e h av io ral system s, for
im ple, th e in te rb e h a v io r o f m o lecu les o f a m a g n e t o r o f w a te r, we m ay
a rd a n o b se rv a tio n a l e v e n t a s in te rb e h a v io r w ith in te rb e h a v io r.8) lt m ay
a trite b u t nevertheless im p o rta n t su g g estio n th a t to inject m ind o r
p i o u s n e s s as n o n -sp a tio -te m p o ra l fa c to rs in to a d esc rip tio n o f a n
.erv atio n is a h e rita g e fr o m prescientific th o u g h t. It m ay be asse rted
thw ith th a t th e in te rb e h a v io ra l p rin cip le in psychology involves n o
tors different in p rin cip le fro m th o se o f a n y o th e r science. ^

X. Kantor, J. R., “Toward a Scientific Analysis of Motivation," Psychological Record, 1942, 5.

275.

84
/_ //a J>s/,asssjn
 r fU & c to

n t e r v a l o f l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s

Im p lied in th e in te rb e h a v io r w ith ev en ts is th a t ac tu a l in d iv id u als co m e

_into c o n ta c t w ith specific e v e n ts. A t o n ce th ere is excluded all d esc rip tio n s
m ad e in te rm s o f v ag u e g en e rality . It is such d escrip tio n s w hich lead to
m etap h y sical th eo ries a n d p u re ly v erb al statem en ts. T h e in terb eh av io ral
a p p r o a c h is o p p o s e d to h a p p e n in g s in gen eral, to u ltim ates a n d totalities.
O n th e c o n tra ry , it leads to g e n u in e n a tu ra l h isto ry in science a n d to
co n tro lla b le sy stem -b u ild in g in logic.
b. Interbehavior with Products. T h e significance o f stressing in terb e­
h a v io r w ith p ro d u c ts is th a t all h u m a n en terp rises, w h e th e r intellectual,
scientific, o r p ractical, o c c u r u p o n historically successive levels. I f we trac e
th e ev o lu tio n o f a n y p a rtic u la r science o r discipline w e d isco v er its b eg in ­
nings in in te rb e h a v io r w ith th in g s on a sim ple, p ractical, o r co m m o n sen se
level. A s every h isto ria n o f scien ce m u st p o in t o u t, a s tro n o m y h as its ro o ts
first in casual a n d u n sy stem atic o b se rv a tio n s o f p reh isto ric tim e a n d la te r in
astro lo g ically o rg a n iz ed b u t u n a c c e p ta b le fo rm u latio n s. Likew ise, w hen
scientific ch em istry b eg a n w ith L av o isier nine o f his th irty -th ree elem ents
were k n o w n fro m h o a ry a n tiq u ity , w h ereas ten tu rn e d o u t n o t to be
elem ents a t all.
ji. P recisely here lies th e im p o rta n c e o f th e in te rb e h av io ral a p p ro a c h —
n am ely , th e in sisten ce th a t th e w o rk e r a n d his w o rk re m a in c o n s ta n tly in
the fo re g ro u n d . E specially m u st th e fa ct be k ep t alive th a t all later devel­
o p m e n ts in science o r logic, n o m a tte r h o w co m p licated , a re definitely
b ased u p o n c o n ta c ts o f p e rso n s w ith e a rlier stages o f the sam e things. T h e
im p o rta n c e o f h o ld in g th e w o rk e r a n d his in te rb e h av io r in view is evident
fro m th e follow ing c o n s id e ra tio n s selected fro m a large n u m b er.
^ s (1) S ince all c o m p lex en te rp rise s find in d iv id u als im m ersed in e la b o ra te
•^'"cultural a c c u m u la tio n s re su ltin g fro m p rio r in terb eh av io r, th e scientific
w o rk e r is n o t o n ly co n c ern e d w ith th in g s a n d events b u t w it h in tellectu al
tra d itio n s . In te rm ix e d in his d iscip lin e a re in n u m erab le, practical an d
g en eral h u m a n interests. H e n ce d o c trin a l tren d s are eng en d ered in w hich
n a tio n a l, c u ltu ra l, a n d p ra c tic a l h u m a n in terests a n d m otives a re in te r­
m ingled. W h o c a n say h o w m u c h th e fo rtu n e s o f science are c o n d itio n ed
(1 fo r g o o d o r evil b y su ch fa c to r s ! C o n s id e r h o w th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f m a th e ­
m atics w as o b stru c te d b y th e p ersisten ce o f th e B ritish n o t to assim ilate the
C o n tin e n ta l calculus. W h y co u ld K a n t celeb rate th e co m p letio n an d p er­ • 'I
fectio n o f classical logic? T h a t w e a re n o t involved here w ith d ev elo p m en ts
d ep e n d e n t u p o n a b so lu te p o w e rs o f p a rtic u la r m in d s is a tte ste d by th e fact
th a t a fte r B oole, S c h ro e d e r, P e a n o , F reg e, a n d o th e rs did d ev e lo p m o d e m
sy m b o lic logic th e h isto ria n w e n t b ac k to K a n t’s predecessors to piece

85
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN SUCCESSI ON

e th e r th e d ev e lo p m e n ta l c o n tin u ity fro m th e v ario u s beginnings, A de-

itely to keep before us th e w o rk e r m ean s, o f co u rse, in clu d in g in o u r
estig atio n th e c o n d itio n s u n d e r w h ich he w orks.
2 ) Because, c e rta in b eh a v io rs p ro v e in tere stin g o r fru itfu l th ey set th e
e o f th o u g h t a n d in v estig atio n . O n a larg e scale th is fact is illu strated by
p e n c h a n t w h ich w o rk e rs d ev e lo p fo r th e e x a ct as over a g a in st th e
ta c t sciences w ith the result th a t th e social sciences re m a in b ac k w ard
pite th e ir im p o rtan ce . S m a lle r scale seq u e la e are exem plified by v ario u s
; in scientific investigations; fo r ex a m p le , F ra u e n h o fe r’s sp ectro sco p ic
lies w ere u n a p p re c ia te d b ecau se a t th e tim e scientists w ere in o rd in ately
rested in th e c o m p e tin g claim s o f th e w av e a n d em ission theories,
lilarly, objective p sy ch o lo g y c a n m ak e b u t slow h ead w ay w h en th e
iistence o f psychical d o c trin e influences th e p re serv atio n o f psychic
;s bv th e p ro c e d u re o f in te rp re tin g th em in physical term s. Chr*in
I) W h e n we c o n c ern ourselves w ith a w o rk e r an d his w o rk we readily
now c e rta in m e th o d s th a t p ro v e useful in science an d logic b eco m e ends
lem selv es, a n d th u s p e rh a p s c a n av o id th is o u tco m e. E ven statistical
e x p e rim e n ta l p ro c e d u re s n o t o n ly b eco m e bases fo r neglecting events
he tim e n o t a m e n a b le to tre a tm e n t by s u c h m eth o d s, b u t also fo r
:o n s tru in g th e ev en ts they d o trea t. W h e n th e psychologist d ev elo p s a n
lligence q u o tie n t h e is p ro n e to co n fu se his a rb itra ry m easu re a n d
stical results w ith the a c tu a l in te rb e h a v io r w hich originally stim u late d
vork . W h e n physicists like M ach , D u h e m , a n d P o in c are o b serv e th a t
h em atical sy m b o ls c o n stitu te th e best w ay to reco rd a n d re p resen t
its, th e y risk th e d a n g e r o f re g a rd in g m a th e m a tics as exclusively a fo rm
in g u ag e. A g ain , th e rig o r th a t logicians d isco v er in d e d u c tio n leads
1 to su g g est th a t it is th e scientific m eth o d par excellence.

IN TE R B EH A V IO R A L IM PL IC A TIO N S FOR SC IE N C E
ro b a b ly th e basic im p lica tio n o f th e in te rb e h av io ral a p p ro a c h fo r
ice a n d p h ilo s o p h y is th a t th e m ateria ls in te ra c te d w ith a re nev er
luced in th e act o f o b serv in g th em , n o m a tte r how c o m p licated th e
rv a tio n . N o investigation o r ex p e rim en t creates th e cru d e o r p re a n a -
ev en ts w hich orig in ally stim u late th e in terests o f th e scientist. Scientific
ngs a r e full o f suggestions to th e effect th a t things consist o f “sense
" w hich a re p re su m a b ly processes o f k n o w in g instead o f qu alities o f
»s k n o w n . A lso “ physical objects” a re alleged to be scientific co n stru c -
as well a s “ reality ." B o th o f these ideas are su m m ed u p in th e factitio u s
lion c o n c ern in g th e existence o f a n ex te rn a l w orld.

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 NTERVAL OF L I N G U I S T I C ANALYSI S

-*> H ere we m u st d istin g u ish b etw e en c ru d e a n d a n a ly tic events.9 A s to th e

fo rm e r, w e need o n ly in d ic a te th a t th e se a re th e th in g s a n d ev en ts w ith
w h ich in d iv id u als in te ra c t o n a n y level. W h ile scien tific c ru d e d a ta m ay be
c o m p lic a te d tra n s fo rm a tio n s o f th in g s m et w ith in prescientific situ a tio ns,
th ey m a in ta in th e ir c o n tin u ity w ith th o se things.
A n a ly tic d a ta in g en e ral c o n sist o f d esc rib ed , re co rd e d , a n d in terp re ted
even ts. T h e se a re c o n s tru c tio n s d e v e lo p e d a fte r th e w o rk e r h as been in
c o n ta c t w ith c ru d e ev en ts. S u c h c o n s tru c tio n s co m p rise h y p o th e se s, w hich
d ire c t in v estig atio n , a n d th e o rie s a n d law s c o n stitu tin g e x p la n a tio n s a n d
in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e p re a n a ly tic events.
By n o m ean s sh o u ld c ru d e a n d a n a ly tic d a ta be co n fu sed . F re q u e n tly
h ig h ly refined a n a ly tic c o n s tru c tio n s a re tre a te d as b asic o r c ru d e fa c to rs in
a scientific situ atio n . F o r e x a m p le , p sy ch o lo g ists an d physio lo g ists tre a t
light ra d ia tio n as a th in g in te rb e h a v in g w ith th e retin a a n d p ro d u c in g a
re su lt d esc rib ed a s c o lo r q u a lity .10 S u c h in te rm ix tu re o f c ru d e an d a n a ly tic
d a ta leads to u n satisfac to ry scientific results.
A n o th e r difficulty arises fro m im p o sin g a n a ly tic d a ta o n cru d e events.
N o m a tte r h o w c o m p le x a n d a b s tra c t o u r scientific s tru c tu re s th e y issue
fro m b asic in te rb e h a v io r a n d p o ssess n o tra n sc e n d e n t v a lu e o r reality n o t
fo u n d in th e o rig in al o b serv ed events. T h is view c o n tra d ic ts sh a rp ly th e
idetT now so p ro m in e n t th a t th e re is m o re “ reality” in p o in te r read in g s o r
m e a su re m e n ts th a n th e e v e n ts m e a su re d . Im p licit in th e la tte r view is th a t

I th e b o d y o f scientific d o c trin e m a y c a rry in it a ssu m p tio n s o r preju d ices n o t

d eriv e d fro m o rig in a l in te rb e h a v io r.(T h a t n u m b e rs are m o re b asic o r real
th a n q u alitie s m a y b e tra c e d b a c k to th e kin d o f civ ilizatio n th a t gave b irth
to P y th a g o ras.^) (fo/p/
N o w it is o b v io u s t h a t all s u c h id eas issue fro m a c tu a l in te rb e h a v io r o f
p e rso n s w ith th in g s.Q t is fre q u e n tly o v e rlo o k e d , how ever, th a t so-called
su b jectiv ity , priv acy , o r u n c e rta in ty o f k n o w led g e arise fro m su ch c o n ta c ts
w ith c ru d e ev en ts as resu lt in m o d ify in g a n d d isto rtin g th erm )T o b e sure,
in te rp o s itio n o f insufficient a n d d is to rtin g to o ls o f in v estig atio n m a y c o n ­
ceal a n d m o d ify th e c ru d e d a ta , b u t th e co n v erse th a t o rig in al d a ta a re
c re a te d by th e m e th o d u sed is n o t ac cep tab le .
— J> J u s t as im p erfe ct in v estig ativ e te c h n iq u e s d is to rt a n d d istu rb o rig in al
d a ta so efficient te c h n iq u e s o b v io u sly h e lp to increase c o n ta c t w ith th in g s

’ Cf., Article cited in footnote 8.

10Cf., Kantor, J R..A Survey o f the Science o f Psychology, Bloomington, Indiana. Principia. 1933.
pp. 32-33, and Kantor, J. R., and Smith, N. W„ The Science o f Psychology, An Interbehavioral
Survey. Chicago, Principia. 1975, pp. 44-45. '

87
t
 P H I L O S O P H I C A L SYSTEMS IN S UCCES SI ON

a n d events. W e d o n o t lim it ourselves h ere to th e o b serv atio n a l p ow ers

en g e n d e re d b y a 200-inch telescope o r a n elec tro n m icroscope, b u t go
fu rth e r to th e a c tu a l in ten sificatio n o f n a tu ra l ev e n ts w h ich result in novel
facts. T h e p ro d u c tio n o f h ig h er a n d lo w er te m p e ra tu re s th a n th o se w ith
w h ic h w e a r e o rd in a rily in c o n ta c t a n d th e p ro d u c tio n o f e n o rm o u s
p re s su re s c o n s titu te e v e n ts w h ic h illu s tra te th e ra n g e o f h u m a n
in te rb e h a v io r.
T h is ra n g e is fu r th e r in d icated by th e u n e x p e c te d discoveries m ad e w hile
en g a g ed in o th e r o b serv atio n s. T o keep to th e physics o f light alo n e,
N e w to n ’s d isco v ery th a t light co n sists o f d iffo rm rays w ith d ifferent refran -
gibilities w as m a d e w hile a tte m p tin g to im p ro v e th e refractin g telescope;
a lso F r a u e n h o fe r d isco v ered th e s o d iu m line w hile w o rk in g o n re frac tio n
indices o f glass fo r different colors.
■jt It is a m e rit o f th e in te rb e h a v io ra l view th a t it need n o t d iscrim in ate
a g a in s t a n y s o rt o f p re an aly tic e v e n ts. W h e n ev en ts a re a p p ro a c h e d as
o b jects o f free in v estig atio n we a re n o t lim ited to n o n -h u m a n things an d
a c tio n s, b u t m ay include all h u m an istic h ap p en in g s such as social o rg a n iz a ­
tio n a n d th e m a te ria ls o f civilization w hich definitely arise th ro u g h h u m a n
ag en cy . M o re o v e r, o u r investigative p ro c e d u re s a n d th eo re tic al c o n s tru c ­
tio n s c a n he re g u la te d bv th e kind o f ev e n ts stu d ie d. D e sc rip tio n s a n d law s -
a r e n o t im p o se d o n o n e k in d o f m ateria l b ecau se o f success in h a n d lin g
a n o th e r, b u t a re derived fro m th e p a rtic u la r d a ta in terb e h av ed w ith. ^
-)( A n o th e r basic in terb e h av io ral im p lica tio n fo r science is th a t all th e
in d iv id u a l’s p o w e rs o f o b se rv a tio n a n d c re a tio n a re o u tg ro w th s o f long
series o f c o n ta c ts w ith th in g s in th e e v o lu tio n o f science. W h e n ev er scien­
tific re su lts a re p y ra m id e d so th a t new d isco v eries a re m ad e e ith er by
a c c id e n ta l o b s e rv a tio n o r p lan n ed tra n s fo rm a tio n they im ply a spiralling
effect th a t alw a y s reach es d o w n to th e o rig in al c o n ta c ts w ith things. In
o th e r w o rd s, th e re a re n o m agical p o w ers in h e re n t in scientists to create
realities. W h a t a c tu a lly h a p p e n s is th a t c o n s tru c tio n s a re m a d e an d th en
re g a rd e d as m o re im p o rta n t a n d fu n d a m e n ta l th a n th e ev en ts o riginally
in te rb e h a v e d w ith. But, a fte r all, in te rb e h a v io r is p rio r to everything.
T h u s , fro m c o n ta c ts o f in d iv id u als w ith c o lo re d ob jects hav e arisen
th e o rie s o f c o lo r, th e d istin c tio n betw een c o lo r a n d w av e frequencies, etc.
i. •
i 'i'. O u t o f o b se rv a tio n o f m echanical w o rk a n d v ario u s ch an g es resu ltin g fro m
.1 w o rk h av e d ev e lo p e d the capacities to p ro d u c e su ch p ro d u c ts as th eo ries o f
t
energy, law s o f m ech an ics a n d th erm o d y n a m ics. F ro m in terb e h av io r w ith
it! ra d ia tio n , electrical p h e n o m e n a , a n d light has evolved th e ab ility to m ak e
I'.'-

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 I N T E R V A L OF L I N G U I S T I C A N A L Y S I S

all s o rts o f scientific tra n s fo rm a tio n s a n d a p p lic a tio n s a n d to achieve law s

o f electricity.
N o tio n s o f tra n s c e n d e n t p o w e rs a r e c e rta in ly n o t d eriv ed fro m th e stu d y
o f m a n in in te rb e h a v io r w ith th in g s. Q u ite th e reverse, su c h view s are
in te rm ix e d w ith beliefs b re d b y m a n ’s w ish es a n d a s p ira tio n s a n d th e
tra d itio n a l cu lt sy stem s w h ich feed u p o n su c h a sp ira tio n s. T h e a s p ira tio n s
ersons_w ith lack
3 u n sa tisfa c to ry
c o n ta c ts w ith o th e r p e rso n s a s w ell as w ith th e ty ra n n y a r id o p p re s sio n o f
states o r classes.

/ IN T E R B E H A V IO R A L IM PL IC A TIO N S FO R P H IL O S O P H Y

T h o u g h p h ilo so p h y a s a h u m a n e n terp rise is in essen tial resp ects like all

o th e r m e m b e rs o f th e g ro u p , n o o n e w isely o v e rlo o k s th e d e ta ile d differ­
ences. P h ilo s o p h ic a l w o rk e rs o p e ra te w ith definite m a te ria ls a n d c o n stru c t
p ro d u c ts u n d e r specific c u ltu ra l a u sp ice s: in co n se q u en ce , lik e scientists,
th e y a re su b ject to v a rio u s te m p o ra ry a n d h isto rical id eo lo g ical influences.
T h e first im p o rta n t in te rb e h a v io ra l im p lica tio n , th e n , c o n c e rn s th e
p h ilo s o p h e r’s o p e ra tio n a l field. It is im p o rta n t to m a rk o u t w h a t th e
p h ilo s o p h e r w o rk s a t, th e lim its o f his w o rk a n d p ro d u c ts, a n d th e in terre­
la tio n o f h is w o rk w ith th a t o f o th e r w o rk ers,
i A ll th e s e p o in ts c a n b e re ad ily a n d briefly in d ic a te d b y c o n sid e rin g one
o u ts ta n d in g c h a ra c te ristic o f p h ilo so p h ers, n am ely , th e ir g en eral e x p a n ­
siveness o f a ttitu d e. In ste a d o f re g a rd in g th e ir w o rk a s specific a n d special­
ized th ey th in k o f th em selv es as g en eral law givers o r n o rm p ro v id e rs fo r all
o th e r w o rk e rs. T h is is a co n seq u en ce, o f c o u rse, o f th e tra d itio n a l n o tio n
th a t p h ilo so p h y is c o n c e rn e d w ith re a so n , w ith th e ra tio n a l b asis o f th eo l­
ogy , o f science, a n d o f ev ery o th e r discipline. T h o u g h in th e h isto ry o f
p h ilo s o p h y th e n o tio n o f co m p reh en siv en ess a n d u ltim a c y tak es o n v ario u s
fo rm s , a t n o p o in t d o es th e p h ilo so p h e r realize th a t ev en w h e n he is
c o n c e rn e d w ith th e m o st a b s tru s e a n d g e n e ralized m a te ria ls h e is still
in te rb e h a v in g w itlT a p a rtic u la r ty p e o f su b ject-m a tter.
D ia le c tic a n d d e d u c tiv e lo g ician s sin ce th e S c h o la stic e ra re g ard e d
e them selv es a s a b le to tra n sc e n d n a tu re ; th ey th o u g h t th e y c o u ld p ro v e
I p ro p o s itio n s a b o u t h e a v en ly as w ell as e a rth ly m a tte rs . T o ach iev e th eir
\ p u rp o s e th e y sim p ly c re a te d (v erb ally ) p o w e rs fo r m a n w h ich w ere ex ag -
5 g e ra te d m a g n ific a tio n s o f w h a t th ey o b se rv e d h im to b e a b le to d o . F ro m
a n in te rb e h a v io ra l s ta n d p o in t it is c le a r th a t th e ir a m b itio n stem m ed fro m

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a d issa tisfa c tio n w ith g e n e ra l h u m a n c o n d itio n s, w hereas th e ir m ean s o f

ca rry in g it o u t th ey d eriv e tW ro m o b se rv in g local ac ts o f inference a n d
a rg u m e n t. /
¥■ T h o u g h th e so-calleji in d u ctiv e p h ilo so p h e rs re g ard e d them selves as
sim ply co n c e rn e d w i y th e m e th o d s o f science, th ey presu m ed to prescribe
tg e n eralized p ro c e d u re s jior d ealin g w ith th in g s. In th e m ean tim e th ey w ere
o b liv io u s to th e a c tu a l p ro c e d u re s o f scien tists in d e a lin g w ith co n c rete
things a n d e v e n ts.(F u rth e rm o re , in d u ctiv e p h ilo so p h y as a technical an d
u n iv ersa l d iscip lin e lost c o n ta c t w ith p h ilo so p h y ’s h istorical co n cern w ith
linguistic sy stem s^
Is it n o t c lea r, th en , th a t w h a te v e r tra n sc e n d e n c e is achieved b y a
p h ilo s o p h e r is v erb al c o n s tru c tio n a n d th e re fo re a fa c to r in a definite
in te rb e h a v io ra l field as we have in d icated . T h e n o tio n o f a priori p h ilo s­
o p h y in th e sense th a t th e h u m a n m in d c a n tra n s c e n d co n c re te in te rb e h a v ­
I io ral d o m a in s is sim ply th e a c cep tan c e o f c e rta in tra d itio n s evolved in
✓ w estern E u ro p e a n cu ltu re since th e tim e o f th e G reeks.

I —> T h e m o re recen t fo rm a l o r d e d u c tiv e p h ilo so p h e rs w h o a re n o lo n g er

in terested in tra n sc e n d in g th in g s d irectly , h av e tu rn e d to u ltim ate processes
o f in feren ce a n d re a s o n . T h e m a te ria ls th ey w o rk w ith are p rim arily
re la tio n s, a s in th e case o f d isco v erin g th e sy ste m a tic basis o f m ath em atics.
✓ T h e ir p ro d u c ts consist o f system s o f re la tio n s. A ll these th e y h an d le by
m ean s o f p ro p o s itio n s so m etim e s re g a rd e d a s sentences, b u t a t o th e r tim es
as th a t w h ich th e sentences re p re se n t o r sym b o lize. H ere th ere is a n
o p p o rtu n ity o f a d o p tin g a n in te rb e h a v io ra l view , so th a t p h ilo so p h y b e­
co m es c o n c e rn e d w ith th e fo rm a tio n a n d tra n s f o rm a tio n o f system s o f
p ro p o sitio n s.
C o u ld s u c h a view o f p h ilo so p h y p rev ail, p h ilo so p h e rs w o u ld lo o k u p o n
them selves a s en gaged in a specialized e n te r p r is e jjn s te a d th ey reg ard
II
S them selves as co n cern ed w ith processes m u c h m o re fu n d a m e n ta l an d m o re
3 p o w erfu l th a n th e c o n stru c tio n o f p ro p o s itio n a l system s, nam ely, w ith
<. ep istem o lo g ical a n d o th e r p h ilo so p h ic al issues. T h e c o n tra s t b etw een th e
tw o view s is illu stra te d by th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s p h ilo so p h ers ask c o n ­
ce rn in g p ro p o sitio n s, (a) A re p ro p o sitio n s id en tical w ith o r d ifferent fro m
' a'\ (1) e x p ressio n s o r fo rm u la tio n o f ju d g m e n ts , o p in io n s, a n d inferences, o r
\ v a re they (2) sta te m e n ts o f re la tio n s b etw e en o b jects? (b ) A re p ro p o sitio n s
(tru e ) id en tical w ith facts o r are th ey fo rm u la tio n s o r c o n stru c tio n s c o n -
c e m in g facts? (c) D o sen ten ces o r p ro p o s itio n s as a w hole refer to o r
re p resen t things an d ev en ts o r d o o n ly th e ir te rm o r w o rd co n stitu e n ts
d o so?

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T H E C O M P A R IS O N O F P R O P O SIT IO N S W ITH R E L A T E D T H IN G S

W e n o w p ro c eed to relate a n d c o m p a re p ro p o sitio n s w ith fa c to rs w ith

w hich th ey a re identified o r fro m w hich th ey a re sep a rated .
a. Propositions and sentences, [p r o b a b ly m o st w riters o n logic differen­
tia te p ro p o s itio n s a n d sen ten ces o n th e g ro u n d th a t sentences express
p ro p o sitio n s]jT h is is b o th a n a c c e p ta b le a n d a n u n a c c e p ta b le view. It is
accep ta b le in th e sense th a t w e m ay d istin g u ish b etw een a p ro p o sitio n as a
c o n s tru c te d re fe re n t a n d th e sen ten ce e m b o d y in g it o r sy m b o lizin g o r
re ferrin g to it. F o r e x a m p le , th e p ro p o s itio n th a t th e a re a o f n o sq u a re can
be e x a c tly e q u a l to th a t o f a circle is s e p a ra te d fro m th e d iscu ssio n o f th a t
m a th e m a tic a l p ro d u c t.(T h is d isc rim in a tio n is b ased u p o n th e o b se rv a tio n
o f tw o in te rb e h a v io ra l fields. O n the o n e h a n d , th e re is a co m p lex in terb e­
h a v io r w ith p o in ts, lines, su rfaces, a n d re la tio n s, a s th e u n its o f g eo m etric
figures (s q u a re s , circles) w ith in th e d o m a in o f E u c lid e a n g eo m etry . O n the
o th e r, th e re a re m an y fields, in clu d in g th e linguistic, in w h ich th e p ro p o si­
tio n a l p ro d u c t is th e th in g in tera cted w ith. G ra n te d th a t th e w o rk o f
c o n s tru c tin g th is p ro p o s itio n involves besides th in k in g a n d im ag in atio n
a c tio n a lso th e u se o f pencil a n d p a p e r, a n d th a t th e re fo re w o rd s a n d
sy m b o ls c o n s titu te p ro cesses a n d to o ls w ith w h ich w e c o n s tru c t a p ro p o si­
tio n , th e re is still n o o cc asio n to o v e rlo o k th e differences in th e fa cto rs
✓ 'in v o lv ed . F r o m a n an a ly tica l sta n d p o in t th e use o f su ch to o ls is accid en tal
a n d n o t a b so lu te ly essen tial f o r th e p ro d u c tio n o f su ch a p ro d u c t. O n the
o th e r h a n d , o n ce w e h av e developed th is p ro d u c t w e refer to it a n d reco rd
it. In b o th th ese in stan ces it is m etap h o ric ally co rrec t to say th a t the
linguistic activ ities o r th e sy m b o ls re co rd in g th e m c o n s titu te ex p ressio n s o f
th e p ro p o sitio n .
T h o s e w h o w ish to ig n o re th e w o rk o f c re a tin g th e p ro p o s itio n a n d deal
o n ly w ith th e re fere n ce to o r re c o rd in g o f it as a p ro d u c t need n o t
d istin g u ish betw een p ro p o sitio n s a n d sentences. It is im p o rta n t, h ow ever,
to b e c le a r c o n c e rn in g th e tw o situ a tio n s in volved, in o th e r w o rd s, to
re co g n iz e Jw o o p e ra tio n a l fields. hMul? /ntfiAes M t* tJ p &
b. Propositions and meaning content of sentences. W rite rs freq u en tly ^
d esc rib e a p ro p o s itio n a s th e significance o r m ea n in g c o n te n t o f a sen­
ten ce .11 T h is d e sc rip tio n is su b ject to tw o in te rp re ta tio n s, o n e o f w hich we
reject c o m p letely , w h e reas th e o th e r m ig h t be a d a p te d to o u r o w n ex posi-

11Passmore, J., A Hundred Years o f Philosophy. Harmondsworth, Penguin. 1968. p. 369.

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tion. T h e rejected in te rp re ta tio n is th a t th e signification o r m ean in g co n ten t

c o n s titu te s so m e s o rt o f p sy ch ic elem e n t o r p rocess. N o t o n ly d o we o b ject
to th e in tro d u c tio n o f psychic fa c to rs b u t a lso to o v erlo o k in g th a t the
p ro p o s itio n is a definite o b ject, a re la tio n o r fu n c tio n d ev elo p ed in co n crete
creativ e in terb e h av io r.
v ' If by th e te rm meaning content o n e u n d e rsta n d s a p ro p o sitio n -re fe re n t
w h ich is sy m b o liz ed o r ex p ressed by a sen ten ce we c a n accep t th e d esc rip ­
tio n . It is d o u b tfu l, h o w ev er, w h e th e r th is o b jectiv e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e
te rm s meaning content a n d expression is w idely recognized.
It is n o t difficult to a c c o u n t fo r th e prev alence o f th e psychic in te rp re ta ­
tio n o f m e a n in g c o n te n t. W rite rs u n d o u b te d ly a re m isled by th e fact th a t
th e p ro d u c t is n o t a p p a re n t a n d in d ep en d e n tly ex istin g u n til it is em b o d ied
in a set o f w o rd s o r sy m b o ls. L et u s a ssu m e th a t a m a th e m a tic ia n do es n o t
really h av e a th e o re m u n til he has w ritte n it o u t. In fact h e m ay n o t be ab le
to satisfy h im se lf th a t h e h a s c o n stru c te d a th e o re m u n til h e sees it in black
a n d w h ite b efo re him . N evertheless, th e p ro d u c t m a d e fro m o b served o r
c o n triv e d relatio n s need n o t be co n fu sed w ith an y so rt o f psychic factor.
s A g ain , it m ay be stro n g ly arg u ed th a t a p ro p o sitio n u n em b o d ied in
( w o r d s o r sy m b o ls is n o t a c o m p lete p ro d u c t b u t p e rh a p s o n ly a p rocess. In
r o th e r w o rd s, it m ay be difficult to sep a rate th e nascen t p ro p o sitio n fro m th e
( a c t i o n o f fo rm in g it. T h is fact in n o w ay, h o w ev er, su g gests th a t th e activity
is n o t a c o m p le te ly o b jectiv e in te rb e h a v io ra l p ro cess o r th a t th e process by
stages d o es n o t lead to a th o ro u g h ly objective creatio n .
A t th is p o in t w e face th e p ro b le m o f “ logical” 12 ex isten ce. It is o b v io u s
th a t p ro p o s itio n s only ex ist in in te rb e h a v io ral fields a n d b y v irtu e o f
n in te rb e h a v io ra l ev e n ts. A s fo rm u latio n s o f observed relatio n s o r co n stru c-
II ti ons c o n c e rn in g ev e n ts th ey exist o n ly as a b s tra c tio n s. T h e y a re stim u lu s
ob jects o r referen ts d ea lt w ith th ro u g h s u b stitu te stim u li (th in g s o r events)
a t th e tim e o f p ro d u c tio n a n d th e sam e things o r ev en ts p lu s s o u n d o r script
w h en th ey a re o th erw ise in teracted w ith (referred to , stu d ie d , etc.). A s
fa c to rs (stim u lu s objects) in in terb e h av io ral fields th ey a re sp a tio -te m p o ra l
a n d objective.131

11We emphasize Ihc term logical lo indicate that it is here used in the conventional sense of something
non-existing. In other words, it does not exist as lahlesand planelsexist. An example frequently given
of such non-exislenls is a hippogriff.
11Wclirmly oppose Dewey's assertions (Log/V. The Theory o f Inquiry. New York. Holt. 1938, pp. 45.
117, 271, el pawimi concerning the non-temporality of propositional terms and relations. Such
assertions certainly imply an objectionable view concerning the non-naturalistic character of logical
things and events.

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A n e x a m p le o f th e e v o lu tio n o f a m a th e m a tic a l p ro p o sitio n m a y b e used

to c le a r u p th e p o in ts in volved here. A m a th e m a tic ia n w o rk in g w ith p rim e
n u m b e rs m ig h t cre a te th e n o tio n (th e o re m ) th a t fo r a n y v alu e n to w hich 22
c a n b e ra ise d a p rim e n u m b e r is o b ta in e d b y th e a d d itio n o f 1. T h is
p ro p o s itio n m a y be cre a te d b y ac tu a lly try in g o u t su ch v alu es f o r n a s 0 , 1,
2 ,3 , a n d 4, o r th e try in g o u t p ro cess m a y follow by w ay o f d e m o n s tra tin g
th e tru th o f th e p ro p o sitio n . In th e fo rm e r case th e p ro p o sitio n is created by
in te ra c tin g w ith p rim e a n d c o m p o u n d n u m b e rs w h ich a re h a n d le d b y
v e rb a l-a c tio n su b stitu te s o r by w ritten o u t in tegers. In b o th cases it is
po ssib le th a t th e th e o re m -p ro p o s itio n h as o n ly b een referred to v erb ally
e ith e r in th e c o n s tru c tio n a l p ro c ed u re o r a fte r th e n o tio n w as cre a te d . T h e
w h o le set o f o p e ra tio n s need on ly b e d escrib ed as co m p letely objective
events.
O n ly w h e n th e m a th e m a tic ia n is satisfied th a t he h a s c re a te d a valid
th e o re m d o e s he w rite it d o w n , p e rh a p s o n ly in a le tte r to be sent to
so m e o n e fo r an aly sis. S u c h sentences in w hich th e p ro p o sitio n is referred to
o r re p re se n te d as in th e fo rm u la 22" + 1 = p c o n stitu te definite th in g s a d d e d
to th e p ro p o s itio n o r th eo re m .

LIN G U ISTIC PH IL O SO PH Y A N D PH IL O SO PH Y IN G E N E R A L
A s u m m a riz in g e v a lu a tio n o f L in g u istic P h ilo so p h y b rin g s to light a
n u m b e r o f a d v a n ta g e s fo r th e ev o lu tio n o f th e p h ilo so p h ic al en terp rise.
T h e in te n tio n to ex c lu d e m etap h y sical n o tio n s a lo n e a p p e a rs as a m a rk e d
ad v a n c e in p h ilo so p h ic a l th in k in g . T h e n th ere is th e stirrin g u p o f p ro b lem s
c o n c e rn in g th e p lan a n d m e th o d s o f p h ilo so p h y zing.
B u t w h e n th e q u e s tio n o f p e rm a n e n t ac h ie v em en t is in o rd e r, th e final
resu lts o f th e m a n y p a rtic ip a n ts o f th e m o v e m en t offer little e n c o u rag e­
m en t. T h e L in g u istic P h ilo so p h y interval fails to d e p a rt fro m m etap h y sica l
p u rs u its. T h e in te rv a l d o e s n o t b re ak c o n n e c tio n w ith th e g en e ral p h ilo ­
so p h ical tra d itio n w h ich is e n sh ro u d e d in d u a listic ra im e n t. P h ilo so p h y
re m a in s still o n ly v erb ally o p p o se d to th e m etap h y sical tra d itio n .
A s to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f linguistic reso u rces fo r use in p h ilo so p h ic al
d iscu ssio n , th e L in g u istic P h ilo so p h y in terv al scores d istin c t d isa p p o in t­
m en t. T h e n a tu re a n d fu n c tio n , o f lan g u a g e is g re a tly m isin te rp re te d .
A cco rd in g ly , la n g u a g e as a n in s tru m e n t fo r im p ro v in g p h ilo so p h y is a frail
reed to rely u p o n .
A p rim a ry fa ilu re o f th e L in g u istic P h ilo s o p h y lies in th e m isco n ce p tio n
o f th e n a tu re o f p sychology. It is tru e th a t so m e m em b ers o f th e L ing u istic
P h ilo s o p h y g ro u p u rg e th e a b a n d o n m e n t o f th e d u a listic o r tw o -w o rld

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L S Y S T E M S IN S U C C E S S I O N

d o g m a 14, b u t this tu rn s o u t to be on ly verbal. W h a t is essential is to describe

psychological ev en ts as in terb e h av io rs w ith specific o bjects (stim uli) u n ­
d e r p a rtic u la r circu m stan ces. O rg a n o c e n tric d esc rip tio n s o f psycholog­
ical ev en ts are n o t on ly incom plete, b u t b la n k fo rm s calling fo r psychic
filling in.

I “ For example Ryle, in his book. The Concept o f Mind (London, Hutchinson House. 1949). but
I the notion of mind is retained though renamed dispositions and organizations.
 CHAPTER 9
TOWARDS SIGNIFICANT PHILOSOPHYZING

G U ID E T O V A LID T H IN K IN G

T h e p rim a ry v a lu e o f p assin g in review th e v a rio u s in terv als in th e

h isto ry o f p h ilo so p h y is th e in tim a tio n it p ro v id es o f im p ro v in g th e g o al
a n d sc o p e o f p h ilo so p h y zin g . T h e p ro b le m is w h a t to a v o id , a n d w h a t to
ac cep t. A b o v e all, o n e m a y be e n c o u ra g e d b y th e g ra d u a l m in im iz a tio n o f
th e tra n sc e n d e n ta lism w h ich keeps p h ilo so p h y in b o n d a g e . T o get rid o f
o tio s e p ro b le m s o p e n s u p th e w a y to w a rd b e tte r p h ilo so p h y zin g . In th e
fo llo w in g pag es I p ro p o s e so m e specifications fo r w h a t to av o id a n d w h at
to receive w hile fo rm u la tin g a sy stem o f p h ilo so p h ical p ro p o sitio n s.

SPE C IFIC A T IO N I.

F R E E D O M FR O M M E T A P H Y SIC A L IN ST IT U T IO N S

W h a t is p lain ly in d icated is th a t th in k e rs m u st free them selves fro m th e

a n c ie n t a n d p o w e rfu l d u a listic influences th a t s ta n d b etw een th e m a n d
c o n fro n ta b le th in g s a n d events. N o valid p h ilo so p h ic al th in k in g c a n to ler­
a te c o m m erce w ith sp irits w h e th e r gods, angels, d em o n s, o r p ow ers o f su ch
v e rb al creatio n s.
B u t ca n th is be ac co m p lish e d ? Yes, th e re is n o th in g to p re v e n t this fro m
h a p p e n in g . W e m u s t assu m e th a t it is o n ly n ec essary to a c q u ire a n
in tim a c y w ith o n g o in g events. F o r o n e th in g , o n e m u st realize th a t p h ilo s­
o p h e rs a re p e rso n s a n d n o t c o m p rised o f b o dies, souls, o r m in d s th a t c a n
o n ly d is to rt th in g s in tera cted w ith o r cre a te th em .
W e a re re m in d e d h ere o f th e p e re n n ia l a rg u m e n t th a t if o n e c a n n o t
p ro v e th e ex isten c e o f G o d , n e ith e r c a n o n e d isp ro v e it. T h e g re a t fallacy
Here is t h a t th e a rg u m e n t is b u ilt o n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e re is a G o d
p ro b le m to p ro v e o r d isp ro v e . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e re is a lso o v e rlo o k e d
th a t a rg u m e n ts a re th e a sse rtio n s o f p e rso n s a n d n o th in g is easier th a n to
tra c e o u t th e o rig in a n d basis o f su ch a ssu m p tio n s. H e n ce it is p ossible to
an a ly z e th e c u ltu ra l b a c k g ro u n d th a t m ak es p o ssib le a n d en co u rag es
th eistic assu m p tio n s. A s we have seen, s u p e rn a tu ra l tra d itio n s g ro w u p in
p a rtic u la r k in d s o f social, political, a n d e c o n o m ic circ u m sta n ces a n d
b ec o m e diffused to o th e r localities th a t a re receptive to th em .

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 P H I L O S O P H I C A L S Y S T E M S IN S U C C E S S I O N

W h e n w e a r e ca lle d u p o n to an a ly z e a n d e v a lu a te th e n a tu re a n d th e
failings o f p h ilo s o p h y th r o u g h o u t its c o n tin u ity since th e beginnings o f th e
tra n s c e n d e n ta l e ra , w e c a n p o in t w ith a s s u ra n c e to th e false ideas th e n
e n g e n d e re d c o n c e rn in g p h ilo so p h ers a n d th e ir b asic p o stu la tio n . F ro m
th a t p e rio d o n to th is d a te , p erso n s a s well a s th e w o rld h av e b een d ic h o to ­
m ized in to so u ls a n d flesh, m in d s a n d b o d ies, egos a n d b ra in s, m in d a n d
m a tte r, a n d sim ila r dualities.
In tra in w ith th ese d u a lism s c o m e su c h p uzzles as th e ex isten ce o r
k n o w led g e o f o th e r m inds, w h e th e r th e m in d creates reality o r th e exist­
ence o f a n o u te r w o rld , a n d so on.

SPE C IFIC A T IO N II. FR E E D O M FR O M U N IV E R SA L ISM

T ra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h ers have p re su m e d to fo rm u la te p ro p o sitio n s

a b o u t th e e n tire u n iv erse b o th c u ltu ra l a n d cosm ic. T h a t is a so rt o f
p a r a n o ic a s s u m p tio n th a t needs to b e ch a n g ed ra d ically if p h ilo so p h y is to
b e o f a n y significance a t all. S u c h to talities b e sp e a k a resid u al heritag e
ste m m in g fro m so m e religious ty p e o f th in k in g . T o ta lk a n d ex p lain
e v e ry th in g a t o n ce is to p lu n g e in to a m aze o f m ean in g less beliefs a n d
a u tistic v e rb al inventions.

SPE C IFIC A T IO N III. FR EED O M FR O M A BSO LU TES

T h e re co rd s o f p h ilo so p h y zin g are strew n w ith c o n c ern fo r ab so lu tes o f

v a rio u s types, fo r ex a m p le , ab so lu te certain ty, a b so lu te existence, ab so lu te
tru th . A ll su c h a b so lu te s w h e th e r o f th in k in g o r o f objects, a re to be
b an ish ed fro m th e realm o f serious re fle c tio a
A w o rk a b le a n d c o n se q u en tial p h ilo so p h y clearly m u st rid itself o f such
a lie n a tio n , fro m events a n d reflective b eh a v io r. O nly co n fu sio n a n d ignor­
a n c e ca n c o m e fro m false know ledge a n d im ag in ary o rie n ta tio n w hich is
e n c o u ra g e d b y th e fallacious ideas co n c ern in g m a n a n d his w orld.
N o w h e re in th e d o m a in o f p h ilo so p h y is th e re ro o m fo r su c h categories as
th e a b so lu te , th e infinite, a n d sim ilar in v en tio n s. A u th e n tic p h ilo so p h y is
different fro m th e se a rc h fo r u ltim ate s, th e sp iritu al, th e m aterial, th e quest
fo r c e rtain ty , th e p a th w a y to reality, a n d o th e r su ch a b e rra tio n s co n cern ­
ing ac tu a l p ro b lem s, an d so on.

SPE C IFIC A T IO N IV. INHIBITION O F R EIFY IN G C O N ST R U C T S

It is a n u n fo r tu n a te aspect o f tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y zin g th a t co n stru c ts

b o th o f a co m p letely im ag in ativ e kind o r based o n so m e p artially observed

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 T O W A R D S S I G N I F I C A N T F H I LOS OP H Y Z I N G

ev en t are m a d e in to a n in d ep en d e n tly existing th in g o r event. P h ilo so p h i­

cal lite ra tu re is full o f discussions a b o u t w h a t is real a n d w h at is illusion,
a b o u t c re a to rs , a b o u t a b so lu te o m n iscen t a n d o m n ip o te n t perso n alities
a n d so on.

SPE C IF IC A T IO N V. W IT H D R A W A L FR O M T R A N SC E N D E N C E S

E ven scientifically inclined p h ilo so p h ers d o n o t hesitate to ex h ib it g reat

k n o w led g e a b o u t th e u n k n o w a b le . T h is sim ply is a h a n g o v e r fro m th e tim e
w h e n p h ilo s o p h e rs im b u ed w ith religious ideas p laced g reat sto re by
invisible p e rso n s a n d pow ers. T h ey c o u ld ta lk a n d w rite a b o u t th e h id d en
a n d th e u n k n o w n . T h e ir a rg u m e n ts w ere centered a b o u t schem es fo r
p ro v in g th e v alu e a n d im p o rta n c e o f th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l w orld. T h e m o re \
th ey su p p o se d k n o w led g e o f tr a n s c e n d e n ta l w as im p o ssib le th e m o re th ey J
co u ld discuss a n d a rg u e a b o u t them .
E v id en ce f o r th e p ersisten c e o f th e tra n sc e n d e n ta l m o tiv es in th e p h ilo ­
so p h ic a l tra d itio n s is th e m o d ificatio n o f th e se g o a ls fo r th e u ltim a te a n d
a b s o lu te in to th e p e rso n a listic triu n e o f G o d , F re e d o m , a n d Im m o rta lity .
S in c e th e e p iste m o lo g ic a l e r a o f th e e ig h te e n th cen tu ry , it is th e m a tte r o f
b elief in th e d iv in e, t h e m o ra l, a n d th e p e rs o n a l su rv iv al th a t in tere ste d th e
th in k e rs o f th a t p h a s e o f th e intellectual c o n tin u u m .

SPE C IF IC A T IO N VI. D ISSO C IA TIO N FR O M V E R B A L PU ZZLES

A u n iq u e m a rk o f significance fo r psy ch o lo g ical p ro p o sitio n s is w h e th e r

th e p h ilo s o p h e r h a s d isso c ia te d h im self fro m v erb al puzzles. I n an c ie n t
tim es Z e n o c o n s tru c te d sta te m e n ts to th e effect th a t m o tio n w as n o t
p o ssib le o n th e g ro u n d th a t b o d ies h a d to b e so m e w h e re alw ay s. T h is
p u z z le d e p a rts w id ely fro m m o d e rn th in k in g w h e n b o d ies a r e m ain ly
c h a ra c te riz e d a s m o v in g a n d a c tin g ^ T is really needless to p o in t o u t th a t
a d v a n ta g e is ta k e n o f th e p a rtic u la r w ays w o rd s c a n b e in terp reted .
M o re m o d e m v erb a l puzzles c e n te r a ro u n d m en talistic entities. Q u es­
tion s a re a sk e d a b o u t h o w o n e can k n o w w h e th e r o th e r p erso n s have
m in d s, w h e th e r th e w o rld is o n e o r m an y , th e reality o f sp ac e a n d tim e.
F a m o u s a r e th e p u zzles o f w h e th e r th e to rto ise c a n w in a ra c e fro m a h are.
O th e r sam p les o f su c h p se u d o q u e stio n s are: A re th e re a n y g ap s in th e series
o f n a tu ra l n u m b e rs? Is it p o ssib le fo r 2 + 2 ? M ? C a n w e be c e rta in th a t
th ere is a n e x te rn a l w o rld b ey o n d ones o w n consciousness?

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SPEC IFICA TIO N VII. V A L ID LING UISTICS

O n ly th o se w h o observe th e p ro p e r n a tu re a n d fu n c tio n s o f speech a n d

o th e r fo rm s o f lan g u ag e ca n h o p e to av o id th e e rro rs o f h isto rical philos­
o p h y , a n d to a tta in a valid n a tu ra listic a ttitu d e to w a rd s th e th ings a n d
events o f a n ac tu a l am bience.
T o d ev e lo p p ro p e r a ttitu d e s to w a rd o n eself a n d th e s u rro u n d in g cir­
cu m stan ces o f o n e’s a c tu a l w orld is to b e alert to th e d ev elo p m en t o f speech
a n d its p ro d u c ts. In this w ay o n e c a n a b ju re triv ial a n d n o n sen sical q u es­
tio n s a n d s ta te m e n ts. N o significant o r u seful p u rp o s e c a n b e served by
su c h q u estio n s as: “ H o w d o .y o u k n o w I h av e tw o eyes?” H o w w o u ld things
be if they w ere different?
A c c u ra te a n d useful lan g u ag e th e o ry in p h ilo so p h ical th in k in g serves
a d m ira b ly to ch eck th e c o n stru c tio n o f fables a n d fa iry tales w h en descrip­
tio n s a n d ju d g m e n ts a re required.

SPE C IFIC A T IO N VIII. V A L ID PSY C H O LO G Y

S ig n ifican t p h ilo so p h y zin g c a n o n ly be b ase d u p o n valid n o tio n s o f

psychology. T h is re q u irem en t p erta in s to every p h a se o f th e p h ilo so p h y z­
in g en terp rise. T o begin w ith, th e th in k e r o r th e b u ild er o f a philo so p h ical
system m u st be keenly aw are o f th e ac tu a l n a tu re o f psychological p erfo rm ­
ances, especially th in k in g . In general valid th in k in g d ep e n d s u p o n p ro p e r
b asic p ro to p o s tu la te s a n d succeeding specific p o stu la tio n . O bjective o r
n atu ra listic psych o lo g y precludes all so rts o f pow ers b ey o n d o b serv atio n s
o r inferences fro m observances. P ro p o sitio n s th u s fo rm u la te d will n o t
o v erstep b e y o n d th e lim its o f possible c o n fro n ta tio n s o f th e th in k e r w ith
th in g s a n d events. A lso, valid psychology w ill serve as criteria fo r th e
seriousness o r o riginality o f th e th in k in g p ro d u cts.
S pecifically valid psychology will d ictate a strict d ifferen tiatio n betw een
stim uli, th a t is, o b jects a n d events c o n fro n te d w ith, a n d th e responses
to w a rd th o s e things. F u rth e rm o re , th e a tte m p t to describ e psychological
a c tio n s o r processes w ith ac cu ra cy will serve to k eep p ro p o sitio n s w ithin
th e b o u n d s o f a c tu a l o b se rv a tio n s a n d serve to c o n tro l th e influences u p o n
th e th in k e r w ith respect to th e sources o f his p ro p o sitio n a l stru ctu res.

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 S E C T IO N

II
The Philosopher
and His World
 CHAPTER 10
NATURE OF HUMAN NATURE

Philosopher as Human Being. T o be lib erated fro m tra d itio n a l institu­

tio n s is to be free fro m th e e rro n e o u s n o tio n th a t th e p h ilo so p h er is a
u n iq u e cre a tu re w ith in n ate pow ers th a t d ifferentiate him fro m th e rest o f
his fellow c reatu re s.[N o , th e p h ilo so p h er is a p erso n w h o has evolved
w ithin a d istinctive m ilieu to be o bservant, u n d e rsta n d in g , an d expressive^
Being a p h ilo so p h er is n o different fro m being a n artist, a craftsm an , a
scientist, o r a physician. H o w an d w h at th e p h ilo so p h er believes o r thinks
is a fu n c tio n o f th e experiences passed th ro u g h in th e course o f his o r her
develop m en t. T o be a p h ilo so p h er is only to be a n in stan ce o r ex am p le o f
th e invariable law o f individual differences o r v a ria tio n s in psychological
traits. T h e fact o f in d iv id u a l differences is itself o nly a featu re o f th e
co n stan t v aria b ility in all events, w h eth er o rg a n ic o r inorganic. N o t to
ap p reciate this is to m iss o n e o f the m o st im p o rta n t prem ises o f au th en tic
philoso p h y . Im p lied in this a ssu m p tio n is th e c o n tin u ity w hich begins in
th e p rim a ry o rig in o f o rg a n ic things a n d events, a n d w h ich culm inates in
the activities o f thinkers. T h is basic a ssu m p tio n reinforces the natu ralistic
view point th a t characterizes th e co n ten t of this volum e.
In su p p o rt o f th e n atu ra listic assu m p tio n s o f this treatise I consider
briefly th e general n a tu re o f th e th in k er o r p h ilo so p h er as a n observer and
interpreter. T h is ex cu rsio n in to th e d o m a in o f psychology th ro w s light on
th e n atu re o f k now ledge a n d thinking, show ing th e p o w er an d lim itations
o f th e p h ilo so p h e r as he p roceeds to ad a p t to an d describe his w orld, th a t
is, th e o b jects a n d co n d itio n s n o t o nly o f his s u rro u n d in g s b u t also o f
him self in relatio n to th a t w orld.
Human Being as Philosopher. Since th e pro cess o f philosophyzing is the
activity o f h u m a n beings, it is essential to be fully co g n izan t o f th e kind o f
activities th e p h ilo so p h e r is ca p ab le o f a n d lim ited to . T h e p h ilo so p h er is a
p rim ate o f th e h u m a n species, living w ithin th e b o u n d s o f a p articu lar
e n v iro n m e n t w ith all its ad v a n ta g es a n d d isad v an tag es. W h a t this signifies
11 is th a t th e p h ilo so p h er’s situ a tio n is com pletely d ev oid o f all su p ern atu ral
' aspects. W h a t th e o rg a n ism called a p h ilo so p h er ca n d o is lim ited by his
ev o lu tio n a n d th e co rre la te d things a n d events w h ich m a r or m ak e th a t
evolution.
*)T O ne o f th e fu n d a m e n tal tra its th a t th e h u m a n o rg an ism has developed is

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 N A T U R E OF H U M A N N A T U R E

p a rtic u la r tra its o r tale n ts ra n g e fro m in c o m p eten t o r re ta rd e d p erso n s to

th o se generally re g a rd e d as greatly c o m p e te n t geniuses.
Evolution o f Psychological Competency. S in ce h u m a n o rg a n ism s are
social beings, th e p e a k s re ach e d by in d iv id u als a re in teg rated a n d co m ­
p o u n d e d in g re at m e a su re o n th e basis o f p ro d u c ts ac cru in g fro m the
in te ra c tio n s o f all so rts w ith things a n d events. T h u s h u m a n o rg an ism s
ach iev e g re at p o w ers an d effectiveness in in n u m e ra b le w ays. T h ey becom e
efficient as to o lm a k e rs, physicians, craftsm en , th in k ers, social o rg an izers,
a n d a rtists o f v ario u s types.

M A N K IN D A S BIOSOCIAL A N D C U L T U R A L O R G A N IS M S

W h ile h u m a n o rg a n ism s belo n g to th e a n im al c o n tin u u m as descend-

ents o f a p e s o r o th e r ev o lu tio n al an teced en ts, they a re also creatu re s o f
cu ltu re . T h u s th ey a re im m ersed in tw o series o f th in g s a n d events.
F re q u e n tly sp eech is re g ard e d as a d istin ctiv e m a rk o f difference betw een
h u m a n a n d n o n h u m a n o rg an ism s. H ow ever, o th e r a n im a ls in th e ev o lu ­
tio n a ry scale also p e rfo rm referential a c tio n s th o u g h o f a n extrem ely
sim p le so rt. W h a t d o e s c o u n t as a c rite rio n o f difference is th e tra it o f
b u ild in g u p a co m p lex a n d p e rm a n e n t civil society w ith a p le th o ra o f
objects, social b e h a v io r (ritu als, custom s, styles o f living), a n d in stitu tio n s
1 o f n u m e ro u s varieties. H u m a n beings a re n o t o n ly b iological o rg a n ism s
i
b u t civil o r social beings also.
T h e psych o lo gical aspects o f civil life o r c u ltu ra l existence a re o f course
ex tre m ely co m p lex . T h e v a rio u s in stitu tio n s a n d p ractices ex e rt influences
u p o n all th e v a rio u s b eh a v io rs o f p e rso n s in clu d in g lan g u ag e, beliefs,
m o d e s o f th in k in g , a n d c o n v e n tio n a l p ractices. A lth o u g h all su ch b eh a v ­
io rs a re c o n c re te n a tu ra l events, it has been a serio u s an d d isto rtin g p o stu re
to re g ard h u m a n in d iv id u als as m ystical beings. A strik in g ex a m p le is
H a m let’s ev o catio n .

What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! how infinite in faculties! in form and
moving, how express and admirable! in action.how like an angel! in apprehension, how
like a god! the beauty of the world! the paragon of animals!

a. Homo Sapiens in Cultural Evolution. F ro m a biological s ta n d p o in t,

h u m a n a n im a ls a re sim ply o rg an ism s th a t have reached a c e rta in stage o f
d ev e lo p m e n t very sim ilar to th a t o f o th e r p rim ates. In fact, stru ctu ra lly th e
h o m o o rg a n ism is very close to th e ap es. B ut m a n k in d a lso has u n d e rg o n e
a n o th e r a n d a d ifferent e v o lu tio n so th a t h u m a n o rg an ism s are ca p ab le o f
p e rfo rm in g b e h a v io r n o t possible fo r th eir biological cousins. In brief.

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c. Scientific Psychology and Scientific Philosophy. G ra n tin g th a t th e

stu d y o f th e o rig in a n d d ev e lo p m e n t o f psychological perso n alities reveals
th e n a tu ra lis tic c h a ra c te r o f h u m a n p sy ch o lo gy, th ere follow n u m e ro u s
inferences a b o u t th e re la tio n s h ip o f psychology' to p h ilo so p h y . T h e n a tu re
a n d e v o lu tio n o f psy ch o lo g ical p erso n alities b e a r a u th e n tic evidence co n ­
ce rn in g th e o rig in a n d d ev e lo p m e n t o f th e a ttitu d e s w h ich co n stitu te the
sub ject m a tte r o f p h ilo so p h y . It is evident th a t a u th e n tic o r scientific
p h ilo so p h y c a n n o t a b id e th e tra d itio n a l g en eralities, a n d a b so lu ten e ss th at
h isto ry u n ro lls th ro u g h th e ages. A scientific psychology en ab les us to
d istin g u ish clearly a n d effectively betw een ideas based o n c o n fro n ta tio n
w ith ev en ts a n d c o rre c t inferences derived from th e o b serv atio n o f events,
a n d th e fan tasies a n d v erb ig e ratio n s created by p seu d o p h ilo so p h ers.
In this c o n n e c tio n it is su g g ested th a t w e c o n tra s t ideas c o n c ern in g , for
e x a m p le , th e u n re a c h a b le infinities o f sp ace o n th e basis o f local o b serv a­
tio n s w ith p u re ly in v en ted tales. A g ain , a scientific p sy ch o lo g y calls an
e m p h a tic h alt to th e in jectio n o f su ch ideas as m atter, spirit, divinity,
vitalism , a b s o lu te pow ers, s u p e rn a tu ra lism , in to p h ilo so p h ical system s.

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 C H A P T E R II
THE INTIMACY OF PHILOSOPHY A N D SCIENCE1

G ra n tin g th a t p h ilo so p h y consists o f th e in tellectu al re actio n s o f p ersons

to th e th in g s a n d events th ey en c o u n te r, a n d w h ich aid a n d s u p p o rt th em ,
th e re is im m e d iately im plied a re la tio n b etw een p h ilo so p h y a n d science.
Science is a n ex te n sio n o f th e o rd in a ry in te rb e h a v io r w ith th in g s a n d rests
u p o n th e fac t th a t it co n stitu te s th e m o st m eticu lo u s a n d ex p e rt aw areness
o n h F a m b i e n t ^ c o n d itio n s o f th in k in g , in dividuals. O f co u rse, scientists
re q u ire "checking f o r c o n fo rm ity w ith th e p rim a ry fu n c tio n s o f scientific
w o rk . O f a su re ty scientists are c o n sta n tly ru n n in g in to “ p h ilo so p h ical
issues.”
O n th e o th e r h a n d , it m u st be recognized th a t p h ilo so p h y is a n inevitable
b a c k g ro u n d fo r all in tellectu al e n te rp rises. F o r it is a w ell fo u n d e d oenel
th a t n o reflective asp ect o f m a n ’s w o rk rests u p o n a m o re su p p o rtiv e"
fo u n d a tio n th a n a p ro p e r p h ilo so p h y . O n ly a glance a t th e scientific scene
co n v in ce s u s th a t scientists a re c o n s ta n tly ru n n in g in to m etascientific
p ro b lem s. A cco rd in g ly , m a n y recen t e x p e rim e n ta l a n d th eo re tic al scien­
tists su ch a s J e a n s , E d d in g to n , H eisen b erg , B o h r, S ch ro d in g e r, B o m , a n d
B rid g m a n , to n a m e a few , have o ccu p ied them selves w ith p h ilo so p h ical
p ro b lem s.
*£■ W e c a n n o t, th e n b u t a p p la u d scientists fo r developing a n in tere st in
p h ilo s o p h y , a n d f o r im p le m e n tin g th is in terest. In th is w a y th e y sh o w th e ir
a p p re c ia tio n o f th e p eren n ial co rrig jb ility o f sc ien c efN atu re a n d c u ltu re a re
^ ' c o n s ta n tly c h a n g in g , so science m u st p erio d ic ally re co n sid er its prem ises if
it is to re g ister p ro g res£ ]C erta in ly th is h as b ee n th e h isto ry o f science. W ith
th e a d v e n t o f relativ ity a n d q u a n tu m m ech an ics, physicists, f o r ex am p le,
h a v e a g a in b e e n fo rced t o p o n d e r th e n a tu re o f k n o w led g e , a n d its re la tio n
to ex isten ce. T h u s they h av e b ec o m e a b s o rb e d in o p e ra tio n ism , co m p le­
m e n tarity , a n d th e q u e stio n w h eth er n a tu re is th e sam e a s th e kno w led g e o f
n a tu re . A t a n y ra te , b y s tu d y in g th e fo u n d a tio n s a n d th e significance o f
th e ir science, scientists reveal th e ir aw aren e ss o f th e n eed to test, to im ­
p ro v e, a n d som etim es to replace established ax io m s.
B u t h o ld , a re w e n o t ru n n in g h ere in to a se rio u s p a ra d o x ? M a y scientists

1The material of this chapter is a modified version of an article entitled, “Scientific Psychology and
Specious Philosophy.' first published in the Psychological Record, 1969, 19, 15-27.

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re p u d ia te th e p ro p o sitio n th a t only a fte r th e ir discipline freed itself fro m

th e fetters o f p h ilo so p h y co u ld it b ecom e a science? Is it n o t th e case th a t,
o n ly afte r scientists ceased to o ccupy them selves w ith th e v acu o u s sp ecu la­
tio n s o f tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y and b eg a n to follow in th e fo o tstep s o f the
dissecting physiologists, th e q u an tizin g chem ists, a n d th e m a n ip u latin g
physicists, did th ey a tta in a solid basis fo r th e ir d o m a in ? F ro m th e h istory
o f p sy ch o lo g y we learn th a t it was a g reat re v o lu tio n in th in k in g w hen
stu d e n ts o f psychological ev en ts hit u p o n th e d istin c tio n betw een ra tio n al
j-^ ^ Jlia t is speculative — a n d em pirical o r o b serv atio n al psychology. \
X 'G re a t in d eed is th e p a r a d o x we face here. S cience w ith o u t p h ilo so p h y is
without ru d d e r o r co m p ass, b u t p h ilo so p h y itself m ay b e inconsequential,
\ m islead in g , a n d ev en fallacious. W e c a n n o t h o p e to solve th is p a ra d o x /
W ith o u t a th o ro u g h analysis o f philosophy. S u ch a stu d y so o n reveals th a t/
jthere are v ario u s ty p es o f p h ilo so p h y , o f w hich o n ly so m e a re beneficial for
/science. M o re o v er, we learn th a t a n a u th e n tic p h ilo so p h y is available,
/th o u g h th e p revailing p h ilo so p h y is specious. _____
It is o b v io u sly im p o ssib le to m ak e th e k in d o f an aly sis o u r p ro b le m
d e m a n d s in a lim ited space; still, I h o p e to suggest th e lines a lo n g w hich
su ch a stu d y sh o u ld proceed.
A t th e very th resh o ld o f o u r analysis we m u st o rie n t ourselves in th e
p h ilo so p h ic al field. O b v io u sly , we a re p rim arily interested in th e philos­
o p h y o f science, b u t im m ed iately w e d isco v er th a t th e re is ac tu a lly n o
difference b etw een general trad itio n al p h ilo so p h y a n d th e co n v en tio n al
p h ilo so p h y o f science. T h e basis a n d c o re o f c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y o f
science is j u s t tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y . P ic k u p a n y b o o k o n th e su b ject an d
y o u will find th e fa m ilia r o n to lo g ical a n d ep istem o lo g ical m aterials; th e
d e sc rip tio n o f ra tio n a lism , em piricism , p ositivism , a n d sim ilar ism s d o w n
to logical p o sitiv ism a n d linguistic analysis. Y o u will b e regaled w ith the
th in k in g o f D e sc arte s, L o ck e, L eibniz, Berkeley, a n d H u m e , as w ell a s o f
m a n y o th e rs w h o h av e historically e x p o u n d e d th e difference betw een
th o u g h t a n d ex ten sio n , reality a n d a p p e a ra n c e, m o n ism a n d p lu ralism ,
n o u m e n a a n d p h e n o m e n a , a n d tru th a n d e rro r. M o re o v er, th e tre a tm e n t
o f th ese to p ic s h a rd ly differs fro m th e th eo lo g ical h a n d lin g o f th e co g n a te
p ro b le m s o f th e ex isten c e a n d tire n a tu re o f G o d , th e freed o m o f th e will,

f
a n d th e im m o ra lity o f th e soul.'iThe difference betw een th e sacred a n d the
p ro fa n e types o f p h ilo so p h y lies only in th e q u estio n ab le belief th a t so m e­
h o w th e la tte r ca n be asso c ia te d w ith scientific m a t t e r s ^
-:ll*
I f th e re a d e r c o n clu d es fro m w hat I h av e ju s t said th a t scientists sh o u ld
be w a ry o f p lu n g in g in to th e stream o f p h ilo so phy, his inference is correct.

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B u t o n th e o th e r h a n d , he is w ro n g to th in k th a t I am re tre a tin g o n e inch

fro m th e p o sitio n th a t p h ilo so p h y is o f g re at use to all th e sciences. B ut
alw ays th e em p h asis is, it m u st be a valid philo sophy.
I v en tu re th e in te rp re ta tio n th a t w h e n scien tists d eclared th eir in d ep en d ­
en ce fro m p h ilo so p h y th ey w ere re fe rrin g to a p a rtic u la r k in d o f philos­
o p h y , o n e th a t w as inim ical to th e p u rsu it o f scientific studies. B ut this is
q u ite a differen t th in g fro m rejectin g p h ilo so p h y . A s in all h u m a n situ a­
tio n s, n o d e p a rtm e n t o f th o u g h t, n o in tellectu al in stitu tio n is single an d
in v aria b le . W e m u st a b id e by th e ru le o f specificity. T h e re is n o ab stra ct
V p h ilo so p h y , o n ly p a rtic u la r kinds. T h o s e w h o reject a sp u rio u s p h ilo so p h y
„ . m ay h o p e to d isco v er a g en u in e one!
A t th is p o in t w e m u st be re m in d e d th a t th e re is a n in sev erab le co n n ec­
tio n betw een p h ilo so p h y an d psychology. A side fro m th e fact th a t philos­
o p h y is a p ro c ess a n d a p ro d u c t o f h u m a n b eh a v io r, th e re never has been a
tim e w h e n p sy ch o lo g y h as n o t been suffused w ith m etap h y sical philos­
o p h y . C o n s id e r o n ly th e fa m o u s p erso n s in th e q u a n tiz a tio n a n d experi­
m ental trad itio n . H e rb a rt, W u n d t, K iilpe, E b b in g h au s, a n d H elm holtz were
all p h ilo so p h e rs o r u n d e r th e d irect influence o f p a rtic u la r philosophies. It
is well k n o w n h o w ca p tiv a te d H e lm h o ltz w as by K a n t, d esp ite his o cca­
sio n al d isag re em en ts w ith him . In deed, if w e a c c o rd F e c h n e r th e h o n o r o f
b eing th e g ra n d fa th e r o f e x p e rim e n ta l p sy ch o lo g y , we m u s t ta k e a c c o u n t
o f th e in te rre la tio n o f ex p e rim en tal psych o lo g y w ith religious m ysticism .
F u rth e rm o re , a n a n a ly tic e x a m in a tio n o f th e cu rren tly accepted m o d el o f
sen so ry a n d p e rc e p tu a l b e h a v io r reveals th e ep istem o lo g ical influence o f
' L ocke, B erkeley, H u m e, a n d K a n t u p o n its fo rm u la tio n . E ven if it is tru e ■
th a t m u c h o f th e psychology o f learn in g superficially escapes th e influence
o f tra d itio n a l p h ilosophy, this is ce rtain ly n o t tru e o f th e psychology o f
p erso n ality , o f percep tio n , o f m o tiv a tio n , o f m em o ry , a n d o f th inking. -
In th e light o f th e h isto ry o f science, it sh o u ld b e clea r w hy th e relatio n
betw-een p h ilo so p h y an d science is th o ro u g h ly reciprocal. E ac h is in­
fluenced by th e o th e r. [A b a d p h ilo so p h y in v a ria b ly c o m p o rts w ith b ad
science a n d vice-versa7]In general, to o , it is fa ta l fo r a n y science to be
u n ilatera lly d o m in a te d by a n y au tistically fo rm u late d p h ilo so p h y . A ph ilo ­
so p h y c a n o n ly be su itab le fo r an d useful to the sciences if it is ro o te d in
scientific soil a n d reciprocally, o f course, th e p ro p rie ty o f a n y philo so p h y
d ep e n d s u p o n th e valid ity o f its co n fed erated sciences, a nd this includes a
v eracio u s psychology. W e a re read y n o w to c o n sid e r th e n a tu re a n d value
o f p h ilo so p h y a n d o u r first ste p is a se m a n tic o n e. W e m u st identify o u r

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p a rtic u la r referen t w h en w e use th e term “ p h ilo so p h y ” since th ere are so

m an y different usages.2
B asically, p h ilo so p h y co n sists o f intellectual a ttitu d e s assu m ed by p e r­
P K
so n s w ith respect to things a n d ev en ts w h ich in terest th em . W e stress th e
ro le o f p e rso n s b ec au se ph ilo so p h y zin g is alw ay s th e b e h a v io r o f p a rtic u la r
in d iv id u a ls w h o in te ra c t w ith specific cu ltu ra l a n d n o n c u ltu ra l th ings a n d
events. T h e re are n o su p e rn a l en v iro n m e n ts n o r su p e rn a tu ra l p o w ers fo r
/ access to th em . (T h o u g h su c h a ttitu d e s m u s t b eg in a s re a c tio n s to ac tu a l
things, th e ir d ev e lo p m e n t m ay involve indefinite e x tra p o la tio n s, w ith th e
resu lt th a t p h ilo so p h ic al a ttitu d e s a re stretch ed w ay bey o n d a n y actually
o cc u rrin g events. S trik in g ex am p les a re th e fa n ta stic tra n sfo rm a tio n s o f
c—S'
o rg a n ism s in to so u ls a n d flesh, th e a c ts o f being a w a re o f objects in to
psychic “processes” called consciousness, a n d th e m ag n ificatio n o f th e acts
o f p e rso n s in to th e b e h a v io r o f deities, angels, a n d d e m o n s. T h e m e ta m o r­
p h o sin g p ro cess is. o T co u rse. facilitated by th e v erb al a g ilitv o f th e p hilos-
o p hers, a n d by th e h u m a n circ u m sta n ces a t te n d in g th e ir s p e c u la tio n s.
(P h ilo so p h ic a l a ttitu d e s m ay be en g en d ered e ith er by th e m otives o f describ­
in g a n d in te rp re tin g th in g s a n d events o b serv ed , o r by needs a n d desires
b ased o n h u m a n ad ju stm e n ts to ac tu a l o r im ag in ed situ atio n s. )
W h a t is t o b e specifically n o te d h ere is th a t p h ilo so p h y is n o t to be .c .:
identified w ith a n y v arie ty o f tra d itio n a l m etap h y sics. E specially to be
av o id e d is th e c o n fo u n d in g o f th e u n c o m m itte d a p p r o a c h to th in g s a n d
events w ith th e fa tu o u s in tu itio n s o f T h o m a s R eid’s c o m m o n sen se spirit­
ism . I f o n e c a n n o t fo reg o callin g every k in d o f p h ilo so p h y m etaphysics, a t
7 least o n e m u s t d istin g u ish betw een g o o d a n d b a d m etaphysics. W h o e v er is
p ro n e to fall in to th e se m a n tic p re d ic a m e n t m u s t b e c a u tio n e d n o t to call a
sto n e m a so n a s o rt o f psychologist because he is a non-psychologist.
(^F u rth er to elu c id a te th e n a tu re o f p h ilo sfip h y w e m u st n o te th e u n p a ra l­
leled im p o rta n c e o f a ssu m p tio n s, w h ich c o n stitu te th e fo u n d a tio n o f o u r
in tellectu al b e h a v io r ^ In d e e d , a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f a s su m p tio n s is the
essence o f science. A ssu m p tio n s in itiate a n d sh a p e h y p o th eses a n d th eo ries
a n d m a k e p o ssib le th e sy stem atic o rg a n is a tio n o f in v estig atio n s a n d ^
findings. A s su m p tio n s k n o w n , u n d e rs to o d , a n d fo rm alized in p ro p o sitio n s
c o n stitu te th e p o stu la te s a n d p o stu la te system s o f all th e sciences, including
v m ath em atics.
N o w w e m u st d ifferen tiate b etw een in stitu tio n al a n d o p e ra tio n a l atti-

J See Chapter I.

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 THE P H I L O S O P H E R AND HIS W O R L D

tudes. In stitu tio n a l a ttitu d e s a r e historical c o n stru c tio n s w hich h av e be­

c o m e fo rm a liz ed a n d cry stallized , th a t is h av e ta k e n o n th e c h a ra c te r o f
things. T h e y h av e beco m e in stitu tio n s, c u ltu ra l fixtures. O n e o f th e best
ex a m p le s is th e tra n s c e n d e n t sp iritism w h ich c o m p rises th e J u d a e o -
C h ristia n basis o f o u r cu ltu re. T h is ty p e o f c u ltu ra l p h ilo so p h y is th e m atrix "
o f th e ac cep ted d ich o to m ie s o f spirit a n d m a tte r, a n d m in d a n d body.
A m o n g th e m o re m in im al a n d localized p h ilo so p h ical in stitu tio n s is to b e
n u m b ere d th e belief th a t th e b ra in is th e o rg a n o f so u l o r m in d .
O p e ra tio n a l a ttitu d e s c o n stitu te a ssu m p tio n s d ev elo p ed w hile ob serv in g
a n d in v estig atin g events. O n th e w h o le th ey a re n o t universalized, as a re th e
assu m p tio n s o f co n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y , th o u g h th e p ro d u c tiv e m ech a n ­
ism m ay a p p e a r sim ilar. S o m e o f the b est e x a m p le s o f o p e ra tio n a l a ssu m p ­
tio n s are th e a x io m s a n d p o stu lates o f m a th e m a tics, a n d th e h y p o th eses
a n d th eo ries o f science.
P lease n o te, in stitu tio n a l a ttitu d e s a re n o t ipsofacto w ro n g a n d h arm fu l.
B ut th e re is n o q u e stio n th a t th e spiritistic in stitu tio n h a s b een ex trem ely
p ern ic io u s ever since it w as developed. N o t o n ly h a s it led to th e falsification
o f th e w o rld o f n a tu re , b u t it h as also sp a w n e d th e rid d les w h ich serve to
sep a ra te th in k e rs fro m th e events s u rro u n d in g th em .
X A ty p ical m e tap h y sica l rid d le is to a sk w h a t w o u ld t h i n g b e like if they
w ere n o t w h a t th e y a re b u t s o m e th in g else? W e h e a r it asked: h o w w o u ld
th e w o rld b e d esc rib ed if m en h a d ev o lv ed d ifferently, w ith o th e r o rg an s
a n d ca p acities? S u c h q u e stio n s ty p ify th e v a n ity a n d triv iality o f sp u rio u s
p h ilo so p h y . T h e y m ay be tra c e d b a c k fa r in to th e d im p ast. F o r ex am p le,
X e n o p h a n e s o f C o lo p h o n in th e six th c e n tu ry B. C . a tte m p te d to refute
so m e u n d esira b le n o tio n s c u rre n t in his d ay , a n d said,
Yes, and if oxen and horses or lions had hands, and could paint with their hands and
produce works of an as men do, hones would paint the forms o f the gods like horses, and
oxen like oxen, and make their bodies in the image of their several kinds.3

M a n y c e n tu ries la te r S a in t A u g u stin e criticized a n an sw e r th a t w as given

to th e im p e rtin e n t q u estio n , “W h a t d id G o d b e fo re h e m a d e h ea v en a n d
ea rth ? ” T h e a n s w e r w as, “ H e w as p re p a rin g hell f o r p ry e rs in to m ysteries.”
S a in t A u g u stin e d id n o t a p p ro v e o f this an sw e r, since h e ac cep ted a s valid
inquiries in to G o d ’s beh a v io r, s o his reply to th e q u e stio n w as “ I k n o w n o t.”
A c u rre n t rid d le is, h o w c a n m in d k n o w m a tte r o r h o w c a n o n e m in d k n o w
a n o th e r m in d , w h e th e r th a t o f a ra t, a m o u se, o r a m an . In g en eral, w e have
here th e puzzle o f th e n o n -in te rc o m m u n ic a b ility o f p sy ch ic c o n te n t, w h ich

* Burnet, J„ Early Creek Philosophy, London, Black, 1948, p. 119.

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</
is sim p ly a p erv ersio n o f th e fact th a t e a c h ev ent is a u n iq u e o cc u rre n ce. A ll
su c h u n a d u lte ra te d v e rb ig e ra tio n s p re v e n t u s fro m lo o k in g u p o n philos­
o p h y as a n a tte m p t to b e c o m e o rie n te d to th e co m p lex ities o f th e ev en ts o f
n a tu re a n d th e c o n tin g e n c ie s o f so cial life. T h e y m u s t b e rega rd e d as
p ath o lo g ies o f im ag in a tio n a n d speech. ''
~~ S ince o u r in terest in p m lo so p h y hinges u p o n its influence fo r g o o d o r evil
u p o n science, I m u s t rem in d y o u o f th e b aleful d o m in a tio n o f cu rren t
p h ilo so p h y b y th e sp iritistic in stitu tio n s o f o u r cu ltu re. D u a listic attitudes-
vitiate o u r p h ilo so p h y o f science, a n d also m isco n stru e th e ev en ts and
th eo ries o f science. T h e y m an ife st them selves in th e p ra ctically u niversal
ac c e p ta n c e o f p sychophysical assu m p tio n s. H ere is th e reaso n w hy scien­
tists w h o w ish to fo s te r science m u st reject co n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y .
T h e p ern ic io u s influence o f sp iritistic p h ilo so p h y o n science is effectively
illu stra te d by th e c o n tin u e d p resen ce o f tra n sc e n d e n ta l fa c to rs in p ra cti­
cally all p sy ch o lo g ical d esc rip tio n s, th o u g h we m u st lim it ourselves to tw o
(j) o u ts ta n d in g ex a m p le s: o n e, th e c u rre n t d o c trin e o f p e rc e p tio n , a n d die
o th e r, th e d o c trin e o f th e biological b asis o f b eh av io r. W e e x a m in e first the
it, ’ c u rre n tly a c cep ted m o d el o f sen so ry ev en ts w h ich h o ld s th a t w h e n a n
o rg a n ism d isc rim in a te s b etw een o b jects, th e ir q u alities are p ro jec ted to the
so u rc e o f stim u la tio n , as in th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n .
The external ear delivers sound waves through the external auditory canal to the middle
ear, and thence they pass to the inner ear. There in the cochlea, the sensory (ells of the organ
of Corti are stimulated and initiate nerve impulses in the fibers of the auditory nerve. The
impulses pass through a series of nuclei and fibertracts in the medulla and midbrain to the
auditory area of the cerebral cortex: and there s o m e h o w they generate the sensations that
we know subjectively as “sounds". (Italics ours?)*"-------

T h e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n s su p p ly th e full flav o r o f th e m etap h y sics o f

c u rre n t psychology.
When we say we hear, we mean, usually, that we experience sensations which have been
produced by the excitation of the auditory mechanism. These elementary experiences, by
means of which we are aware of so much with regard to the external world, through which
we can receive the thoughts of others, and which contribute so largely to our esthetic
enjoyment of life through poetry and music, are called sounds. Yet such sounds have no
objective existence: outside ourselves all is quietness. Externally there arc simply bodies in
vibration.45

4 Davis. H„ “The Psychophysiology of Hearing and Deafness." in Handbook o f experimental

psychology (S. S. Stevems. cd.). New York. Wiley. 1951. p. 1116.
5Banister. H.. "Hearing I." in The Foundations o f Experimental Psychology (C. Murchison, ed.).
Worcester, Mass.. Clark Univ. Press. 1929. p. 273.

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 THE P H I L O S O P H E R AND HIS W O R L D

T h e p h ilo so p h e r W h ite h e a d h as p u n c tu a te d th e essence o f the current

d o c trin e w hen h e re m a rk e d , “N a tu re is a d u ll affair, soun d less, scentless,
colourless; m erely th e h u rry in g o f m aterial, endlessly, m eaninglessly.6
T h e rest o f th e m y th o lo g y , o f course, concerns th e in terre latin g of
sen sa tio n s w ith im ages to c re a te p ercep ts o r objects. H e re is a basic
psychological d o ctrin e w hich is in n o sense derived from ob serv atio n s an d
ex p e rim en ts. R a th e r, it is th e v a p o rin g o f historical m etaphysics.^C ur­
rent sen so ry science in term ix es spiritistic p hilo so p h y w ith q u estio n ab le
physiology^) -
It is in stru ctiv e h ere to g lan ce fo r a m o m en t a t th e ag o n ized plaints o f
g en e ra tio n s o f n eu ro lo g ists th a t th ey ca n n o t conceive how sensationsT that
is. sp iritu al essences, c a n b e p ro d u c e d by th e m aterial b rain . H ere a re tw o
o f these ag o n ized cries, th e first o f w hich w as p u b lished by th e em inent
S h errin g to n ,
But indeed what right have we to conjoin mental experience with physiological? No
scientific right. . . To many of us a mere juxtaposition of the two sets of happenings
proclaims their disparity. On the one side changing electrical potentials with thermal and
chemical action making a physiological entity held together by energy relations; on the
other, a suite of mental experience, an activity no doubt, but what if any relation to energy?7

R a n so n says,
I shall leave out of account entirely the most difficult part; how when these propagated
disturbances reach the brain they give rise to conscious sensation, which appears to be
something of an entirely different order than a neural activity. I can not understand how
such a thing as a sensation of warmth makes its appearance as a result or a concomitant of
the activity of certain nerve cells in my brain. I can only admit the fact and leave to the
future, perhaps the far distant future, the problem presented by the relation of brain and
mind.8

D esp ite th e spiritistic basis o f c u rre n t sen so ry d o ctrin es th ese d octrines

f persist. It is a cu rio u s circ u m sta n ce th a t g en erations o f psychologists accept
th e tra d itio n a l m odel o f sen so ry a n d p ercep tu al events w ith o u t realizing its
antiscientific n atu re . A n d yet, a glance at th e origin a n d dev elo p m en t o f the
m odel a t o n ce d e m o n stra te s its basis in g ro ss ignorance, a n d in th e m eta­
physics o f s o u l
T o ev alu ate th e c u rre n t sen so ry m o d el w e need only tra c e it back to the
w o rk o f L ocke a n d N e w to n a n d th e ir ep istem ological d o c trin e o f ideas,
an d in general th e influence o f th e co rp u scu lar p h ilo so p h y in m o d ern
''Whitehead, A. N„ Science and the Modern World. New York, Pelican Mentor, 1948, p. 56.
’ Sherrington, C. S., The brain and its Mechanisms. Cambridge. Cambridge Univ. Press. 1933,
pp. 23-24.
*Ramon, S. W„ "Cutaneous sensation,' Science. 1933, 78, 395-399.

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E u ro p e a n th in k in g . W e all k n o w h o w L o ck e a tte m p te d to so ften th e

p h ilo so p h ic al influence o f th e tra d itio n a l unified soul by m a k in g it in to a
b la n k receiver o f im p re ssio n s in stig a te d b y u n k n o w n e x te rn a l pow ers.
S u c h im p ressio n s w ere to b e asso c ia te d to co n stitu te th e o bjects o f know l­
edge. A s w e k n o w , to o , th e g re a t N e w to n su pplied a m o d el o f this k n o w l­
e d g e m e c h a n ism w h e n h e e x p la in e d h o w a p rism sep a rates th e diversely
refran g ib le rays o f light, e a c h o f w h ich p ro d u ces a different c o lo r w h en its
effects u p o n a n e th erial m e d iu m re ach th e b ra in o rse n so riu m . I q u o te from
N e w to n T 2 3 rd q u e ry in his fTUfTOptics.
Is not Vision performed chiefly by the Vibrations of this Medium excited in the bottom
of the eye by the Rays of Light, and propagated through the solid, pellucid and uniform
Capillamenta of the optick NervesuSto the place of SensatioifTAnd is not hearing
performed by the Vibrations either of this or some other Medium, excited in the auditory
Nerves by the Tremors of the Air, and progagated through the solid, pellucid and uniform
Capillamenta of those Nerve^fnto the pjace of Sensation?^nd so of the other Senses.’

Is it n o t p lain th a t N e w to n b e q u e a th e d to p re se n td a y sc h o la rs a m o d el
w h ich he did n o t d erive fro m valid k n o w led g e o f th e p lace o f light in vision,
n o r fro m a c o m p e te n t a c q u a in ta n c e w ith b iology, b u t fro m th e m etascien -
tific tre a s u ry o f religious lore? It is as th o u g h N ew to n ’s hypotheses non
•7
fingo a pplied o n ly to m ech a n ics. N o te th a t w e d o n o t fau lt N e w to n fo r
living in th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry , b u t w e s h o u ld p o in t o u t th a t e m a n c ip a ­
tio n fro m tra d itio n a l p h ilo s o p h y w o u ld be o f g re at service in u n d e rs ta n d ­
in g ev en ts to d ay .
2, ■W e tu r n n o w to th e sec o n d illu stra tio n o f th e d e v a sta tin g influence o f
d u a listic p h ilo so p h y o n science. T h is is th e n o to rio u s d o ctrin e especially
p re v a le n t a m o n g self-styled scientific p sy ch ologists th a t m e n ta l processes,
th o u g h o ccu lt a n d p riv ate , a re v o u c h e d fo r a n d su p p o rte d b y th e n erv o u s
system . E ssen tially th is d o c trin e tra n s fo rm s th e b rain , w h ich is a biological
o rg a n , in to a su rro g a te fo r th e soul. T h e d o c trin e tak es o n v a rio u s form s:
(a) th e b ra in is m a d e in to a g en eral sea t o r locus o f m ind o r consciousness;
( b) v a rio u s p o rtio n s o f th e b ra in a re p re su m e d to subserve specific m en tal
“fu n c tio n s" o r “experiences;" a n d (c) th e n erv o u s system is reg ard ed as th e
basis o f b ehavior.
E ven p h ilo so p h e rs w h o d is ta in d u a lism ju stify these p ro p o sitio n s o n the
g ro u n d th a t th e e q u a tio n o f th e b ra in a n d th e m in d , o r s o m e h o w to
c o m m ix th em , m inim izes th e in fluence o f spiritism . B u t w h a t ac tu a lly
h a p p e n s is th e m isc o n stru c tio n o f th e a n a to m ic a l stru ctu re s o f th e o rg a n -

’ Newton, I„ Opticks, New York, Dover, 1952, p. 533.

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ism a n d th e effects o f m u tila tio n s o f v a rio u s so rts. A critical e x a m in a tio n

o f th e d o c trin e o f th e b io lo g ical basis o f c o m p le x b eh a v io r, h ow ever,
in d ic a te s co n clu siv ely th a t th e re a re n o d a ta to s u p p o rt it. T h e re is o n ly
ev id en ce th a t th e an c ie n t d ic h o to m y o f so u l a n d flesh ho ld s sw ay. T h e re is
g o o d re a so n w h y th e fru itless sea rch fo r th e e n g ra m co n tin u es. M eanw hile,
th e b ra in is g ro u n d lessly en d o w ed w ith all varieties o f psychic pow ers, m o st
o f w hich w ere historically allo tte d to th e soul. T h e b ra in is m a d e in to a
perceiv er, a d isc rim in a to r, a m em o ry sto re r, a ju d g e , a n d a reasoner. W h en
th e p sy ch ic p o w e rs a re stressed w e reco g nize h ere th e v en erab le faculty
p s y c h o lo g y . O n th e o th e r h a n d , w h e n th e b ra in is stressed, w e h e a r a n e c h o
o f tra d itio n a l m ateria lism , w h ich h as n ev er b een a n y th in g b u t a one-sided
d u alism . In th e se d a y s o f c o m p u te r te c h n o lo g y ev en e la b o ra te electro n ic
.£ * ■ m ach in e s are sim ilarly spiritized. v'P' P&'-fr, ■
■ f r
N o w n h v in u slv a psy ch o lo g ical ev en t is a t th e sa m e tim e a biological a n d
a p h y sio ch em ical ev en t. T h u s a co m p re h e n siv e d escrip tio n o f a n y a c t o f a n
* * ? * o rg a n ism sh o u ld in clu d e b io lo g ical a n d c h e m ic a l c o m p o n e n ts. B u t we

f m u st~ 3 iffere n tiate elem e n ts p re su m e d to s u p p o rt a n d d ete rm in e n o n ­

m e ch a n ical, n o n -b io lo g ical, a n d n o n -c h e m ical “ processes” fro m th e a c tu a l
b iological a n d physiochem ical p a rtic ip a n ts in a large g lo b al event.
B ecause p h ilo so p h y a n d psychology a re inseverably related w e find, o f
f . co u rse, th a t th e b alefu l influence o f p h ilo so p h y o n p sy ch o lo g y is fully
re c ip ro c a te d by th e d e p lo ra b le service w h ich a sp iritistic psych o lo g y ren ­
d e rs as th e h a n d m a id o f m etap h y sics. P h ilo so p h e rs h av e m a d e c o p io u s use
o f th e p e rd u rin g a n d creativ e m in d to c o n s tru c t th e ir m etap h y sica l system s
o f idealism , e x isten tialism , critical realism , a n d th e like. P ro b le m s like the
e x isten c e o r n o n -e x iste n c e o f a n e x te rn a l w o rld , th e c o n tra s t b etw e en th e
ft ; *' ; su b jectiv e a n d o bjective o rd e rs, a n d th e u n reso lv a b le o p p o sitio n o f e x is ts
en ce a n d values h av e been based o n a sp ec io u s p h ilo so p h y . .
It is alw ay s in tere stin g t o stu d y th e b irth o f a cu ltu ra l in stitu tio n su ch as
sp iritism o r d u a lism . B ut in th e p re se n t ca se it is a n a b s o lu te n ecessity if we
a r e to u n d e rs ta n d th e p h ilo so p h y o f science a n d its relevance fo r p h ilo so ­
p h y in general.
D u a lism m a y be tra c e d b a c k to th e H ellenistic e ra o f o u r histo ry . A t th a t
tim e th ro u g h th e sp e c u la tio n s o f th e e a rly c h u rc h fa th e rs, th e n eo p la to n ic
p h ilo so p h e rs like P lo tin u s, a n d la ter S a in t A u g u stin e, th e “ideal" w orld w as
c o n stru c te d to c o n tra s t w ith th e o rd in a ry e v ery d ay one. A n g u ish ed b y th e
d e s tru c tio n o f th e g ra n d a n d g lo rio u s G re e k a n d R o m a n w o rld s th ey
c re a te d th e e te rn a l w o rld o f spirit. In th a t tra n s c e n d e n ta l w orld w as
c o n c e n tra te d all th a t w as u ltim ate , tru ly real, in d estru ctib le a n d perfect.

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M o re o v er, th e tra n sc e n d e n t w orld affo rd ed a n escape fro m evil a n d th ra l­

d o m . T h e v o lu b le m en o f th e H ellenistic perio d a n d b ey o n d m ad e full use
o f th e e x tra p o la tiv e fu n c tio n .o f sp eech to recreate th e w o rld to m a tc h th eir
h ea rt’s desire. S tu d e n ts o f p h ilo so p h y a re a w are o f th e successive tra n sfo rm ­
a tio n s o f co sm ic sp irit in to ind iv id u al soul, w hich th ro u g h v ario u s m e ta ­
m o rp h o ses b ecam e m in d , self, th e un conscious, th e tra n sc e n d e n ta l un ity o f
a p p e rc e p tio n , th e a p p e rc e p tio n m ass, consciousness, sen satio n , em o tio n ,
m en tal state, m e n ta l im age, a n d so on.
'- jjA -
T h e persistence o f p h ilo so p h ic al in stitu tio n s is tru ly re m a rk a b le . W h en
p h ilo so p h e rs recen tly increased th e ir a p p re c ia tio n o f th e futility o f the
1 v en e rab le m etap h y sics w hose sp ec u la tio n s h av e n o secure sta rtin g place,
n o r a n y a tta in a b le g o al, th ey d id n o t liq u id a te that-m etaphysics b u t instead
t dev elo p ed a v a ria n t o f it in th e guise o f an aly tical a n d lingu istic p h ilo so p h y .'^
A nalyticpR iT osophers in stitu ted a scru tin izin g searchintoT the lan g u ag e o f
p h ilo so p h y fo r w ays a n d m ean s o f d isco v erin g th e in trin sic m e a n in g o f
w ord s an d p h ra ses. B u t th e y retain ed the old a s su m p tio n s o f universality,
ab so lu ten e ss, c e rta in ty , a p rio rity , a n d th e m in d -b o d y d ic h o to m y . F o rg et­
tin g th a t te rm s o r w o rd s a re a rtifa c ts p ro d u c ed by v a rio u s in te ra c tio n s o f
p a rtic u la r p e rso n s, th e y reify th e m a n d en d o w th e m w ith tran sc e n d e n ta l
“m ean in g .” W h a t th e y o v erlo o k is th a t m eanings are p ro p erties o f w ords
on ly a fte r th ey h av e been so e n d o w ed th ro u g h v ario u s specific activities in
p a rtic u la r situ a tio n s. I f th e w o rd “b a c h e lo r” d o es n o t re fer to m a rrie d m en
it is o n ly b ec au se th is w o rd h as been d eveloped in a p a rtic u la r linguistic o r
social s itu a tio n an d n o w o p erates only in sim ilar situ atio n s, ex c ep t indeed
w hen th e w o rd is a lso ap p lied to w om en.
T h e im p lied tra n sc e n d e n c e here is p e rh a p s b e tte r seen w hen an a ly tic
p h ilo so p h y is carried o v er in to th e psychological field. W e c a n n o t m iss the
fa n fa re th a t is no w being hea rd in th e d o m a in o f psycholinguistics. P e rh a p s
t he lo u d est noise is m ad e by th o se w h o seek a m ystic so u rce fo r the
b e h a v io r o f c h ild re n w hen th ey learn to sp eak a n d c o n tin u e th e b eh a v io r
hftl w h en th e y b e c o m e a d u lts. It is lo u d ly p ro c la im ed th a t th e sp ea k in g process
’ 'is n o t a m a tte r o f le a rn in g a t all b u t th e in n a te o p e ra tio n o f soul. S p e a k in g
/ c o rre c tly o r g ra m m a tic a lly is a p o w e r in n ate in th e m ind. F o r c o r ro b o ra ­
tio n th ey re s o rt to th e w ritings o f early p h ilo so p h ers w h o ta u g h t the
d o c trin e o f psychic in tu itio n in th e sev en teenth cen tu ry , fo r ex am p le,
D escartes, a n d th e C o m m o n se n se R ealists o f th e e ig h tee n th cen tu ry , fo r
ex a m p le , T h o m a s R eid a n d his follow ers.
N o w , w h o c a n ig n o re the fact th a t a radical rev o lu tio n is in o rd er? If we
h o p e to d ev e lo p a n a u th e n tic p h ilo so p h y , th e s o rt th a t is basic to a valid

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• logic o f science a n d w hich c a n serve a s a n a id to th in k in g scientific

p sy ch o lo g y , w e m u st d e stro y th e old tra n sc e n d e n ta l w ay o f th in k in g , a n d
re p la ce it w ith a valid p h i l o s o p h y . I v e n t u r e t n p r o p o s e s o m e c p p ir if ir a t i n n c
fo r such a philosophy.
A n a u th e n tic philo so p h y , co n sists exclusively o f a ttitu d e s b ased on
o b se rv a tio n s o f things a n d events ex istin g a n d o c c u rrin g in v ario u s specific
#£ m ilieu. T h is restrictio n is in ac tu a lity a g lo rio u s p o te n tia lity affording
access to ev e ry th in g o n lan d , sea, a n d th e v ast reaches o f a stro n o m ica l
space. C o n fro n ta b le th in g s a n d events, o f co u rse, m ay in clu d e one’s ow n
b e h a v io r o r re actio n s to th in g s a n d events, in clu d in g p erso n s. F u rth e r­
m o re, th e w id est reach es o f p h ilo so p h ic a l sp ec u la tio n b elo n g definitely in
' th e c o n tin u u m o f h u m a n c o n ta c ts w ith th in g s based o n w o n d e r, curiosity,
a n d th e u rge to co ntrol.
T ec h n ical p h ilo so p h y , accordingly, h a s th e sam e sub ject m a tte r a s th e

A
■
! <:
special sciences. It is co n c ern e d w ith th e sa m e co n c rete th in g s a n d ev en ts as
a n y scientific discipline p rio r to th e a p p lic a tio n o f specialized co n stru cts.
In d eed , it is o n e o f th e fu n c tio n s o f scientific p h ilo so p h y to reject all
■f co n s tru c ts th a t a re illegitim ately im p o sed u p o n o bserved events. T h e falla­
cio u s belief th a t p h ilo so p h y lacks a d istin ctiv e subject m a tte r stem s fro m
\ th e failu re to notice th a t p h ilo so p h y zin g b eh av io r, like all o th e r kinds,
\ ‘
\ consists o f in teractio n s w ith stim u lu s objects.
N o w , a lth o u g h tech n ical p h ilo so p h y as th eo retical science d o es n o t have
a n y different field o f o p e ra tio n s fro m th e special sciences, it does h av e its
ow n u n iq u e task s w hich ca n be categ o rized u n d e r th ree heads, (a) m o n ­
itorial, (b) co o rd in ativ e, an d (c) sem antic.
^ \) T h e m o n ito ria l task o f p h ilo so p h y is to e x am in e a n d critically analyze
p ro p o sitio n s w ith respect to th eir o rig in a n d v alidity. S u c h a n ex a m in a tio n
o f cred en tials is c o n tro lled by tw o rules, (a ) c o n stru c ts m u st be derived
fro m c o n ta c ts w ith events, an d (b ) en tan g lin g cu ltu ral institu tio n s m u st be
suppressed.
Q ) P h ilo so p h y co o rd in a tes th e findings a n d in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e special
sciences. T h u s th e p ro p o sitio n s o f physics a n d ch e m istry m ay n o t c o n tra ­
d ict th e p ro p o sitio n s o f biology an d psychology, a n d reciprocally th e
p ro p o sitio n s o f biology o r psychology m ay n o t g o c o u n te r to th e valid
fo rm u la tio n s o f physics o r chem istry. F u rth e rm o re , th e findings o f one
science m ay n o t o v e rsh a d o w th o se o f o th e r sciences, a s in v a rio u s fo rm s o f
red u ctio n ism , o r w here th e a ssu m p tio n s o r con clu sio n s dev elo p ed in one
science a re im p o sed u p o n th e d a ta o f a n o th e r. F o r e x a m p le , findings
reached in n eu ro lo g y m ay n o t b e im p o sed u p o n psychological events. In

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g en eral, p h ilo so p h y im plies cro ss referen tial stu d y as in in terd iscip lin ary
c o o rd in a tio n . p
( 3 ) S e m an tic su p erv isio n is th e th ird ta sk o f p hilo so p h y . T h e guideline is th e \
fo restallin g o f th e m a n y gross e rro rs co n stan tly c o m m itte d by scientists \
b ecau se o f th e w ay c e rta in term s a re used. A ny term , o f co u rse, is subject to \
p ro p e r an d im p ro p e r usage d ep e n d in g u p o n ac tu a l c o n ta c ts w ith things
a n d ev en ts referred to o r d e sig n ate d . A n o u tsta n d in g e x a m p le o f gross
m isusage is th e h av o c w ro u g h t b y em p lo y in g th e w o rd “ex p erien ce.’’ In
p sy ch o lo g y th is usage has h elped to p e rp e tu a te psychic entities a n d p ro c ­
esses. T h e te rm “p ro cess" itself, as well as th e te rm “event,” has helped to
m a in ta in m ystic n o tio n s. T o sp eak o f m en tal “events" o r psychic “energy”
is, o f co u rse, to tra d u c e scientific te rm in o lo g y . A n o th e r freq u en tly tro u b le - l
so m e te rm is “fu n c tio n ,” w hich h as b u rd e n e d science a n d p h ilo so p h y w ith A
n u m e ro u s in ep titu d es o f d escrip tio n a n d in terp re tatio n . 1
It m u st n o t be a ssu m ed th a t th ese ta sk s are in n o w ise th e responsibility >
o f th e specialized scientist. T h a t a s s u m p tio n im p lies a n o n e x iste n t d isju n c­
tio n betw een th e assu m p tiv e a n d o th e r asp ects o f scientific w ork. R a th e r, it
is a m a tte r o f g re a te r o r lesser em p h asis. ^
A sid e fro m th e v aria tio n in task s, tech n ical p h ilo so p h y differs so m ew h a t
fro m th e special sciences in a n u m b e r o f o th e r p artic u la rs; fo r ex am p le, it
en c o u rag e s a g re a te r relativ e fre e d o m w ith respect to d a ta . T h e specializa­
tio n o f th e sciences lim its th e m to localized p ro b le m s a n d to investigative
tech n iq u es asso ciated w ith specified tech n o logical co n d itio n s. In this sense
p h ilo so p h y c a n be m o re sp ecu lativ e a n d m o re co m p reh en siv e th a n an y
p a rtic u la r science. T h e scientific p h ilo so p h e r is g enerally m o re inclined
to w a rd w id er in terd iscip lin ary c o o p e ra tio n . A lso h e is m o re interested in
th e o rg a n iz a tio n a n d sy stem izatio n o f findings th a n in th e im m ed iate
d isco v ery o f th e tra its o f th in g s a n d th e in te ra ctio n s o f th e c o m p o n e n ts o f
events. In o th e r w o rd s, h e stresses in te rp re ta tio n s m o re th a n d escriptions.
G ra n tin g th e v alid ity o f th e p ro p o se d p h ilo so p h y o f science, it is a d m it­
ted ly difficult to estab lish it, b ecau se it d e m a n d s th e re p la cem e n t o f venera­
ble in tellectu al in stitu tio n s. H o w ev er, in view o f th e recip ro cal relatio n s
b etw e en p h ilo so p h y a n d science, th e re ex ists a g re at p o te n tia lity th a t a
n a tu ra listic p sy ch o lo g y ca n c o n trib u te a g reat d e a l to th e desired result.
A ccordingly, w e co n sid er briefly th e tra its o f a scientific psychology.
T h e first a n d fo re m o st ch a rac te ristic o f a scientific p sychology is th a t all
its d esc rip tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s a re d eveloped fro m o rig in al interb eh av ­
io rs w ith th e activities o f o rg a n ism s as th ey in teract w ith o th e r o rg an ism s o r
o th e r objects. T h u s scientific p sy ch o lo g y s ta n d s in s trik in g c o n tra s t to

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tra d itio n a l psychology, w hich is built u p by en c ap su latin g p ristine behavior

in historical constructs.
Scientific psychology im plies a d en se in terb eh av io ral co n tin u u m . T h e
m o st a b stra c t b eh a v io r o f a scientist in fo rm u la tin g a law based on co n tacts
w ith field o r la b o ra to ry events re p resen ts e la b o ra te a n d refined actio n
sim ilar in all respects to th e cru d e a n d sp o n ta n e o u s in tera ctio n o f reflexes
o r b iological ad ju stm en ts. N o w h e re in th is c o n tin u u m is th e re an y place for
m e n ta l states o r processes o f “co n scio u sn ess" th a t h av e to be m aterialized
by a n a to m ic a l a n d physiological su p p o rts.
S cientific psychology co n tra sts greatly w ith tran sc en d en tal psychology
in its a p p ro a c h to specific d a ta ; fo r e x a m p le, it does n o t differentiate
betw een sensing an d perceiving, w h ich a re o n ly sim p ler an d m o re com plex
in te ra c tio n s w ith things. M o re im p o rta n t, scientific psychology d o es not
reg ard th e c o n fro n ta tio n o f individuals w ith th e ir en vironing objects an d
. p erso n s as th e creatio n o f th o se stim u lu s objects. T h e existence o f th e
• pro p e rtie s a n d qu alities o f p ristin e stim u lu s objects a re to be explained by
th e ir ch em ical, biological, a n d m ech an ical stru ctu re s, a n d th e interactions
o f these factors. O f co u rse, it is possible, in fa rt inevitable, th a t h u m an ')
o rg a n ism s sh o u ld re sp o n d to o b jects c o n tra ry to th eir pristin e properties. ( ;
But this is to be ac co u n ted fo r exclusively by individual a n d social contin- r
gencies o cc u rrin g d u rin g p rio r c o n fro n ta tio n s o f org an ism s w ith particu lar J
, objects. ■
F o r scientific psychology th e effective d escriptive m odel is th e evolution
o f in te rb e h a v io r as observed in th e p sychological d e v e lo p m e n t o f a neo­
n ate. In stu d y in g th e c o n tin u o u s m a tu ra tio n a l process w e observe the
in a u g u ra tio n a n d perfection o f a d ju stm e n ts to th in g s b y th e infant as it
m atu re s biologically. W e see how an d w h e n th e in fan t develops differen­
tia tin g responses to th e qualities o f objects, a n d skills fo r m an ip u latin g such
objects. W e ob serv e also h o w th e in fa n t b u ild s u p a n d im poses traits u p o n
things u n d e r th e influence o f social a n d cu ltu ra l co nditions.
T h e in tera ctio n a l principle o p erates in every ty p e o f psychological event.
If we an a ly z e w h a t h a p p e n s w h en th e in d iv id u al im agines o r rem em bers
so m eth in g , w e find h im in tera ctin g w ith d irect a n d su b stitu te stim ulus
objects. T o re m e m b er is to h av e a s u b stitu te stim u lu s facilitate an interac­
tio n w ith so m e o th er object, event, o r situ atio n .
A lw ays th e em p h asis is o n i n teractio n . T h e psychological event involves
the presence o f a n o th e r o rg an ism o r object. It is this field o r situ atio n al
m o d e o f d escrip tio n o f psychological events th a t releases the hold o f
trad itio n a l m en tal co n stru cts o n psychology. F u rth e rm o re , a psychology

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th a t s ta rts w ith s u c h a c o n f ro n ta tio n a l basis h as n o n eed fo r s u c h an alo g ies

o r d o d g e s a s th e s u rro g a tio n o f m in d o r c o n sc io u sn e ss b y a b ra in o r
n erv o u s sy stem . It is o n ly s u c h a p sy c h o lo g y th a t m a k e s p o ssib le a valid
a n d significant p h ilo so p h y .
I c o n c lu d e th is d iscu ssio n w ith a few su m m a riz in g sentences. I assu m e
th a t it m a y n o w b e a g re e d th a t, p sy ch o lo g ists w h o cu ltiv a te th e p h ilo so p h y
o f scien ce m a y h o p e to im p ro v e th e ir d iscip lin e, a n d in tu rn , e n h a n c e th e
v alu e o f th a t p h ilo so p h y , b u t o n ly u n d e r c e rta in s trin g e n t co n d itio n s, (a)
T h e e x a m in a tio n o f th e te n e ts o f p h ilo so p h y m u st be critica l in th e ex tre m e.
E very a tte m p t m u s t b e m a d e to d istin g u ish b etw een p ro p o s itio n s d eriv e d
fro m c o n ta c ts w ith c o n fro n ta b le ev en ts a n d th o se d eriv e d fr o m v erb al
tra d itio n , (b) T h e p o ssib ility m u s t ex ist th a t p sy ch o lo g ists c a n free th e m ­
selves fr o m tra d itio n a l a x io m s a n d a d o p t m o re a d e q u a te o n es to m a tc h
in v estig ativ e o p e ra tio n s. E n c o u ra g e m e n t t o believe th a t th is po ssib ility
d o e s ex ist is a ffo rd e d b y re c e n t a c h ie v e m e n ts in fo rm u la tin g a v a lid p h ilo s­
o p h y a s w ell a s a scientific p sychology.

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 CHAPTER 12
THE BIRTH OF EPISTEMOLOGY
AND ONTOLOGY

K N O W LED G E A N D EX ISTE N C E

S o o v e rw h e lm e d h av e been th e p h ilo s o p h e rs o f h is to ry w ith th e im m e n ­

sity a n d th e a p p a r e n t h o stility o f th e ir e n v iro n in g w o rld s, th a t th ey h av e
q u a ile d in ten sely a n d so u g h t m e a n s to lessen th e ir o w n im p o te n c e . F ro m
th is c irc u m sta n c e h a s arise n th e tw o su b d iv isio n s o f p h ilo so p h y called
E piste m o lo g y a n d O n to lo g y . B ecause p h ilo so p h ers h a v e lacked k n o w led g e
av a ila b le t o scientific psychologists a n d a n th ro p o lo g ists, th ey h av e reso rted
to a b s o lu tis m a n d a b stra c tio n ism . T h u s th ey h av e d ic h o to m iz e d th e w o rld
a n d th em selv es a n d in c o n se q u e n c e h av e b ee n deep ly tro u b le d by p ro b le m s
o f k n o w le d g e a n d ex isten ce. A lth o u g h h u m a n beings a r e p hases o f n a tu re ,
th in k e rs h av e c o n s ta n tly m a d e th em selv es o b liv io u s to th e o b v io u s fact
th a t p h ilo so p h ic a l o rie n ta tio n is c o n tin u o u s w ith all o th e r a d a p ta tio n s o f
o rg a n ism s to th e ir e n v iro n in g th in g s a n d events. A cco rd in g ly it is th e h eig h t
o f re d u n d a n c y to in v en t psychic w o rld s to e x p lain h u m a n ex isten ce w ith all
its co m ed ies a n d tragedies.

K N O W L ED G E A S A D A P T A T IO N A N D O R IE N T A T IO N

T h e e x isten c e o f o rg a n ism s is ev id en ce o f b io logical a d a p ta tio n . T h a t a n

o rg a n ism m a in ta in s itself signifies th a t it is in in tim a te rela tio n sh ip w ith
am b ie n t c o n d itio n s in clu d in g a tm o s p h e re , in o rg a n ic th in g s, a n d o th e r
o rg a n ism s. T h e sim p lest o rg a n ism s su ch as sessile p la n ts a n d an im als
evolve a n d re m a in in recip ro cal re la tio n s h ip w ith su r r o u n d in g th in g s a n d
eve n ts in a m o re o r less passive a d a p ta tio n . B ut w ith fu rth e r e v o lu tio n
o rg a n ism s b e c o m e d iscrim in ativ e a n d selective in th e ir in tim a te a n d m o re
in d e p e n d e n t re latio n sh ip s. H ere th e a d a p ta tio n b eco m es co m p lex a n d
o rg a n ism s a tta in in tim a te k n o w led g e o f th e d im en sio n s, p ro p e rtie s, q u a li­
ties, a n d re la tio n sh ip s o f things. W ith th e e v o lu tio n o f h u m a n o rg a n ism s ->
a n d th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f a sufficiency o f in d iv id u a l sec u rity a n d n u trim e n t
w ith a s u b s e q u e n t d ev e lo p m e n t o f c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s so th a t th e a b stra c -
tio n istic a n d reflective tendencies a re a tta in e d , th e n o rie n ta tio n b eco m es i
specialized in to tech n ical epistem ology.

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 E P I S T E M O L O G Y A N D O N T O L O G Y

F R A C T IO N A T IO N O F A D A P T A T IO N S TO EV E N T S

T h r o u g h o u t th e p o st-G re e k h isto ry o f p h ilo so p h y , th in k e rs a d o p te d a

d is to rte d view co n c e rn in g th e ir a d a p ta tio n to th in g s a n d co n d itio n s an d
th u s s e p a ra te d th em selv es fro m th e ir su rro u n d in g s, so th a t o n o n e h an d
t h ey e m p h a siz e d th e ac tiv ities o f thgm selves as o v er a g a in s t th e th in g s they
in te ra c te d w ith , a n d called th a t k n o w led g e ep istem o lo g y , w hile th e th in gs
k n o w n a s item s o f ex isten ce o r b ein g th ey p lace d u n d e r a c a te g o ry n am ed
"o n to lo g y . I n th e co u rse o f tim e , h o w ev er, th e difficulties o f d e a lin g w ith
d y n a r n ic a n d ch a n g in g ev en ts fo rced p h ilo so p h ers a n d scientists to inte­
g ra te o b serv ers a n d o b serv ed , a n d th e y a d o p te d -th e slo g a n th a t th e o b ­
serv er is p a r t o f th e o bserved.

EPISTEM O LO G Y

E p istem o lo g y is co n v e n tio n a lly re g ard e d as th e b ra n c h o f p h ilo so p h y

w h ich is c o n c e rn e d w ith p ro b le m s o f kn o w ledge. O v e r th e years n a tu ra lly
view s h av e d iv erg ed a b o u t th e n a tu re o f k n o w led g e b u t in g en e ral episte-
Ijm ology m a y be tra c e d b a c k to th e c u ltu re p e rio d s in w h ic h th e th in k e rs o f
/ th e tim e w e re influenced by th e id ea o f so u l. S o u l w as re g a rd e d as th e
invisible a n d in tan g ib le asp ect o f h u m a n beings. A cco rd in g ly , th e p ro b lem s
arise; c a n th o u g h t o r k n o w led g e b e c o n n e c te d w ith ta n gible th in g s, o r
"m aterial th in gs te m p e re d w ith spirit o r sp iritu al essences? T h is d ic h o to m y
a s c o m m o n ly k n o w n is a d u a listic c o a t o f m a n y co lo rs. S o fa r a s p erso n s
w e re c o n c ern e d th ey w ere fra c tio n a te d in to m in d a n d body.
T h ro u g h o u t all th e ce n tu ries th ro u g h w h ich ep istem o lo g y flourished
d o w n to th e p re sen t it h a s b ee n a n d re m a in s s h o t full o f c o n tra d ic tio n s,
im p ro b a b ilitie s, a n d irra tio n a lity . A lw ays th e re is a n u n fo rg iv a b le rejection
, o f o b se rv a tio n a n d o b se rv a b le things. E p istem o lo g ical th in k in g gives rise
to m a n y in an ities, fo r e x a m p le , “ D o o th e r p e o p le hav e m in d s?" K now ledge
is S olipsistic. E p istem o lo g y m ak es ev ery th in g in clu d in g o th e r p erso n s an d
' all th in g s ex ist o n ly in th e “ m in d " o f a k n ow er.
fro m th e la c k o f a
v a lid p sy c h o lo g ical basis. It is cle a r th a t d iscu ssio n s o f a n ep istem o lo g ical
s o r t a re b a se d o n m in d -b o d y principles. S ince u n fo rtu n a te ly th e m en tal
fe a tu re s t h a t a re th e fo u n d a tio n o f ep istem o lo g ical stu d ies a re in v alid , th e
re su lts re a c h e d in a n y o f th e ep istem o lo g ical d iscu ssio n s a re th e re fo re
invalid.
I w a n t to m e n tio n p rim a rily th e fa llacio us u se o f s u c h c o n stru c ts as
senses a n d u n d e rsta n d in g .

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a. The Senses
T h e senses as th ey a re tre a te d in tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y have n o existence
w h a tso e v e r. A t b est th ey a re c o n s tru c te d o n th e basis th a t th e re a re sense
o rg a n s su c h as th e re c e p to rs o f m o d e rn p h y sio lo g y , th a t is, retin as, co c h ­
leae, sk in re c e p to rs, a n d so o n . A t o n c e w e n o tic e th a t th e n o tio n o f sense
o rg a n s th ro u g h w hich k n o w led g e is first stim u la te d is n o t tru e to ob serv a­
tio n , o r th e ex isten ce o f th e in te rre la tio n s o f o rg an ism s a n d stim u lu s
o b jects. T h e fact is th a t sen se o rg a n s a re sim p le fe atu res o f a n o rg a n ism
sensitive to c e rta in so rts o f energy o r p re ssu res. N e x t it follow s th a t th e id ea
o f k n o w led g e b ein g in itiated th ro u g h sense o rg a n s does n o t c o m p o rt w ith
th e fa ct th a t it is alw ays a n o rg a n ism th a t is in tera ctin g w ith stim u lu s
o b jects. T h e esse n tial fe a tu re o f sen sin g is th a t th e energies o r th e pressu res
th a t in h e re in th e th e o ry o f senses a re m ean s f o r th e co n ta c ts o f o rg an ism s
w ith o b jects. F o r ex am p le, in th e case o f v isu al in tera ctio n s w ith objects,
th e light w h ich strik es th e re tin a is n o t a stim u lu s o r in citer o f m e n ta l states
^ r processes in th e m in d o r the b rain~ b u t r a th e r t h e m ean s by w h ich th e
'P
' o rg a n ism c a n in te ra c t w ith th e objects. S im ilarly th e a ir w aves w hich are
p re su m e d to act ex a ctly like th e lig h t rays a r e sim p ly a u d ito ry m ed ia. T h e y
m a k e it p o ssib le fo r th e o rg a n ism to re act to so u n d s. In c id e n tally th e re is
<1
im p lied h e re th e view th a t sen sin g is a d efinite m a tte r o f in teractin g w ith
objects. T h e tra d itio n a l view w hich m ay b e tra c e d b a c k to N e w to n ’s
e x p e rim e n t th a t co lo r, fo r ex a m p le , is so m e s o rt o f p sy ch ic p ro cess in th e
so-called sen so riu m sh o u ld n o t be in v o k ed . W h a t th e o rg an ism s o r perso n s
| in te ra c t w ith a re a c tu a l o b jects w ith th e ir v a rio u s q u a litie s a n d p ro p e rtie s
I w ith in a c o o rd in a te space tim e system .

b. The Understanding
By th e sa m e to k e n th e u n d e rs ta n d in g w h ich ep istem o lo g ists m a k e use o f
d o es n o t a c c o rd w ith th e facts o f p sy ch o lo g y. In this case as in th a t o f th e
senses w h a t really is being ob serv ed a n d discu ssed is th e b eh a v io r o f
o rg a n ism s w ith respect to objects. U n d e rs ta n d in g is a m o d e o f in teractin g
w ith o b jects b ased o n , in m o st cases, m an y p rev io u s co n ta c ts w ith objects.
A t first so m e o b ject w hich m a y be called new a n d stra n g e to a n o rg a n ism is
little u n d e rs to o d . It is m erely seen, th a t is, perceived. If th e o rg a n ism
p e rfo rm s la te r re actio n s to th e sam e o b ject w h e th e r m erely o b serv in g w h a t
h a p p e n s to it w h e n in c o n ta c t w ith a n o th e r o b ject, o r th e result o f th e
o rg a n ism ’s m a n ip u la tio n o f th e object, th e n th e later reactio n s m ay be
✓ called u n d e rsta n d in g .
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 E P I S T E M O L O G Y A N D O N T O L O G Y

ON TO LO G Y A N D EX ISTE N C E

C o u p le d w ith th e v ag a ries o f e p istem o lo g y is th e p h ilo so p h ic al discipline

n a m ed o n to lo g y . D ire ctly in c o rre sp o n d e n c e w ith th e epistem o lo g ical
tra d itio n a r o s e n u m e ro u s sp e c u la tio n s a b o u t th e n a tu re o f being. C o n s o n ­
a n t w ith th e sp iritistic p re su p p o sitio n s o f post-classical th in k in g , ph ilo ­
so p h ers w restled w ith su ch p ro b le m s as “Is th e re a n ex te rn a l w orld?"
“ W h a t is it like?" a n d “ H o w c a n su ch a w o rld be k n o w n ?" P ro m in e n t in
th ese sp e c u la tio n s is th e c o n c e p t o f Reality as c o m p a re d w ith th e criterio n
o f T ru th x T h e p rim a ry q u e s tio n is h o w to d iffe ren tiate b etw e en a p p e a ra n c e
a n d reality ?) O b v io u sly th e re ex ist m a n y a n d effective p o te n tia litie s fo r
q u estio n in g h o w w ell k n o w led g e is co n firm a b le w ith th e tra its o f observed
th in g s a n d events.
B asic to all v ersio n s o f o n to lo g y a re th e im p e d in g b lo c k s o f tra d itio n a l
p h ilo so p h ie s, s u c h as a s s u m p tio n s o f ab so lu ten e ss, a b stra c tio n ism s as over
a g a in st th e p re o c c u p a tio n w ith co n c re te a n d c o n fro n ta b le objects, p ersons,
o rg an ism s in g en e ral, a n d te rre stria l c o n d itio n s o f v ario u s so rts, geological,
g eo g rap h ical, b io lo g ic al, p sy ch o lo g ical, a n d c u ltu ra l. F o r th e m o st p art
o n to lo g ic al p ro b le m s a re sp u rio u s a n d definitely verbal.
T o b rin g tra d itio n a l o n to lo g ic a l p ro b le m s in to c o n te x t w ith th e N e w to ­
n ia n e x p e rim e n t it is in stru c tiv e to see h o w tra d itio n a l beliefs o u tw eig h
ev en ts in th e th e o ry o f co lo r. C o n fro n ta b le e v e n ts in th e situ a tio n are
d esc rib a b le a s a b e a m o f lig h t e n terin g th ro u g h a sm all a p e rtu re w h ich is
in te rc e p te d b y a glass p rism w ith a n o b lo n g sp e c tru m o f c o lo rs a p p e a rin g
o n a n a v a ila b le su rfa ce. I n th e in te rp re ta tio n , ho w ever, th e c o lo rs w h ich are
n o t c o n ta in e d in th e d ifferentially re fra n g ib le lig h t a re a sse rte d to be
a p p a ritio n s in a n o n e x istin g m in d o r se n so riu m .
— F o r a scientific p h ilo so p h y , o n to lo g ic al p ro b le m s a re co n fin ed en tirely to
th e d e te r m in a tio n o f t h e n a tu r e a n d p ro p e rtie s o f th in g s a n d e v e n ts as
b a se d o n p r o p e r a s s u m p tio n s , w hile s tric t u se is m a d e o f processes o f
analysis, synthesis, d issectio n , a n d o th e r tech n ic al processes.
C o lo rs, as w ell as all o th e r p ro p e rtie s, c h a ra c te ristic s, a n d re la tio n sh ip s
o u g h t to be re g a rd e d a s ex istin g a n d c o n fro n ta b le things. In psychological
te rm s th e y c o n sist o f stim u lu s o b jects to w h ich o rg a n ism s re sp o n d a n d
a d a p t th em selv es in v a rio u s p ro p e r a n d im p ro p e r w avs. In n o w a v d o es th e
in d iv id u a l w h o re a c ts to stim u lu s objects c re a te th e m . W h a t he creates is
/ m erely his v e rb a l d e sc rip tio n o f th e m o r his d esiring, o r p a in tin g o f w h a t he
reacts t o. H e re is a ty p ic a l s itu a tio n in w h ic h c o n s tru c ts m u s t b e sh arp ly
differen tiated fro m p ristin e th in g s a n d events. C o n stru c ts c a n o nly be
identified w ith c o n stru c ts.
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 THE P H I L O S O P H E R A N D HIS W O R L D

T h e h isto ry o f p h ilo so p h y is very in stru ctiv e c o n c e rn in g th e n a tu re o f

o n to lo g y . In th e early o b jectiv e p erio d o f p h ilo so p h y A risto tle p ro p o se s a
fo rm o f sp e c u la tio n a b o u t b eing w hich clearly is m erely e x tra p o la tio n fro m
c o n fro n ta b le s itu a tio n s. T h o u g h chem ical analysis w as lacking h e th o u g h t
to m a k e a b s tra c tio n s a b o u t things in o rd e r to a tta in k n o w led g e a b o u t th e
n a tu re o f s u b s ta n c e s a n d h o w th ey c a m e to be w h a t th ey are. D e sp ite th e
p rim itiv ity o f th e k n o w le d g e o f th e tim e, A ris to tle a tte m p te d to specify th e
n a tu re o f cau se a n d ch a n g e, o f th e re la tio n b etw een su b stan ces a n d a ttri­
butes, o f p o te n c y a n d actu ality , o f te m p o ra lity a n d p erm a n an ce .
W h a t d ifferen tiates th e early objective sp ec u la tio n s a b o u t b ein g is th e
in cre ased d e p a r tu r e fro m things a n d e v e n ts an d relian ce u p o n v erb al
c o n s tru c tio n s . C o m p le x s y s te m s jo f a rg u m e n ts .h a v e b een P ig a n ized _ to
p ro v e th e ex isten c e o f th in g s jie v e r a v a ila b le f o r o b se rv a tio n o r even an y
a u th e n tic in feren ce fro m c o n fro n ta b le ev id en ce. T h e re is a s h a rp differenti­
a tio n b etw een a c tu a l in te ra c tio n s w ith th in g s co m p o se d o f p ristin e s u b ­
stan ce s a n d th o s e co n sistin g only o f asse rtio n s o r v erb al u tteran ces.
E arly o n , o f c o u rse, all su ch q u e stio n s w e re re ad ily an sw e red by th e
relig io u s p h ilo so p h e rs w h o re so rted to G o d to aid th e m in all th e ir p ro b ­
lem s a n d so lu tio n s . A lj th ey j e e d e d to d o w as to in v o k e a su p re m e c re a to r
w h o co u ld {provide ^ s u b s ta n tia l o r g o ssa m er u n iv erse, a n d w h o c o uld
e n d o w th in k ers w ith in tu itive p o w ers a d lib to ac c o m p lish w h a t w as
'd e s ir e d , la te r w ith th e a d v a n cem en t o f science a tte m p ts w ere, m a d e .to p u t
o n tb T o in ^ ^ p m b le m s o n a m ore_ n atu ra listic basis. T h e n a ro se th e g ra n d
tra d itio n w h ich is sy m b o liz ed by th e K a n tia n d o c trin e o f th e D in g a n S ic h .
^ T o a g re a t e x te n t th e th in g -in -itse lf s o lu tio n o f o n to lo g ic a l p ro b le m s ?
served to b rin g ep istem o lo g y a n d o n to lo g y closer th a n w as th e case h ith ­
e rto b u t n o im p ro v e m e n t w as m ad e in th e u n d e rly in g p h ilo so p h ic al as­
su m p tio n s . T h e sa m e old s u p e rn a tu ra lism p rev ailed u n til p h ilo so p h e rs
a tte m p te d to o v e rc o m e tra d itio n a l m etap h y sics by tu rn in g to linguistic
m atters.
D e sp ite all th e d isp u tes a n d d isag re em en ts a b o u t th e n a tu re o f k n o w l­
ed g e it is a sim p le m a tte r to ac co u n t fo r th e p ersisten ce o f E pistem o lo g y -
O n to lo g y as w a s n o te d a b o v e . O rig in ally it w as only th e opp ressiv e p o w er
o f c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s, th a t is, th e beliefs fro m th e age o f fa ith th a t held m en
cap tiv e . It w as esse n tially th e p o w er o f religion. W ith th e g ro w th o f science
a n d its en c h a in m e n t by th e b o n d s o f sp iritu alism th e p o w e r o f ep istem o lo g ­
ical v erb alism w as stre n g th e n e d by c e rta in ex p e rim en ts. I p ro p o se to
a ttrib u te th e p o w e r o f sp iritistic p h ilo so p h y a m o n g scientists a n d th eir

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influence u p o n p h ilo so p h ic a l th o u g h t to th e s u p p o rt received fro m su ch

scientists as G alileo a n d N e w to a

M A T H E M A T IC S A S AN O N TO LO G IC A L PR O BLEM

r T h e c h a ra c te r o f m o d e rn o n to lo g y is excellently reflected in th e rela tio n

o f m a th e m a tic s a n d th e sciences. O n e p a rty d eclares th a t e q u a tio n s c a n be
b u ilt in iv o ry to w e rs b u t la te r disco v ers th a t th e y d escrib e ev en ts in n a tu re .
T h e o th e r p a rty arg u es th a t scientific e q u a tio n s can o nly b e d e l v e d fro m
j i a tu r a l events, a n d th e ir v alid ity stem s fro m o b serv atio n s. {
C o n s id e ra b le light is cast u p o n this d e b a te by co n su ltin g th e findings
co n c e rn in g th e n a tu re o f m a th e m a tic s a n d o f th e psych o lo g y o f discovery.

a. What is Mathematics?
A s to m a th e m a tic s it is ad v isab le to ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e fact th a t it is a t
th e sa m e tim e (1) a la n g u a g e , (2) a calcu lu s, (3) a n a rt, a n d (4) a n in d e p e n d ­
e n t science.

1. Mathematics as Language. A s a language, m ath e m a tic s c a n serve

to d e sc rib e w h a t scien tists d isco v er o f th e re la tio n sh ip s o f v a rio u s fa c to rs in
a c o m p le x e v e n t. S u c h e q u a tio n s a s P = y / d o r F = M , M j/S x d o in d eed
en lig h te n re a d e rs as to th e v aria b les involved in a n ev en t a n d th e ir relative
influ en ce o n th e c o m p o s itio n a n d p ro p e rtie s o f th in g s a n d ev en ts. T h is
lingu istic a sp e c t o f m a th e m a tic s is excellently illu stra te d in th e large
n u m b e r o f in stan ce s in w h ic h new pro cesses in m a th e m a tic s h av e been
o rig in a te d o r c u ltiv ated b ecau se o f p ro b le m s first e n c o u n te re d in ph y sics.1
2. Mathematics as Calculus. D esp ite th e in tricate in terre latio n sh ip s o f
th e v a rio u s a sp e cts o f m a th e m a tic s it is n o t difficult to in su la te th e ca lc u lu s
asp ect. H e re m a th e m a tic s is clearly a n aspect o f scientific w o rk a n d th u s th e
m a th e m a tic ia n is closely in co n ta c t w ith th in g s a n d events.
3. Mathematics as Art. M a n y m a th e m a tic ia n s lo o k u p o n th e ir w o rk
as sim p ly th e c o n s tru c tio n o f p a tte rn s a n d re la tio n a l stru c tu re s d esig n ed fo r
p e rso n a l ed ific atio n o r th e exercise o f a rc h ite c tu ra l b e h a v io r in b rin g in g
w o rk s o f a r t in to ex isten c e. E q u a tio n s a n d sy stem s th ey in sist a re b ea u tifu l
a n d to be c o m p a re d to a p ain tin g , piece o f scu lp tu re, o r m u sical score.
4. Mathematics as Science. O f g reat significance is m a th e m a tic s as
science. A lth o u g h it d o e s n o t a p p e a r as w idely reco g n ized o r ac k n o w l­
edged , m a th e m a tic s a c tu a lly is a sp ecialized m e m b e r o f th e scientific
'See Bell, E. T„ The Development o f Mathematics. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1940.

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fra te rn ity , w ith a b stra c t an d c o n c rete re la tio n s o f m an y so rts as subject
m a tte r. S o m e evidence o f th is fa ct is d isc ern ib le in th e insistence th a t
m ath em atics is logic o r derived fro m logic.2

PSYCHOLOGY OF DISCOVERY
Scientific p sychology m ak es p lain th a t th e classical views a b o u t b o th
o n to lo g y an d ep istem o lo g y w ere b ad ly m isconceived, since th ey a re based
u p o n fallacious views o f psychology a n d the w ay ind iv id u als p erfo rm ed
creativ e an d o th e r fo rm s o f b eh av io r.(§ ecau se th e n o tio n h a s lo n g prevailed
th a t p erso n s a re d o u b le beings m a d e u p o f m inds an d bodies, th e m en tal or
so u l p a r t w as re g ard e d as free a n d a u to n o m o u s an d th u s ca p ab le o f
c re a tin g a w o rld an d all it c o n ta in s ) W h a t w as flagrantly o v erlo o k ed was
th a t n o psychological a c tio n o r p e rfo rm a n c e does o r can o c c u r except as an
in te ra c tio n w ith so m eth in g in th e am b ien c e o f a p e rfo rm in g individual.
T h a t so m e th in g c o u ld be o n ese lf as w ell o r ill, erect o r p ro n e , a n o th e r
p e rso n o r o th e r o rg a n ism , o r im ag in ary o b ject o r q u a lity o f a n o bject. D ue
c o n sid eratio n o f psychological b eh a v io r leaves n o ro o m fo r th e dichotim i-
z a tio n o f ep istem o lo g y an d o n to lo g y , e x c ep t as referen tial term s fo r o rg a n ­
ism s a n d th e ir a c tio n s in c o rre sp o n d e n ce w ith th in g s a n d events. I nvestiga­
tio n o f th e n a tu re o f th in g s can o n ly be p e rfo rm ed by th e critical te c h n iques
o f th e special sciences. T h ere c a n be n o m o re general disciplines n o r m o re
valued o r precise ones.
; R u s s e l l , B ., Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, L o n d o n . A lle n a n d U n w in . 1919.
 C H A P T E R 13
EGOCENTRIC KNOWING VERSUS COGNITIVE FIELDS

S P IR IT IST IC P H IL O SO PH Y D O M IN A T E S T H E SC IEN C E
O F K N O W IN G

O n e o f th e m o st d e p re ssin g ev e n ts re la tiv e to b o th p h ilo so p h y a n d

science is th e im p o sitio n o f th e m etap h y sics o f m ind a n d b o d y u p o n th e
scientific tr e a tm e n t o f k n o w in g b eh av io r. T h is c irc u m sta n c e h as ex e rted a
p o w e rfu l(m ale ficen $ influence u p o n th e th e o ry a n d p ra c tic e c o n c e rn in g
p erceiv in g , th in k in g , a n d o th e r so -c alle d co g n itiv e activ ities as w ell as th e
scientific view s c o n c ern in g p h ilo so p h y a n d science in general.
T h e h isto ry o f th e c o n q u e st o f scien ce by m etap h y sica l a n d m y th ical
p rin cip les is m o st in te re stin g in th a t e m in e n t a n d ex trem ely c a p a b le scien­
tists serv e as u n w ittin g a g e n ts in tu rn in g science in to m islead in g a n d
fr u s tr a tin g p a th w a y s. W e b eg in th is u n p le a s a n t s to ry by th e view s o f
G a lile o c o n c e rn in g th e b asic k n o w led g e n a m e d perceiving.

G A LILEO SP1RITIZES K N O W IN G

I n c o n n e c tio n w ith his th in k in g a b o u t th e p ro b le m k n o w n as p rim a ry

a n d se c o n d a ry q u alitie s he d iscu sses th e n a tu re o f h eat a n d o th e r q u alities
o f th in g s. I q u o te fro m th e trea tise II S a g g ia tu re as tra n sla te d by B u rtt.1
. . . I want to propose examination of that which we call heat, whose generally accepted
notion comes very far from the truth if my serious doubts be correct, inasmuch as it is
supposed to be a true accident, affection and quality really residing in the thing which we
perceive to be heated. Nevertheless I say, that indeed I feel myself impelled by the necessity,
as soon as I conceive a piece of matter or corporeal substance, of conceiving that in its own
nature it is bounded and figured in such and such a figure, that in relation to others it is large
or small, that it is in this or that place, in this or that time, that it is in motion or remains at
rest, that it touches or does not touch another body, that it is single, few, or many; in short
by no imagination can a body be separated from such conditions: but that it must be white
or red, bitter or sweet, sounding or mute, of a pleasant or unpleasant odour, I do not
perceive my mind forced to acknowledge it necessarily accompanied by such conditions; so
if the senses were not the escorts, perhaps the reason or the imagination by itself would
never have arrived at them. Hence I think that these tastes, odours, colours, etc., on the side
of the object in which they seem to exist, are nothing else than mere names, but hold their
residence solely in the sensitive body; so that if the animal were removed, every such quality
would be abolished and annihilated. Nevertheless, as soon as we have imposed names on

1Burtt, E. A., The Metaphysical Foundations o f Modem Science, Garden City, Doubleday, 1954.

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them, particular and different from those of the other primary and real accidents, we induce
ourselves to believe that they exist just as truly and really as the latter.
I think that by an illustration 1 can explain my meaning more clearly. 1 pass a hand, first
over a marble statue, then over a living man. Concerning all the effects which come from the
hand, as regards the hand itself, they are the same whether on the one or on the other
object—that is, these primary accidents, namely motion and touch (for we call them by no .
other names)—but the animate body which suffers that operation feels various affections
according to the different parts touched, and if the sole of the foot, the kneecap, or the
armpit be touched, it perceives besides the common sense of touch, another affection, to
which we have given a particular name, calling it tickling. Now this affection is all ours, and
does not belong to the hand at all. And it seems to me that they would greatly err who
should say that the hand, besides motion and touch, possessed in itself another faculty
different from those, namely the tickling faculty; so that tickling would be an accident that
exists in it. A piece of paper, or a feather, lightly rubbed on whatever part of our body you
wish, performs, as regards itself, everywhere the same operation, that is, movement and
touch; but in us, if touched between the eyes, on the nose, and under the nostrils, it excites
an almost intolerable tickling, though elsewhere it can hardly be felt at all. Now this tickling
is all in us. and not in the feather, and if the animate and sensitive body be removed, it is
nothing more than a mere name. Of precisely a similar and not greater existence do I believe
these various qualities to be possessed, which are attributed to natural bodies, such as tastes,
odours, colours, and others.
** But that external bodies, to excite in us these tastes, these odours and these sounds.
demand other than size, figure, number, and slow or rapid motions, I do not believe; and 1
i judge that, if the ears, the tongue, and the nostrils were taken away, the figure, the numbers,
and the motions would indeed remain, but not the odours nor the tastes nor the sounds,
which, without the living animal, I do not believe are anything else than names, just as
tickling is precisely nothing but a name if the armpit and the nasal membrane be removed;
"I . . and turning to my first proposition in this place, having now seen that many affections
& which are reputed to be qualities residing in the external object, have truly no other
existence than in us, and without us are nothing else than names; I say that I am inclined
sufficently to believe that heat is of this kind, and that the thing that produces heat in us and
yg makes us perceive it, which we call by the general name fire, is a multitude of minute
corpuscles thus and thus figured, moved with such and such a velocity;. . . But that besides
^ their figure, number, motion, penetration, and touch, there is in fire another quality, that is
ji heat—that I do not believe otherwise than I have indicated, and I judge that it is so much
due to us that, if the animate and sensitive body were removed, heat would remain nothing
more than a simple word.

W h en w e an a ly z e G alileo’s th in k in g here we m u st a p p la u d his enlistm ent

in th e b a ttle a g a in s t th e m edieval in v en tio n s o f forms, qualities, an d
properties as p u re existences in d e p e n d e n t o f a c tu a l th in g s th a t can be
tre a te d by th e m ath e m a tic a l o p e ra tio n s o f c o u n tin g , m easu rin g , a n d w eigh­
ing. N evertheless, we c a n n o t o v erlo o k th e h o ld u p o n him o f th e tran sc en ­
d e n ta l in stitu tio n s w hich serve as a n in telle ctu al c u rta in betw een him an d
c o n c re te th in g s a n d c o n d itio n s ex c ep t p e rh a p s b o d y a n d m o tio n . A s a
co n se q u e n c e o f th is c a p tiv ity he u n w ittin g ly re ta in e d th e n o tio n o f the
in n a te a n d in d e p e n d e n t ex isten ce o f so m e p ro p e rtie s a n d qualities w hich he

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 K N O W I N G VS. C O G N I T I V E F I E L D S

called th e p rim a ry so rt. T h u s he m isses th e n a tu ra listic p h ilo so p h y w h ich is

b ased o n th e o b s e rv a tio n a n d an aly sis o f th in g s an d events ju s t as th ey
o ccu r, ex c e p t as h e is in tere ste d in p ractical o p e ra tio n s like testing m ate­
rials, b o rin g c a n n o n s a n d o th e r tech n iq u es re le v an t to a V en etian arsenal.
W h a t is o f c o u rs e n o t to be ex p e cted even o f th e g re a te st scientists o f th e
f sev e n te en th c e n tu ry is a n a p p re c ia tio n th a t in m a tte rs o f co g n itio n a n d
psy ch o lo g ical ev en ts in g en e ral, sim ilar field ev en ts p revail as in th e astro -
L n o m ic a n d k in e m a tic d o m a in s. T h e sa m e scientists w h o have estab lish ed
th e C o p e rn ic a n field o f H elio cen tric m o tio n ; th e K ep lerian field o f eliptic
m o tio n o f p la n e ts relativ e to th e su n w ith p ro p o rtio n a litie s o f tim e an d
d istan ce ; th e G a lile a n field o f falling bo d ies; a n d finally th e N e w to n ia n field
o f u n iv ersal a ttra c tio n o r g ra v ita tio n co u ld n o t u n d e rs ta n d th a t p sy ch o lo g ­
ical ev en ts likew ise o c c u r jn fields w ith responses o f o rg a n ism s in reciprocal
a c tio n w ith stim u lu s o b je c ts.
T h a t G a lileo w as u n a b le to a tta in to a field c o n s tru c tio n in p sy ch o lo g y
w as u n d o u b te d ly o w in g to his a b s o rp tio n o f th e n o tio n th a t th e soul is th e
seat a n d lo cale o f se c o n d a ry p ro p e rtie s a n d qualities. W h en G alileo as­
su m es th a t tic k lin g is n o t a p ro p e rty lo cated in th e fe a th e r b u t in th e
o rg a n ism , really its s o u l, he is firm ly e n s n a re d in th e m eshes o f th e
m in d -m a tte r tra d itio n o f d u alistic philo so p h y.
T h a t G a lileo is m o re influenced in his th in k in g by p h ilo so p h ical tra d itio n
th a n b y a c tu a l c o n ta c ts w ith ev en ts is ev id en t fro m his failu re to differen­
tia te b etw e en h ea t as a n ev en t o f m o le c u lar m o tio n , a n d as p a rt o f a
b io lo g ical a n d p sy ch o lo g ical event in w h ich a n o rg a n ism is reactin g to a
c o n d itio n to w hich it is sensitive, a n d by w hich it is in ju red , cu red , o r
d estro y e d . T h e p o w ers o f d u a listic in stitu tio ns m a d e it im p ossible fo r th e
g re a t fo u n d e r o f d y n a m ic s to ap p re c ia te th e differences b etw een (o) v a ria n t
re a c tio n s o f o rg a n ism s to things a n d th e ir q u alities, a n d ( b ) th e existence o f
a psychic re cep tac le fo r sec o n d a ry p ro p erties different fro m shape, size, an d
c o n ta c t, a lth o u g h d y n a m ic s consists essentially o f system s o f in teractio n s
o f th in g s a n d events. O f c o u rse, h eat is n o t a m edieval su b stan ce b u t it is an
ev en t o r a c o n d itio n , say, a rap id a g itatio n o f m olecules, w h ich p lainly is a
fa c to r in s u c h relatively larg e r ev en ts as o x id a tio n s, w o rk , ex p lo sio n s,
c a lc in a tio n s, en e rg y tra n s fo rm a tio n s , a n d so on. A s a m a n o f th e seven­
te e n th c e n tu ry it w as n o t p o ssib le fo r G alileo to a n tic ip a te th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f ch e m istry a n d th e o th e r sciences w hich allow c o lo rs, tastes, a n d o d o rs to
b e re g a rd e d as p ro p e rtie s o r q u alities o f th in g s w h ich c a n be re acted to,
ev a lu a ted , m a n ip u la te d , im ita te d , an d m easured.

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 THE P H I L O S O P H E R AND HIS W O R L D

NEW TON’S COLOR E X P E R IM E N T S S U P P O R T

M E N T A L IS T S SC IEN C E

P h ilo so p h e rs interested in n atu ra listic p o stu la tio n fo r th eir discipline

m u st be deeply im p ressed w ith th e e n o rm o u s influence exerted by N ew ­
to n ’s e x p e rim en ts o n sight an d co lo rs in m ain ta in in g su p e rn a tu ra l an d
co m p letely a u tistic th in k in g in p sy ch o lo g y a n d p h ilo so p h y . S o e n o rm o u s
h as been an d still is the influence in itiated b y N e w to n ’s in te rp re ta tio n o f th e
ex p e rim e n t th a t it deserves full ex p o sitio n . A cco rd in g ly w e present N ew ­
to n ’s artic le o rig in ally p u b lish ed in th e P h ilo so p h ica l T ra n sa c tio n s o f
th e R o y al S ociety in 1672 in th e ab rid g e d an d m odernized fo rm o f
L. W . T a y lo r.2
In the Year 1666 (at which time I applied myself to the Grinding of Optick Glasses of
other Figures than Spherical) 1 procured me a Triangular Glass-Prism, to try therewith the
^ celebrated Phaenomena of Colours. And in order thereto, having darkened my Chamber,
and made a small Hole in my Window-shuts, to let in a convenient Quantity of the Sun's
Light, 1 placed my Prism at its Entrance, that it might be thereby refracted to the opposite
ijp Wall. It was at first a very pleasing Divertisement, to view the vivid and intense Colours
produced thereby; but after a while applying myself to consider them more circumspectly, I
became surprised to see them in an oblong Form; which, according to the receiv’d Laws of
Refractions, I expected should have been circular. They were terminated at the Sides with
straight Lines, but at the Ends the Decay of Light was so gradual, that it was difficult to
determine justly what was their Figure, yet they seemed Semicircular.
Comparing the Length of this colour’d S p e c tr u m with its Breadth, I found it about five
times greater, a Disproportion so extravagant, that it excited me to a more than ordinary
Curiosity of examining from whence it might proceed. I could scarce think, that the various
Thickness of the Glass, or the Termination with Shadow or Darkness, could have any
influence on Light to produce such an Effect; yet I thought it not amiss, first to examine
those circumstances, and so try'd what would happen by transmitting Light through Parts
of the Glass of divers Thicknesses, or through Holes in the Window o f divers Bignesses, or
4 by setting the Prism without, so that the Light might pass through it, and be refracted,
'‘ 1 before it was terminated by the Hole: But 1 found none of those Circumstances material.
The Fashion of the Colours was in all these Cases the same.
Then I suspected, whether by any Unevenness in the Glass, or other contingent lrregular-
ity, these Colours might be thus dilated. And to try this, I took another Prism like the
former, and so placed it, that the Light passing thro’ them both, might be refracted contrary
ways, and so by the latter returned into that Course from which the former had diverted it:
For by this Means 1thought the regular Effects of the first Prism would be destroyed by the
second Prism, but the irregular Ones more augmented, by the Multiplicity of Refractions.
The Event was, that the Light, which by the first Prism was diffused into an oblong Form,
was by the second reduced into an orbicular One, with as much Regularity as when it did
not at all pass through them.. . .
Then 1 began to suspect, whether the Rays, after their Trejection through the Prism, did
not move in curve Lines, and according to their more or less Curvity tend to divers Pans of
the Wall. And it increased my Suspicion, when I remember'd that I had often seen a

JTaylor, L. W., Physics the Pioneer Science, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1941.

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 K N O W I N G VS. C O G N I T I V E F I E L D S

Tennis-Ball struck with an oblique Racket, describe such a curve Line. For, a circular as well
as a progressive Motion being communicated to it by the Stroke, its Parts on that Side,
where the Motions conspire, must press and beat the contiguous Air more violently than on
the other, and there excite a Reluctancy and Reaction of the Air proportionably greater.
And for the same Reason, if the Rays of Light should possibly be globular Bodies, and by
their oblique Passage out of one Medium into another acquire a circulating Motion, they
ought to feel the greater Resistance from the ambient Ether on that Side where the Motions
conspire, and thence be continually bowed to the other. But notwithstanding this plausible
Ground of Suspicion, when I came to examine it, I could observe no such Curvity in them.
And besides (which was enough for my purpose) I observed, that the Difference betwixt the
Length of the Image, and the Diameter of the Hole through which the Light was transmit­
ted, was proportionable to their Distance.
The gradual Removal of these Suspicions at length led me to the Experim eruum Crucis,
which was this. (Fig. 2). I took two Boards, and placed one of them close behind the Prism at

Fig. 2. Newton's “Experimentum Crucis" (Redrawn from the Opticks of 1704.)

the W indow, so that the Light might pass through a small H ole, made in it for the purpose,
and fall on the other Board, which I placed at about 12 Feet distance, having first made a
small Hole in it also forsome of that incident Light to pass through. Then 1 placed another
Prism behind t his second Board, so that the Light trajectcd through both the Boards might
pass through that also, and be again refracted before it arrived at the Wall. This done, I took
the first Prism in my Hand, and turned it to and fro slowly about it Axis, so much as to make
the several Parts of the Image, cast on the second Board, successively pass through the Hole
in it, that I might observe to what Places on the Wall the second Prism would refract them.
And I saw by the Variation of those Places, that the Light, tending to that End of the Image
towards which the Refraction of the first Prism was made, did in the second Prism suffer a
Refraction considerably greater than the Light tending to the other End. And so the true
Cause of the Length of that Image was detected to be no other, than that Light is not similar
or homogeneal, but consists of difform Rays, so m e o f which are m ore refrangible than
others ; so that without any Difference in their Incidence on the same Medium, some shall be
more refracted than others; and therefore that, according to their particular Degrees o f
Refrangibilitv, they were transmitted through the Prism to divers Parts of the opposite
Wall.
I shall now proceed to acquaint you with another more notable D ifform ity in its Rays,
wherein the Origin of Colours is unfolded: Concerning which I shall lay down the Doctrine

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 THE P H I L O S O P H E R A N D HIS W O R L D

first; and then, for its Examination, give you an Instance or two of the Experiments, as a
Specimen of the rest.
The Doctrine you will find comprehended and illustrated in the following Propositions.
1. As the Rays of Light differ in Degrees of Refrangibility, so they also differ in their
Disposition to exhibit this or that particular Colour. Colours are not Qualifications of
Light, derived from Refractions, or Reflections of natural Bodies (as 'tis generally believed)
but original and connate Properties, which in divers Rays are divers. Some Rays are
disposed to exhibit a Red Colour, and no other, some a Yellow, and no other, some a Green,
and no other, and so of the rest. Nor are there only Rays proper and particular to the more
eminent Colours, but even to all their intermediate Gradations.
2. To the same Degree of Refrangibility ever belongs the same Colour, and to the same
Colour ever belongs the same Degree of Refrangibility. The least refrangible Rays are all
disposed to exhibit a Red Colour, and contrarily, those Rays which are disposed to exhibit a
Red Colour, are all the least refrangible: So the most refrangible Rays are all disposed to
exhibit a deep Violet Colour, and contrarily, those which are apt to exhibit such a Violet
Colour, are all the most refrangible: And so to all the intermediate Colours in a continued
Series belong intermediate Degrees of Refrangibility. And this Analogy betwixt Colours
a and Refrangibility is very precise and strict; the Rays always either exactly agreeing in both,
or proportionally disagreeing in both.
3. The Species of Colour, and Degree of Refrangibility proper to any particular Sort of
p! Rays, is not mutable by Refraction, nor by Reflection from natural Bodies, nor by any other
Cause that 1could yet observe. When any one Sort of Rays hath been well parted from those
of other Kinds, it hath afterwards obstinately retained its Colour, notwithstanding my
1 utmost Endeavors to change it. I have refracted it with Prisms, and reflected it with Bodies,
ifli which in Day-light were of other Colours; I have intercepted it with the coloured Film of
Air, interceding two compressed Plates of Glass, transmitted it through coloured Mediums,
and through Mediums irradiated with other Sorts of Rays, and diversely terminated it; and
yet could never produce any new Colour out of it. It would by contracting or dilating
m become more brisk, or faint, and by the Loss of many Rays, in some Cases very obscure and
dark; but I could never see it changed in Specie.. . .
7. But the most surprizing and wonderful Composition was that of Whiteness. There is
no one sort of Rays which alone can exhibit this. T is ever compounded; and to its
Composition are requisite all the aforesaid primary Colours, mix’d in a due Proportion. I
41 have often with Admiration beheld, that all the Colours of the Prism being made to
*•' converge, and thereby to be again mix’d, as they were in the Light before it was incident
upon the Prism, reproduced Light, entirely and perfectly White, and not at all sensibly
differing from a direct Light of the Sun, unless when the Glasses 1 used were not sufficiently
tQ| dear; for then they would a little incline it to their Colour.
8 . Hence therefore it comes to pass, that Whiteness is the usual Colour of Light; for
Light is a confused Aggregate of Rays indued with all sorts of Colours, as they were
promiscuously darted from the various Parts of luminous Bodies. And of such a confused
Aggregate, as I said, is generated Whiteness, if there be a due Proportion of the Ingredients;
but if any one predominate, the Light must incline to that Colour; as it happens in the blue
Flame of Brimstone; the yellow Flame of Candles; and the various Colours of the Fixed
Stars.
9. These things considered, the manner how Colours are produced by the Prism is
evident. For, of the Rays, constituting the incident Light, since those which differ in Colour
proportionally differ in Refrangibility, they by their unequal Refractions must be severed
and dispersed into an oblong Form in an orderly Succession, from the least refracted
Scarlet, to the most refracted Violet.

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 K N O W I N G VS. C O G N I T I V E F I E L D S

T h e N e w to n ia n e x p e rim e n t has e x e rted its b an efu l influence th ro u g h th e

fo rm u la tio n o f a m o d e l o f perceiv in g w h ich b ecam e th e basis fo r c o n tin u ­
ing th e s a m e d o c trin e o f th e religious tra d itio n s a n d th e p rim e source fo r
th e s u p e rn a tu ra lism o f k n o w led g e an d epistem ology.

TH E N EW T O N IA N M O D E L O F PER C EIV IN G

In a s m u c h as N e w to n a p p ro a c h e d th e p ro b lem o f p ercep tio n p rim arily

as a physicist he lim ited him self to th e d iscussion o f visual p ercep tio n ,
w hich he on ly o cc asio n ally co m p a re d w ith a u d ito ry p ercep tio n . A fte r all he
w as m a in ly in te re ste d in light, a n d in co lo rs o n ly as th ey p e rta in e d to light.
In fact, p ra c tic a lly all o f his w o rk o n c o lo rs is involved w ith p rism atic
phenom ena.
T h e p e rc e p tio n m o d e l o f N e w to n is co n stru c te d as follow s. L ight rays
w h ich a re in th em selv es colorless b u t differentially re fran g ib le im p in g e
u p o n th e eyes. F ro m th e eyes th e m o tio n o f th e rays a re p ro p o g a te d to th e
“s e n so riu m ” w h ere th ey ex c ite “sen sa tio n s” o f th o se m o tio n s u n d e r th e
“fo rm ” o f co lo rs. T h e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n fro m th e Opticks illum inates
N e w to n 's n o tio n co n c e rn in g c o lo r a p p a ritio n s, an d th e acco m p an y in g
d ia g ra m in d icates well th e m a in p o in ts o f the m odel.

L ig h t
R ays

Fig. 3. Conventional Theory of the Function of the Brain in Mediating Between Physical Light and
Mental Qualities.

If at any time I speak of light and rays as coloured or endued with Colours. I would be
understood to speak not philosophically and properly, but grossly, and according to such
conceptions as vulgar people in seeing all these Experiments would be apt to frame. For the
rays to speak properly are not coloured. In them there is nothing else than a certain power
and disposition to stir up a sensation of this or that Colour. For as sound in a Bell or musical

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 THE P H I L O S O P H E R A N D HIS W O R L D

Siring, or other sounding Body, is nothing but a trembling Motion, propagated by the
Object, and in the Sensorium ’tis a sense of that Motion under the form of sound; so Colours
in the Object are nothing but a disposition to reflect this or that sort of rays more copiously
than the rest; in rays they are nothing but their dispositions to propagate this or that Motion
into a Sensorium, and in the Sensorium they are sensations of those Motions under the
forms of Colours.^

J u s t a s N e w to n to o k o v er th e d u a listic p h ilo so p h y w h ich h e im poses

u p o n his p e rc e p tu a l m o d el, so in th e s a m e w ay he assu re s th e p e rse v e ra tio n
o f th a t p h ilo s o p h y w hich ev en n o w c o n tin u e s to influence scien tists in clu d ­
ing s tu d e n ts o f p sy ch o lo g ical events. T h is m o d el w ith c e rta in m o d ificatio n s
a n d a d d itio n s is th e d o m in a n t o n e to d a y , th o u g h clearly it h as n o t been
deriv e d fro m o b s e rv a tio n s a n d th e a n a ly sis o f th e activ ities in v o lv ed in
re a c tin g to co lo r. W e p ro c eed n ex t to a n an alysis o f th e m o d el in p re p a ra ­
tio n fo r a critical e v a lu a tio n o f it.

C R IT IC A L A N A L Y S IS O F N EW TO N ’S S E N SO R Y M O D E L

r - T h e first item to c o n sid e r is th a t th e e n tire m o d el is c o n stru c te d o n th e

T b asis o f lig h t a n d th e sp e c tra l c o lo rs d isp e rse d by a p rism . W h ile N e w to n
c a n n o t b e fa u lte d o n this basis, th e o u tc o m e re su lts in a g en eralized m o d el
Ut'l
_ w h ic h d o e s n o t m a tc h th e facts in th e case. A g a in , th e fa ct th a t th e
stim u la tin g ray s a r e c o rre c tly d escrib ed as co lo rless m ak es w ay f o r a se a rc h
' fo r c o lo rs a n d as w e h a v e seen th e y a re lo calized in a so u rc e w h ich c a n h av e
J n o m a n n e r o t e x iste n c e in a n v scientific m ilieu. T h e h isto ric a l fa ct is.
h o w e v er, th a t N e w to n ’s a u th o rity is ta k e n to be th e basis fo r e m p h a siz in g
sp iritistic c o n s tru c ts th a t tra n sc e n d tim e a n d space. T h e ep istem o lo g ical
view th a t th e m in d creates q u a litie s a n d o b je c ts a s L o c k e a n d K a n t
d ev e lo p e d it g ro w s d irec tly o u t o f N e w to n ’s m o d el. T h e p h ilo so p h e rs
Uli
m e n tio n e d m o d ified a n d g e n e ralize d th e m o d e l to stre ss th a t a ll s o rts o f
u n k n o w n e n titie s o r p o w e rs o p e ra te u p o n th e m in d t o m a k e it e x p e rien ce
o r k n o w a m a n ifo ld w o rld o f th in g s a n d th e ir qu alities. In th e fo rm u la tio n s
•■an
o f K a n t th e e x te rn a l p o w e rs w ere b a p tiz e d a s th in g s in th em selv es (Dinge
an Sich) w h ich ca u se d k n o w n th in g s to b e p ro jec ted fro m th e m in d . S ince
K a n t’s tim e th e u n k n o w n e x te rn a l p o w e rs b e c a m e g ra d u a lly tra n s fo rm e d
in to ca u sal stim u li fo r sen sa tio n s a n d p ercep tio n s.
W h ile N e w to n so m etim es w rites o f th e b ra in as th e se n so riu m th e re is
h a rd ly a d o u b t t h a t h e re g a rd s th e s e n so riu m as o n ly sea te d in th e b rain .
B asically th e se n s a tio n is fo r h im a p sy ch ic e n tity su b ject to n o n e o f th e
ch a ra c te ristic s o f a n o n -p sy c h ic b rain . O f co u rse, th e Opticks d a te s fro m a

JNewton, I., Opticks, New York, Dover, 1952, p. 108.

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 K N O W I N G VS. C O G N I T I V E F I E L D S

tim e w hen sp irits w ere n o t a t all re p u g n an t. H ow ever, N e w to n is in d isp u t­

ab ly a lin k in th e c h a in w hich b in d s c u rre n t p sy ch o lo g ists, a lo n g w ith o th e r
scientists, to th e u p h o ld e rs o f m en talistic d o ctrin e s dev elo p ed in th e H ellen­
istic p e rio d o f o u r cu ltu re. C ertain ly se n sa tio n s are p re su m e d to be m en tal
elem e n ts o r p a rtic le s w h ich c a n in n o w ay b e c o n n e c te d w ith th e b ra in o r
an y o f its c o n d u c tiv e activities.

H ISTO R IC A L C A REER O F NEW TON’S PER C EIV IN G M O D E L

W e have a lre a d y m en tio n ed th a t N e w to n ’s p sy ch o p h y sical d u alism has

co n tin u e d to influence w riters o n psychology an d n eu ro lo g y fro m his tim e
to th e p re sen t. It is possible to tra c e this c o n tin u ity in th e w o rk o f p a rtic u la r
au th o rs. F o r o u r p u rp o se s it is sufficient to refer to a few o u tsta n d in g
ex am p les. F irst w e m ay m en tio n D av id H a rtle y (1705-1757) w h o p u b ­
lished his Observations On Man in 1749. T h is physician d re w u p o n L ocke’s
specifically psych o lo g ical version o f th e c o rp u sc u la r p h ilo so p h y a n d u p o n
N ew to n ’s v ib ra tio n a l n eu ro lo g y as fo u n d a tio n s fo r his e x p la n a tio n s co n ­
ce rn in g th e n a tu re a n d d estin y o f m an. B ecause o f his p re su m a b ly scientific
view a b o u t a n eu ro lo g ic al b asis fo r m en tal pro cesses h e h as beco m e
ce le b rate d a s a fo u n d e r o f physiological psychology. W h a t im pressed
H a rtle y as w ell as m a n y o th e rs w ho follow ed in his fo o tste p s w as th e
a p p a re n tly a u th o rita tiv e p ro n o u n c e m e n ts o f N e w to n a s also th e p u tativ e
details he p osited co n c ern in g th e v ib ratio n s o r m o tio n s in th e nerves.
T h o m a s R e id (1710-1796) asse rts th a t D r. W . Briggs (1642-1704) w as
N e w to n ’s m a ste r in a n a to m y a n d th e first p ro p o n e n t o f th e view th a t nerves
“ w ere n o t h o llo w tu b es w hich o p erated as c o n d u its fo r a n im a l spirits, but
ra th e r solid filam en ts th a t like m usical co rd s v ib ra te differentially a c c o rd ­
ing to th e ir len g th a n d ten sio n . N e w to n ’s a c c e p ta n c e o f th e solid filam ent
v n o tio n o f nerv es is fully in d icated in his Q u e ry 23 o f th e Opticks,
Is not Vision performed chiefly by the Vibrations of this Medium excited in the bottom
of the eye by the Rays of Light, and propagated through the solid, pellucid and uniform
Capillamcnta of the optick Nerves into the place of Sensation? And is not hearing
performed by the Vibrations either of this or some other Medium, excited in the auditory
Nerves by the Tremors of the Air, and propagated through the solid, pellucid and uniform
Capillamenta of those Nerves into the place of Sensation? And so of the other Senses.4

T h o u g h it w as h a rd ly possib le fo r N e w to n in his d a y to k n o w m u ch
a b o u t n eu ro lo g y , nevertheless his a u th o rity prevailed. H a rtle y w ith great
assu ra n c e fo rm u la te d th e tw o follow ing p ro p o sitio n s w h ich su m m ed u p his
fu n d a m e n ta l n eu ro lo g ical view point.
* Newton, I., Opticks, p. 328.

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 THE P H I L O S O P H E R A N D HIS W O R L D

The white medullary substance of the brain, spinal marrow, and the nerves proceeding
from them, is the immediate instrument of Sensation and Motion.
The white medullary substance of the brain is also the immediate instrument, by which
Ideas are presented to the Mind: or in other words, whatever changes are made in this
substance, corresponding changes are made in our Ideas; and vice versa.5

R e id 6 v ig o ro u sly criticized H a rtle y fo r tre a tin g as facts w h a t he h im self

th o u g h t N e w to n p re sen ted o n ly as h y p o th eses, still N e w to n ’s m odel sto o d
firm , a n d in m odified fo rm is th e p re d o m in a n t m o d el to d ay. E very iim ­
p ro v e m e n t m a d e o n t he v ib ra tio n th e o ry o f n erv es a n d every su b s titu tio n ,
fo r ifT h ec am e assim ila te d to th e o rig in al m o d el. W h en v ib ra tio n s a n d
v ib ratiu n cles g av e w ay to im pulses th e la tte r b ec am e re g ard e d as co rres­
p o n d e n ts to, a n d th e bases of, sen satio n s a n d ideas.
T h e fu rth e r c a re e r o f N e w to n ’s p e rc e p tu a l m o d e l is affo rd ed us w h en we
c o m p a re it w ith c u rre n t d e sc rip tio n s o f p erceiv in g b eh a v io r. N ew to n ’s
m o d el h a s influenced p sy ch o lo g ists since his p e rio d to re g ard visual p er­
ceiving as so m e th in g th a t o ccu rs en tire ly th ro u g h th e in stru m e n ta lity o f th e
e y e as h e a rin g d o e s th ro u g h th e e a r. W h ile th is a to m istic v iew p o in t is
w idely a c cep ted a n d fitted in to a n eat cau sal series, 1. stim u lu s v ib ratio n s, 2.
effect o n n erv o u s system , 3. m en tal p ro je c tio n o f things a n d qualities, it
does n o t c o m p o rt w ith o b se rv a tio n s o f h o w p sy chological ad ju stm en ts
ac tu a lly ta k e p lace. T h e N e w to n ia n m o d e l s ta n d s sta rk ly o v er a g a in st the
bioecological fo rm u la tio n o f o rg an ism s a d ju stin g them selves to th e things
th ey a c tu a lly e n c o u n te r in th e ir h a b itu a l s u rro u n d in g s. T h e co lo rs o f
o b jects w ith th e ir fo u n d a tio n in in o rg a n ic a n d o rg a n ic su b stan ces are
im m e d ia tely tra n s fo rm e d in to a c h ro m a tic light p articles w h ich cause c o lo r
a p p a ritio n s to a p p e a r in con scio u sn ess o r th e so u l.7

NEW TON’S B A N E F U L IN FL U E N C E ON SC IE N C E A N D PH IL O SO PH Y

T h a t N e w to n o r N e w to n ia n ism e x e rte d a p o w e rfu l influence o n th e

h isto ry o f psy ch o lo g y is in d isp u ta b ly c o n firm e d . It is ju s t as ce rtain th a t this
influence co u ld n o t be m o re m alefic. H is in fluence m a y be well c h a ra c te r­
ized b y th e c o n sid e ra tio n th a t th ro u g h his p e rc e p tu a l m o d el he im posed
u p o n psy ch o lo g y a lasting d o m in a tio n o f tra n sc en d en talism .
N e w to n , view ed fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f c u rre n t scientific psychology,
sta n d s as a c o n tin u a to r o f th e g en e ral a n im istic v iew p o in t p re v alen t since

'Ibid.
6Reid. T., Essays on the Intellectual Powers o f Man (J. Walker, ed.), 6th cd., Boston, Phillips,
Sampson, I8SS, Essay 2, ch. 2.
’Kantor, J. R., The Logic o f Modern Science, Chicago, Prindpia, 1953.

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 K N O W I N G VS. C O G N I T I V E F I E L D S

th e A le x a n d ria n p e rio d . T h is is in now ise su rp risin g since an im istic w ays o f

th in k in g h av e lo n g c o n stitu te d th e in stitu tio n al su b stan ce o f E u ro p e a n
cu ltu re. It w as u n d e r su ch auspices th a t N e w to n cu ltiv ated his d e e p interest
in p h e n o m e n a by dev isin g a p e rcep tu al m odel w hich helped to p e rp e tu a te
th e sp irit-m a tte r a n d m in d -b o d y trad itio n s. B ecause o f his su p re m e a u th o r­
ity as a scien tist N e w to n influenced p sy ch o logy adversely, a lth o u g h as a
m a th e m a tic a l physicist in tere ste d in light he w as n o t likely to an aly ze an d
describe a d e q u a te ly w h a t h ap p e n s w hen o rg an ism s in teract cognitively
w ith th in g s, b u t stressed o n ly th e p u tativ e effects o f v ib ratio n s w hich
im p in g e u p o n th e eye o r ear. Q u ite in n o cen tly , o f co u rse, co n sid e rin g th e
tim e an d th e in tellectu al clim ate N e w to n ’s m odel coin cid ed w ith th e belief
in th e ab se n ce o f th in g s a n d th e ir properties in n a tu re a n d th eir creatio n in
a n d by th e m in d o r soul. S u ch beliefs, o f co u rse, w ere m o st co n g en ial to
N e w to n th e th eo lo g ian .
A fairly p recise in d ic a tio n o f th e h a rm w ro u g h t by N e w to n ia n ism to
m o d e n T p sy ch o lo g y is th e w ide g ap th a t n o w ex ists betw een ex p erim en tal
p ra c tic e a n d m e n talistic th e o ry . P sychologists in terested in sensory events
a lo n g w ith biologists w h o w o rk in th e d o m a in o f sen so ry physiology accept
th e N e w to n ia n m o d el w ith all its m en talistic im p licatio n s. It is, o f course,
tru e th a t m a n y p sy ch o lo g ists w h o m ig h t be em b a rra sse d by th e psychistic
im p lic a tio n s o f th e m o d el m erely re m a in silent a b o u t th o se im p licatio n s
a n d follow th e p h y sio lo g ists in cu ltiv atin g th e biological a n d chem ical

ever. N e w to n ian ism is su rely th e b asis fo r th e s p lit betw een th o s e w ho

specialize in p e rc e p tu al a n d o th e r cognitive stud ies, a n d th e stu d e n ts o f *
learn in g b a se d o n reflex c o n d itio n in g. In a m o re o r less direct w ay N ew ­
to n ia n is m is th u s re sp o n sib le fo r th e sc a n d a lo u s s e p a ra tio n o f m en talistic___
psychologists fro m b ehaviorists.
W e c a n n o t c o n c lu d e th is b rie f ev a lu a tio n o f N e w to n ’s d e p lo ra b le in­
fluence u p o n th e c o u rse o f psychological d ev elo p m en t w ith o u t re p eatin g
a g a in th a t h o w so ev e r d a m a g in g th a t influence has been it does no t rep re­
sen t a p e rso n a l failing b u t ra th e r a n in cid en t in th e life o f a g reat intellectual
in stitu tio n . F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f th e h isto ry o f p sychology th e view s o f
N ew to n , H a rv ey , R eid , a n d th e ir long line o f successors a re all d o ctrin a l
p o in ts in th e c o n tin u u m o f sp ec u la tio n co n c ern in g p ercep tio n , m in d , an d
p sy ch ic pro cesses w h ich w as o rig in a te d by th e sch o lars o f th e A le x a n d ria n
p erio d . D e sp ite d etailed v a ria tio n s in th e fo rm u latio n s o f individual w riters
c o n c e rn in g p sy ch o lo g ical activities, they all th o u g h t a n d w ro te in th e
d u a listic tra d itio n . A s is well k n o w n , even B ish o p B erkeley’s v ig o ro u s

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 THE P H I L O S O P H E R A N D HIS W O R L D

a tta c k o n th e d istin c tio n betw een p rim a ry a n d sec o n d ary qu alities p lay ed a
large p a rt in tra n s m ittin g th e tra n sc e n d e n ta l p h ilo so p h y to posterity.

SUM M A R Y

A lth o u g h it is n o t w idely recognized, N e w to n a n d o th e r scientists p lay ed

a n im m e n se ro le o n th e psychological stage. U n fo rtu n a te ly , how ever, his
c o n trib u tio n s to p sy ch o lo g y a n d p h ilo s o p h y in n o w ise m a tc h e d h is tre ­
m e n d o u s a n d p e rm a n e n t achievem ents in m a th em atics, co sm o lo g y , a n d
physics. O n th e c o n tra ry , th e N e w to n ia n influence h a s b een h isto rically
la m e n ta b le . N e w to n u n w ittin g ly served as a n a g e n t in p e rp e tu a tin g in
p sy ch o lo g y a n d p h ilo so p h y v iew p o in ts a n ta g o n is tic to fa rt a n d n a tu ra listic
th e o ry . I t m u s t b e p o in te d o u t, h o w ev er, th a t w h a t is d elete rio u s in th a t
influen ce stem s fro m th e d ev e lo p m e n t a n d e x isten c e o f in stitu tio n a l w ays
o f th in k in g w h ich h ave suffused th e scientific a sp ects o f m o d e rn c u ltu re as
well a s its m o ra l a n d religious fe atu res^ N e w to n a n d o th e r scientists w ere all
sw ep t u p in th e h isto rical flood o f sp iritistic p h ilo so p h y w h ich h as served as
th e ^ p o s tu la tio n al m a trix fo r th e special sciences. B ecause o f his g re at
" v e rsa tility a n d b ro a d interests N e w to n h a p p e n s to sta n d o u t as th e fo rm u la-
to r o f a n ep istem o lo g ical m o d el w h ich h a s ex erted a b an e fu l influence
p rim a rily u p o n p sy ch o lo g y a n d sen so ry p h y sio lo g y , a n d su b se q u e n tly
u p o n th e o th e r sciences. T h e sp iritistic p o s tu la tio n a d o p te d by su ch em i­
n e n t m o d e rn phy sicists as B o h r, H eisen b erg , S c h ro e d in g e r, B rid g m a n a n d
/ m a n y o th ers, in h isto rical p ersp ectiv e flow s fro m th e sam e so u rc e th a t
^ in u n d a te d th e th in k in g o f C o p ern icu s, K epler, G alileo, a n d N ew to n .

138
 SECTION

III
Human Events
in Philosophical Perspective
 C H A P T E R 14
LINGUISTIC EVENTS AS INTERBEHAVIORAL FIELDS

N o w th a t w e h av e b ro u g h t in to relief th e essentials o f co n v en tio n al

p h ilo so p h y w ith its sh o rtco m in g s, an d in d icated an a u th e n tic replacem ent,
w e m ay n o w tu rn to th e tre a tm e n t o f selected p ro b lem s in h u m a n affairs by
th e c o n tra ste d c o n v e n tio n a l a n d in terb e h av io ral philosophyzing. I p ro p o se
th a t th e in te rb e h a v io r p o stu la te s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s will p ro v e a d v a n ta ­
geo u s in th e s tu d y o f lan g u ag e, ethics, aesthetics, politics, religion, law , an d
history. I ex p lo re first linguistic p roblem s.

UBIQUITY O F LING UISTIC BEHAVIOR

H o m o sap ien s has so evolved biologically a n d cu ltu rally th a t h e ad a p ts

him self to his am b ie n t things a n d events in g re a t m easu re by referential an d
sy m b o lic b eh a v io r. H a rd ly a w a k in g m o m e n t passes w ith o u t p erso n s
sp eak in g to so m eo n e a b o u t so m eth in g , o r by failing to c o d e o r decode
sym b o ls fo r so m e p u rp o se . N o a d ju s tm e n t to o th e r p erso n s o r th in g s ca n
b e m a d e w ith o u t sp eech o r so m e o th e r fo rm o f c o m m u n icatio n o r vicar­
ious a d a p ta tio n to o n e ’s en v iro n m e n ts. T h is circ u m sta n ce is evidenced by
th e n u m e ro u s in te rc o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d th e floods o f letters, m em o ra n d a,
a n d b o o k s p ro d u c e d a n d re a d d aily by th e m e m b ers o f a lm o st every g ro u p
a n d co m m u n ity .
Stilj, su c h u b iq u ito u s ev en ts so o p e n to o b se rv atio n a re m isrepresented
in th e ex tre m e by lin g u ists a n d p h ilo so p h e rs o f lan g u ag e b ecause o f illicit
p h ilo so p h ic al p re su p p o sitio n s. S p eech is re g a rd e d as expressions o f m en tal
o r sp iritistic ideas b y m e a n s o f w o rd s, gestures, o r so m e type o f signs. B ut
even w h en linguists o r p h ilo so p h ers stu d y te x tu a l m aterials a n d n o t behav­
ior, a lth o u g h th e fo rm e r h as o rig in ally b een d eriv ed fro m in terco m m u n ica-
tive speech, th ey still assu m e d u alistic a ttitu d e s, w h e th e r th ey a re o r a re n o t
a w a re o f th e fa ct, a n d th e re b y m iss a n a tu ra listic m e th o d o f stu d y . A s a
co n se q u en ce th ey in d u lg e in a m isleading p h ilo so p h y o f language.

IN TER BEH A V IO R A L A N D T R A D IT IO N A L PO STU LA TIO N

Effective in th e p h ilo so p h y o f lan g u ag e as in every o th e r facet o f philos­

o p h y a re specialized p o stu la te s w hich p lay th e ir p a rt in th e e la b o ra tio n o f
d o ctrin e . B asically in terb e h av io ral p h ilo so p h y ab ju res all co m m erce w ith

141
 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

mentality or spiritism derived from religious sources and not scientifically

based observation or inference from observed events.
-j' Traditional postulation for linguistics is excellently illustrated in the view
of de Saussure who shared the doctrine that speech is a process of trans­
forming ideas or psychic states of speakers into words and the reverse
transformation of words into mental states of hearers. Though clearly the
entire conception or model he used is mystical and purely autistic it is the
standard way of thinking on the part of laymen and most linguists.

Fig. 4. De Saussure’s representation of the processes of transforming psychic states into words and
vice versa. From the Course in General Linguistics, p. 11.

The accompanying diagram (Fig. 4), reproduced from de Saussure

(1857-1913), represents the conventional idea of what occurs when persons
speak. Notice that this conception implies that the “ideas” of A are some­
how translated into words or are represented by words which are trans­
duced to B as sound which must be transduced into ideas in B’s “mind.” B’s
“idea” is then transduced or encoded into words which are transmitted to A
who decodes it into or as “ideas.”
Interbehavioral philosophy departs radically from this type of postula­
tion and draws its model from direct observation of speech fields.

LIN G U ISTIC FIE L D S

To overcome the invalid philosophy of language there is readily to hand
the naturalistic analysis of linguistic fields. This consists of a triangular
system of actions on the part of (1) speakers called references, (2) hearers
called referee behavior, and (3) things spoken of called referents. The
following diagram (Fig. 5) represents the basic speech events.
Here follows a description of the three factors.
a. References. References are activities of persons as they refer to
persons spoken to about things, acts, or events of some kind. It is such

142
 L I N G U I S T I C F I E L D S

Fig. 5. Basic Linguistic Behavior

b e h a v io r th a t is b asic to all th e tex tu a l m aterials a vailable fo r stu d y a n d fo r

th e lite ra tu re w hich m ay co n sist o f fables, legends, as well as ac cu ra te
descrip tio n s o f things.
b. Things referred to. T h e second o f the tria n g u la r facto rs consists o f
so m e th in g o r event w hich is referred to by th e act o f th e sp eak er. S u ch
ob jects o r p erso n s a re called referents in th e speech o r linguistic situ atio n .
c. The Referee. N o in terco m m u n icativ e linguistic event occurs w ith o u t
th e th ird fa c to r w hich is a p erso n o r th in g sp o k en to o r in te rc o m m u n ic a te d >
w ith a b o u t th e referen ts w hich we h ave m en tio n ed as th e seco n d fa c to r in a
linguistic held. In d ia g ra m (F ig . S) we present th e tria n g u la r co n stru c tio n o f >
linguistic events. j

* ‘

V
>1
Fig. 6. Hearer Becomes Speaker
l!
d. Intercommunication. In in terc o m m u n icativ e situ atio n s th e trian g le H
a lte rn a te s betw een F ig . 5 a n d a n o th e r recip ro cal Fig. 6 in w hich th e referee
p erso n becom es th e sp ea k er a n d the original referring p erso n becom es the
referee in th e in terb e h av io ral interchange.
S peech it is clear co n stitu te s u n its o f a d ju stm en t o r a d a p ta tio n s to
en v iro n in g o bjects a n d c o n d itio n s e xactly as in th e case o f every o th e r type
o f psychological p erfo rm an c e. T h e fields in each case are m o re o r less
u n iq u e as affected by th e circum stances prevailing a t th e tim e.
'Cf. Kantor, J. R„ Psychological Linguistics, Chicago, Principia, 1977, also Kanlor, J. R.. An
Objective Psychology o f Grammar, Chicago, Principia, 1936.

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 H U M A N E V EN T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

LINGUISTIC AND NONLINGUISTIC EVENTS

Im p ressiv e aid is len t to linguistic p ro b le m s in p h ilo so p h y by th e co n sid ­
e ra tio n o f th e w ide g ap th a t se p a ra te s a c tu a l linguistic b e h a v io r fro m
b e h a v io r th a t a p p e a rs to resem b le th e fo rm e r b u t is ac tu a lly very different.
A cco rd in g ly w e m ust d ifferen tiate betw een fo u r ty p es o f b eh a v io ral fields
as in d icated in th e a c c o m p a n y in g ta b le (F ig . 7). T h e -guiding p rin cip le here
is th a t, w hile all in terb eh av io ral fields a re a d ju stm en ts, n o t all psychological
a d ju stm e n ts a re jin g u istic . A w ide g ap s e p a ra te s a u th e n tic linguistic fields
fro m s e m lo tic fields.
I.A
L in g u is t ic F ie l d s S e m io t ic F ie l d s ,

y .
; • l \ '■ , ‘
1. Referential Behavior 1. Sign Behavior [ m .> .‘ i
V V V
i »7* . . 1n-; "
2. Symbolic
* Behavior 2. Signal
a Behavior \l \ ;. i ‘
J ,/••
t
Fig. 7. Comparison of Linguistic and Semiotic Fields

R eferen tial b eh av io r, we have seen, co n sists o f th e b e h a v io r o f individuals

w hen re ferrin g so m eo n e to so m eth in g o r s o m e p e rso n w hich m ay b e th e
sp ea k e r him self. A side fro m th e e m p h asis th a t s p ea k in g is a definite k in d o f
b eh a v io r o n e m u st n o te th a t it is a u n iq u e a n d specific ty p e o f ad ju stm en t.
B ut it is n o t n ecessary t o e x p a n d u p o n th is d esc rip tio n as ev ery o n e is
fam iliar w ith ac tu a l referential speech as it goes on'.' -
. By c o n tra st, sym bolizing b eh av io r is a sim p le lin ear p erfo rm an c e w ith an
,j I o b ject called a sy m b o l. T h is sy m b o l-o b je c t serves as a su b stitute stim ulus
| fo r a re a c tio n to a n o th e r o b ject. T h e fo rm e r s tim u lu s o b ject is th e stim u lu s
fo r a re a c tio n to so m eth in g sym bolized w h e th e r it is a thin g , o rg a n ism , o r
a n o th e r sym boL S y m b o lizin g b e h a v io r is re la te d to sp e a k in g a s b o th are
definite cu ltu ro -p sy ch o lo g jcal actio n s. B u t b o th types o f b e h a v io r m u st be
sh arp ly d istin g u ish ed fro m referen t th in g s. N o tice, h ow ever, th a t sym bols
m ay p a rtic ip a te in linguistic s itu a tio n s b y fu n c tio n in g as a stim u lu s object
fo r e ith e r so m e sp eech p e rfo rm a n c e o r s o m e o th e r ty p e o f a c tio n , fo r
ex am p le , co d in g o r d eco d in g so m e c h a ra c te r o r sign w hile p erfo rm in g
sym bolizing actions.
N o w b o th a u th e n tic linguistic fields m u s t b e d ifferen tiated fro m the
\ sem io tic fields in w hich signs o r signals a re in te ra cted w ith as fairly sim ple
1 activities.

144
 L I N G U I S T I C F I E L D S

SPE EC H A S T H E M A T R IX O F L A N G U A G E

A m o n g th e g ra n d in stitu tio n s o f civilized living a re th e m a n y lite ratu re s,

th e re c o rd e d a n d e n c a p su la te d system s o f letters fo rm u la te d in th e interest
o f eg o istic b o a stin g , as in th e a n n a ls a n d in scrip tio n s o f kings a n d o th e r
rulers, as w ell as in th e sacred scrip tu re s o f religious sects, th e V edas o f th e
H in d u s, th e O ld T e s ta m e n t o f th e H e b rew s, th e N ew T e s ta m e n t o f th e
C h ristia n s, th e K o ra n o f th e M o h a m m e d a n s, th e re v elatio n s o f th e M o r­
m ons, a n d so on a n d on.
S u c h lite ra tu re s a n d sc rip tu re s fu n c tio n as references to o r sy m b o ls fo r
th e th in g s, p ersons, a n d ev en ts su ch a s o b jects a n d th e ir qualities, beliefs,
th in k in g , o r o th e r a c ts o f p e rso n s sp o k e n o f o r in te rc o m m u n ic a te d . T h e
p h ilo so p h y o f la n g u a g e is c o n c ern e d w ith a g re at m u ltip licity o f ev en ts all
o f w h ich a re d e riv e d in o n e w ay o r a n o th e r fro m th e m a trix o f in terc o m -
m u n icativ e speech. L a n g u a g e a n d lite ra tu re in all th e ir fo rm s evolve fro m
in te rb e h a v io ra l fields. T h e e v o lu tio n o f lan g u ag e a n d lite ra tu re d ep en d s
u p o n th e am p lificatio n a n d m u ltip lic a tio n o f c o m m u n itie s fro m fam ilies to
larg e r g ro u p s, villages, provinces, states, a n d em pires.
T h e a c c o m p a n y in g d ia g ra m (F ig. 8) ro u g h ly re p re se n ts th e p ro cess o f

Fig. 8. The Inverted Pyramid of Language

T h e significance o f th e in v erted p y ra m id o f lan g u ag e is to in dicate th a t a t

th e b o tto m is th e a d a p tiv e b e h a v io r o f in d iv id u als as th e y in tera ct w ith
o th e rs o r them selves by w ay o f re ferrin g to them selves o r o th e r o rg an ism s
as w ell as re la te d th in g s a n d events. S u c h in te rb e h a v io r c o n stitu te s th e
m a trix a n d o rig in o f o th e r evolving facets o f language.

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 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

TH E EVOLUTION OF LING UISTIC TH IN G S

W ith th e g ro w th o f p o p u la tio n s an d th e increased co n tacts o f individuals

w ith o th e rs, plus th e m u ltip licatio n o f eco n o m ic, social, an d political
in terre latio n s, speech u n d erg o es fix atio n w ith th e ev o lu tio n o f w ords as
objects b o th originally based u p o n a n d la te r partially in d ep en d en t o f
p a rtic u la r individuals. F ro m th e early d ev e lo p m en t o f signs, pictures, an d
w o rd s arises th e increased cap acity fo r e la b o ra te linguistic ad ju stm en ts
c u lm in a tin g in th e p o ten tiality o f in te rc o m m u n ica tin g w ith p ersons an d
g ro u p s a t lo n g ra n g e a n d o v er long distances.
T h e cry sta lliz a tio n o f linguistic th in g s m a rk s th e orig in o f cu ltu ral
objects as e n d u rin g in stitu tio n s. S u ch -o b iec ts-p lav .en o rm o u s roles in the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f civilizatio n w h p s e jtr u c tu r e and.lojageyity_rest u p p n such
in stitu tio n s as solid, even j f slow ly changing, fo u n d ations.
A s w e h av e ob serv ed fro m th e inverted p y ra m id , tria n g u la r speech is the
fu n d a m e n ta l ty p e o f in terc o m m u n ica tiv e b eh a v io r. N o w it is in terestin g to
see h o w fro m speech is developed su b sta n tiv e w riting a n d literature. T h e
first sta g e is reach ed w hen referential b e h a v io r is inscribed in so m e form .
N e x t th e inscribed o r w ritten p ro d u c t is fu rth e r crystallized by p rin tin g o r
so m e o th e r fo rm o f reification. A fte r th is p ro c e d u re all so rts o f language
th in g s c o m e in to existence, business a c c o u n ts, records o f v ario u s sorts,
sacred tex ts, a n d so on.
W riters o n sem asio g rap h y indicate h o w th e original tra n sla tio n o f
speech in to w ritin g tak es place. F o r ex am p le, G elb2 indicates th a t first the
th in g s p ro d u c e d a re descriptive, o r re p resen t so m e act, thing, o r som e
o bject. A n o th e r stag e consists o f linguistic th in g s p ro d u c ed to identify
o th e r th in g s o r assist in th e reco g n itio n o f so m e objects. H e calls this stage
th e id en tify in g -m n em o n ic stage.
A fte r sem asio g ra p h y com es th e stag e o f p h o n o g ra p h y w hich itself de­
velo p s in th re e stages. ( I ) W o rd syllabic sta g e as in S u m e rian , A k k a d ia n ,
E g y p tian , H ittite, a n d C hinese. A fu rth e r d e v e lo p m e n t is th e syllabic stage
a n d th e ex a m p le s given are th e E lam ite, H u rria n , W est-S em itic (P h o n e -
cian , H eb rew , A ram aic), C y p rio te, a n d J a p a n e s e languages. T h e th ird
d ev e lo p m e n t in th e series a c co rd in g to this a u th o r is th e alp h ab e tic stage
w hich o rig in ated w ith th e G reek s a n d includes a n u m b e r o f different
languages.
A c c e p ta b le as th is p rocess m ay be it still calls fo r p re c a u tio n a ry differen­
tia tio n betw een th e crystallization o f linguistic b eh a v io r in to linguistic
’(iclb. I, ]. , A Study o f Writing: The Foundalionx o f Grammalology, Chicago, Univ. of Chicago
J’rcv.. 1952.

146
 /
/
' fA'
L I N G U I S T I C FIELDS

i*
th in g s an<i_the_developm ent o f sign b eh a v io r su ch as re sp o n d in g to the
w o rd s, “N o tresp a ssin g ,” “ B ew are o f th e d o g ." a nd, telep h o n ic an sw erin g
m essages. S igns like d iag ra m s, statistical lines, a n d curves m ay b e a u x ilia ry
featu res o f a c tu a l speech a n d w riting b u t things an d b e h a v io r m u st still be
k ep t a p a rt in view o f th e ir v ariab le stru ctu re s a n d functions.

T H E ADV ENT O F LITERACY

O n ce linguistic th in g s get estab lish ed as legends, fables, inscription, an d

general lite rary entities like records, in scrip tio n al m o n u m en ts, a n d tales fo r
e n te rta in m e n t as p o lite literatu re, novels, plays, etc., they e x p a n d ap a ce to
en larg e th e d im en sio n s o f civilization. P olitical entities m a k e o f letters th e
rep o sito rie s o f c o m m a n d s, co n stitu tio n s, a n d law s fo r th e c o n tro l o f
p erso n s a n d g ro u p s by v ario u s m ean s. R eligious g ro u p s m a in ta in th e ir
u n ity a n d id en tity b y m ean s o f v erb al e n c ap su latio n o f o p in io n s, beliefs,
rites, a n d practices in sacred b o o k s a n d o th e r literary do cu m en ts.

T H E D O M IN A TIO N O F LIN GUISTICS BY W O RD S

S o im p o rta n t a re w o rd th in g s th a t th ey in terp en etrate all phases o f social
life th o u g h o n ly a t tim es to th e ad v a n ta g e o f persons a n d gro u p s. In m an y
w ays w o rd th in g s a re inim ical to th e w ell-being o f p eo p le w ith d ire co n se­
quences. T h e fo llo w in g p a ra g ra p h s indicate th e adverse asp ects o f linguis­
tic things.
What do you read, my lord?
Words. Words, Words.
What is the matter that you read, my lord?
Slanders, sir3

Y es, w h e n we re a d , w e a t first read w ords. W o rd s w ith m atter, o f co u rse,

b u t in so m e sense w o rd s. T h is is tru e , a t least in som e language situ atio n s.
B ut w h a t a b o u t speaking? Is h u m a n speech m erely th e o rd e rly u tte rin g o f
w ord s? A lth o u g h stu d e n ts o f lan g u ag e surely realize a n d frequently reiter­
ate th a t sp ee ch o r lan g u ag e is actio n , since it is im possible to be o b liv io u s to
th e d ra m a o f speech, a n d d ialo g u e, they a re still o verw helm ed by the
im p o sin g presen ce o f letters a n d libraries; in co n seq u en ce the science o f
linguistics is solidly w elded t o th e p o s tu late th a t sp ea k in g c onsists o f
u tte rin g s trin g s o f w o rd s o r sentences co n v en tio nally o rg an ized ac co rd in g
to th e g ra m m a r o r style o f sp ea k ers o f p a rticu lar languages. A n d this
d esp ite th e fact th a t it is c o m m o n k now ledge th a t w o rd s are artifacts,
3 S h a k e s p e a r e , H a m l e t , A c t ii. S c 2 .

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L PE RS PE CTI VE

c re a te d by scribes a n d c o m p o s ito rs fo r w h atev er benefits they co u ld secure

th ere b y fo r them selves o r th e read ers w h o m they serve.
T h e tech n iq u es o f linguistics c o n tra st m ark ed ly w ith basic scientific
p ro c ed u re s, w h ich begin w ith a n in tere st in p ristin e events th a t a re subse­
q u en tly an aly zed , c o m p a re d w ith sim ilar a n d dissim ilar objects, a n d finally
describ ed o n th e basis o f th e o b se rv a tio n a l tre a tm e n ts m en tio n ed . W hen
d escrib in g speech, th e linguist re p o rts n o t th e ch aracteristics o f th e d a ta but
im poses u p o n th em a priori tra its o f w o rd s, saying th at a sp eak er u tters o r
w rites syllables, w o rd s, an d sentences as th e stru c tu ra l c o m p o n e n ts o f
speech. In this w ay are p erp etu ated th e in stitu tio n s th a t sp eak in g o r w riting
are c o n stitu te d o f ab stra ctio n al utteran ces, th a t is, w o rd things.

INTERBEHA VIORAL VS. CONVEN TIONAL LINGUISTICS

T h e c o n tra st betw een th e In terb eh av io ra l a n d C o n v en tio n al philo­
so p h y o f languages can be well e x h ib ite d by th e c o n tra stin g a ttitu d e s each
assum es to w a rd linguistic events. T h e tw o views can be readily su m m a­
rized by th e c o n sid eratio n o f th e p ro b lem s o f g ra m m a r in general a n d the
im p o rta n t p h en o m en o n o f m eaning.

a. Grammar4
F o r co n v e n tio n a l linguistics g ra m m a r is th e ab stra c tio n istic d escrip tio n
o f w h a t is p resu m ed to be an aly zed o u t o f w h a t is reg ard ed as sta n d a rd
speech , o r fro m te x tu a l m aterials. In g en e ral th e re a re p re su m e d to be fo u r
phases o f lan g u ag e— p h o n o lo g y , m o rp h o lo g y , sy n tax , a n d sem antics.
C learly th e b asic p a tte rn o f th in g lan g u ag e is reflected in th e tre a tm e n t o f
so u n d s o r p h o n es, th e s tru c tu re o f w o rd s, the in terre latio n s o f w o rd s, an d
finally th e m eanings o f w o rd s s o lo o r in sen ten ce co m b in atio n s. B ecause.of
th e stru c tu ra l im p licatio n lan g u ag e req u ires .“ m ean in g ” fu n c tio n s to ac­
c o u n t for references to objects sp o k e n o f o r sym bolized.
In terb eh av io ra l linguistics reg ard s g ra m m a r as th e style b o th o f co m ­
m u n icativ e b e h a v io r w h e th e r o f so-called s ta n d a rd speech, any d ialect, o r
th e th in g -lan g u ag e o f texts. In n eith e r case, o f course, is th e re an y ro o m fo r
tran sc e n d e n ta l factors. F o r th e d esc rip tio n s o f a n y linguistic style it suffices
to rely o n th e b eh a v io r o f persons in c o n n e c tio n w ith stim u lu s objects o f th e
tria n g u la r o r linear type. T h e styles in th e tw o cases o f co u rse a re very
different. T h e g ra m m a r o f speech is n o t lim ited to u tteran ces b u t tak es strict
ac c o u n t o f th e specificities o f linguistic b eh a v io r, th e p erso n sp eak in g , th e

• C f . K a n i o r , J . R .. A n O bjective P sych o lo g y o f G ra m m a r, C h i c a g o , P r i n c i p i a . ( 1 9 3 6 ) . I 9 S 2 .

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 L I N G U I S T I C FIELDS

p e rso n listening, a n d th e th in g s s p o k e n of. W hile in terested in th in g

lan g u ag e th e in te ra c tio n w ith fixated w o rd s co n stitu tes a very different
situ atio n . A ll o f th ese p o in ts a re clarified in th e analysis o f m eanings.

b. Meaning
C o n v e n tio n a l linguistics a s descended fro m venerable philology is lim­
ited to th e exegetical in te rp re ta tio n o f w o rd s w ith o u t differen tiatin g be­
tw een w o rd th in g s a n d w o rd actio n . A p ro m in e n t s tu d e n t o f sem antics
asserts,
the present book is concerned solely with the meanings of words.5 V - , ' '

F o r th e c o n v e n tio n a l sem an ticist, m e a n in g is a n in ta n g ib le p ro p e rty o f

w o rd s a n d it is his ta sk to investigate th o se m ean in g s a n d th e ir changes, an d
also to ac co u n t fo r th e freq u en t m u ltip licatio n o f m ean in g s asso ciated w ith
c e rta in w ords.
In view o f p re v alen t intellectual in stitu tio n s, th e m ean in g s o f w o rd s are
p re su m e d , by m o st c o n v e n tio n a l linguists, to consist o f tran sc en d en tal
processes o r en tities “ localized” in th e “ m in d s” o f individuals w ho u tte r
w o rd s in v ario u s w ays. C o n v en tio n al linguists jo in to th e so u n d s o f w o rd s a
co rrelate th ey call “in fo rm a tio n ,” “h earin g ,” o r “sense." It a p p e a rs th a t th e
re tre a t th a t linguists..claim to have m a d e fro m d ea d tex ts o r language-
thin p s to w a rd s a c tio n o r b e h a v io r lands_them directly in to som e fo rm o f
psy chophysical d u alism . T h is p o in t is excellently illu strated by the well-
k n o w n tria n g le o f O g d e n an d R ic h a rd s6 fro m w h ich g en eral linguists d o
n o t su b stan tially d e p a rt. A s in d icated in Fig. 9, sym bols, w o rd s, o r n am es
a re n o t d irec tly co n n e c te d w ith th eir referen ts b u t alw ay s th ro u g h th e
m ed iu m o f “th o u g h t” o r “m en tal reference.”

Thought or Reference

F ig . 9 . O g d e n - R i c h a r d s * C o n c e p t o f S y m b o l - R e f e r e n t R e l a t i o n

H e re it m u st be p o in te d o u t th a t a n o cc asio n al g en eral linguist (e.g.,

B lo o m field 7) m ay o b ject to th e n o tio n th a t so m e so rt o f psychic process
’ U l l m a n n , S . , S e m a n t i c s : a n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e S c i e n c e o f M e a n i n g , O x f o r d , B l a c k w e ll . 1 9 6 2 .
'■ O g d e n , C . K ., a n d R i c h a r d s , I . A . , T h e m e a n i n g o f m e a n i n g , L o n d o n . R o u t l e d g e . 1 9 2 3 .
’ B lo o m fie ld , L ., L a n g u a g e , N e w Y o r k , H o lt, 1933.

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L PERSPECTI VE

m u st in terv e n e b etw een w o rd s a n d th e th in g s to w hich they refer. S u c h a

c o n v e n tio n a l linguist w ould fav o r a m ean in g m odel th a t directly connects
w ord s w ith things o r referents, as in d icated in Fig. 10.

Symbol or Word Referent

Fig. 10. Bloomfield's Concept of Symbol-Referent Relation

It m u st be m ad e clear th a t th e m en talizin g o f m eaning is in n o sense a

perv ersity o n the p a rt o f general linguists. T h ey m erely a d o p t trad itio n al
w ays o f psychological th in k in g w hich have d o m in a te d scholars since th e
ancien t C h u rc h F ath ers. jn te rb e h a v io ra ] linguistics m u st .dispense w ith
.m cntalisiic_psychology a lo n g w ith j t s n o tio n o f m ean in g a s t h e j s vchic
c o u n te rp a rt o f w o rd -th in gs o f every t ype.
M e a n in g ' fo r th e psychological o r p h ilo so phical linguist is precisely
o p p o site in c h a ra c te r fro m th a t o f th e general linguist. Psychological
linguists fash io n th e ir c o n stru c ts d irectly fro m th e in terco m m u n icativ e a n d
sy m b o lizin g b e h a v io r w hich is o p e n to th e ir o b serv atio n .[M ean in g s fo r
th em are, literally, acts p erfo rm ed in d irect c o n ta c t w ith p resent o r ab sen t
thin g s a n d co n d itio n s by w ay o f influencing w h a t th e n ex t act shall be in a
c h a in m a k in g u p a m o re o r less e la b o ra te lan g u ag e a d ju s tm e n t^ F o r
ex a m p le , in direct p erso n al in terco u rse, th e p e rso n sp o k en to 8 m u st b e alert
to a n d u n d e rs ta n d w h a t is being said, th a t is, ap p reciate th e referent, before
a n a p p ro p ria te re sp o n se c a n b e m ade. T o th e in v itatio n al stim ulus, '‘T en ­
nis, an y o n e ?” th e an sw e r m ay be “yes” o r “n o ” d e p e n d in g on w h eth er th e
q u e stio n a p p e a rs a s a gatew ay to a p leasa n t in terlu d e, o r th e n o n p erfo rm ­
an c e o f so m e different im p o rta n t actio n .
M ea n in g , th en , in th e d o m a in o f n a tu ra listic linguistics, is a reactio n
system (rs)9 tech nically m ed iatin g a fu rth e r re actio n system , w h eth er cor­
rectly o r incorrectly, effectively o r ineffectively, d e p e n d in g u p o n th e psy­
chological fields in w hich it o p erates. T h e m o d el m ay be co n stru c te d o n th e
follow ing p la n (see Fig. 11).
C a v e a t lector. T h e state m e n ts ju s t m ad e p re su p p o se a sh arp distin ctio n
betw een tra d itio n a l d u alistic psy ch o lo g y a n d objective n atu ralistic psy­
chology. O n ly th e la tte r m ay be re g ard e d as scientific psychology. Its d a ta
“ V a r i o u s l y c a l l e d t h e li s t e n e r , t h e h e a r e r , o r t h e r e f e r e e .
" F o r a n a m p lifie d d is c u s s io n o f r e a c tio n s y s te m s c o n s u lt K a n to r . J . R „ a n d S m ith . N . W „ The
S a r n i e o f P .w thology: A n fn ierh e h a vio ra l S u rv e y , C h i c a g o . P r i n c i p i a . 1 9 7 5 .

150
 L I N G U I S T I C FIELDS

S t im u l a t io n R e spo n se S e q u e n c e
i

Attending rs Perceiving rs Consum m atory rs

“Tennis,
anyone?” Stimulus Apprehending
alertness m eaning101 Saying “yes” or “no”

F ig . I I . O b j e c t i v e P s y c h o l o g y 's R e l a t i o n B e t w e e n L i n g u i s t i c S t i m u l u s a n d R e s p o n s e

consist alw ay s o f m o re o r less co m p lex in te ra c tio n a l fields. F o r scientific

psychology, la n g u a g e o r speech behavi or co n sists o f a d ra m a o f a d ju stm e n t
to o n e’s su rro u n d in g s. Scientific p sy ch o lo g ists lo o k u p o n v erb o -v o ca l
w o rd s as special ty p es o f in te rc o m m u n ica tiv e ad ju stm e n ts o f p erso n s w ith
respect to o th e r p erso n s a n d th in g s o r events in specific situ atio n s.
F o r th e clarificatio n o f th e p ro b le m o f m ean ings it m ay b e help fu l to set
u p a c o n tra s tin g d isp la y o f th e view s o f th e g en e ral linguist a n d th o s e o f th e
psychological linguist (see T a b le 1).

>
T a b l e I. C o m p a r is o n o f C o n v e n t io n a l a n d In t e r b e h a v io r a l V ie w s

C o n c e r n in g M e a n in g s

M e a n in g s

For Conventional Linguistics" F or Interbehavioral Linguistics

Identity of Essence o f Word Things Type of Behavior •

Nature of Mental or Subjective Objective Responses to

Correlate of Words Language Stimulation

Function of Sensification of Words Actions T hat Influence

or Sets of W ords Later Action

Conditions of Rules of Language Influenced by Language

System Situation

W e co n c lu d e th ese c o m m e n ts by th e c o n sid eratio n o f th ree p roblem s

th a t arise in th e stu d y o f linguistic m ean in g a n d g ra m m a r.
1. Synonymity. W h e n m ean in g s a re tre a te d as co rrelates o f w o rd s the
p ro b le m arises as to w h e th e r d ifferent w o rd s c a n have th e sam e m eaning.

10I n c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n s a n a d d i t i o n a l a n d s u c c e e d i n g a u t o n o m o u s r e a c t i o n s y s t e m o c c u r s .
11 C o n v e n t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c s r e d u c e s l i n g u i s t i c s t o a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e d i s c i p l i n e v a r i o u s l y c a lle d
s e m a s io lo g y , s e m io s is , s e m io tic s , o r s o m e o th e r c o g n o m e n .

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S o m e g en eral linguists affirm a n d so m e d e n y th a t a u th e n tic sy n o n y m ity is

possible. In b o th cases th ere is built u p a specialized p ro b lem o f verbal
exegesis.
T h e p sy ch o lo gical field th eo ry , in c o n tra st, liquidates th e p ro b le m by
p o in tin g o u t th a t th e v ario u s p e rfo rm a n c e s o f different u tte ra n c e s in the
s a m e o r sim ila r s itu a tio n s a re m erely m a tte rs o f style. T h e c a p a c ity fo r
v a ry in g u tte ra n c e s is sim ply a fu n c tio n o f th e ed u c atio n s a n d general
ex p erien ce o f persons.
2. Polisemy. A re la te d p ro b le m in linguistics is th e m u ltip licatio n o f
m ean in g s in p a rtic u la r w ords. F ro m th e s h o rte r O x fo rd D ictio n ary ,
U llm a n n 12 q u o te d 10 uses o f th e w o rd “eye" b ey o n d th e o rd in a ry m ean in g
o f th e eye as a n o rgan.

1. C enter o f a flower.
2. Leaf-bud o f a potato.
3. Spot on a peacock’s tail.
4. The opening through which issues the water o f a fountain.
5. A central mass; the brightest spot (of light).
6. The center of revolution.
7. An aperture in a needle, tool, etc.
8. A loop o f metal; thread, cord, or rope.
9. (In architecture): the center o f a part, as the eye of a dome.
10. (In typography): the enclosed space in letters like d, e, o.

C learly th e re is here an d every o th e r p lace m erely th e u tte ra n c e o f a w o rd

w h ile re fe rrin g to different o b jects o n th e basis o f in d iv id u al a n d social
usage.
3. Ambiguity. I t is w idely held th a t w o rd s a re inevitably am b ig u o u s. B ut
th is is th e ca se o n ly fro m th e s ta n d p o in t th a t m ea n in g c o n c e rn s w o rd s o r
sig n s w h ic h sh o u ld s u sta in o n ly a o n e -o n e re la tio n sh ip w ith m eaning.
F r o m th e s ta n d p o in t o f ac tu a l in te rc o m m u n ic a tio n th e re is little o r n o
a m b ig u ity . W h a t m ay o cc u r is th a t s p e a k e r a n d h e a re r m ay disagree in
th e ir sp e e c h usages a n d in co n seq u en ce fail in th e ir in terc o m m u n ica tio n .
T h is is th e case w h en individuals o f d ifferent dialects first a tte m p t to
in te rc o m m u n ic a te . U sually th e vocal u tte ra n ces w o u ld b e rep laced by
g estu re s re ad ily u n d ersto o d .

U l l m a n n , S „ S em a n tics: A n In tro d u c tio n lo th e S c ie n c e o f M eaning.

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LINGUISTIC FUNCTIONS IN THE ANTHROPIC DOMAIN

,, A n a c c ep tab le c o rre c tio n to th e w id esp read view, th a t speech is w h at
v differen tiates h u m a n s fro m o th e r an im als, is th a t th e c u ltu ra l ev o lu tio n o f
th e a n th ro p ic species is p rim arily ow ing to linguistic fu n ctio n s. F o r it is
su ch in terrelated fu n c tio n s th a t a re th e fo u n d a tio n o f cu ltu ra l in stitu tio n s,
a n d civilization in general.
a. Preseverative and Continuity Functions. It is by m e a n s o f w ritin g a n d
re co rd in g th a t p a st ev en ts a re p re serv ed a n d c o n se q u e n tly p ro v id e a m ean s
to in teg ra te an d co n tin u e th e living c o n d itio n s o f in d iv id u als a n d g ro u p s. In
th is w ay h isto ry is m a d e possible as m o re o r less precise re co rd s as w ell as
th e guides to fu rth e r dev elo p m en ts.
b. Abstractive and Relationalfunctions. O f th e g re atest im p o rta n ce fo r
c u ltu ra l e v o lu tio n is th e linguistic fu n c tio n f o r th e e n la rg e m e n t o f b e h a v io r
a n d th e p ro v isio n fo r m o d ify in g th e e n v iro n m e n t.b e y o n d th e n a rro w
confines o f th e biological sp h ere. A b stra c tiv e a n d re la tio n a l fu n c tio n s
m a k e p o ssib le ca lc u latio n s a n d gen eral m a n ip u la tio n s o f m a th e m a tic a l
science. A b stra c tiv e a n d relatio n al fu n c tio n s a re th e bases fo r m e a su re m e n t
a n d th e su b stitu tio n processes o f alg eb ra a n d all th e m a th e m a tic a l an aly tics
co n c ern e d w ith relations.
T h e d ev e lo p m e n t o f w o rd th in g s th ro u g h th e cry sta lliz a tio n o f sp eech
h as su p p lied h u m a n o rg a n ism s w ith th e to o ls a n d b u ild in g b lo ck s fo r all
so rts o f a b s tra c tio n a l in stitu tio n s. O n sim ple levels th e re is th e en a b le m en t
o f b u ild in g castles in S p a in , a n d th e m a te ria liz a tio n o f ta le s a n d fables. In
th e co u rse o f events in d iv id u a ls so lo o r in c o n c e rt erect m a m m o th stru c­
tu re s fo r all varieties o f needs o r self-ex altatio n . T h is inclu d es th e c re a tio n
o f hu g e sy stem s o f p h ilo s o p h y ea ch e m b o d y in g th e beliefs o f p a st ag es in
so m e fo rm .
c. Constructive and Ratiocinative Functions. In m a n y w ays th e c o n ­
stru ctiv e a n d ra tio c in a tiv e fu n c tio n s a re th e m o st s trik in g a n d elev atin g o f
all lin g u istic fu n ctio n s. T h ey lift h o m o sap ien s to th e highest p o in t ab o v e
th e ir biological n a tu re s. By m ean s o f linguistic b e h a v io r they c a n p e rfo rm
n o ta b le a c ts o f c re a tio n in a v a rie ty o f fields, tech n o lo g ica l, ae sth e tic , a n d
ra tio n a l. T ec h n o lo g y is im p o ssib le w ith o u t p la n s a n d blu ep rin ts. L inguistic
processes a r e th e very essential p re scrip tio n s fo r th in k in g a n d reaso n in g
beh av io r.
d. Righting and Regulating Functions. Li n g uistic fu n c tio n s play a large
ro le in th e s u b d o m a in o f h u m a n q u a lity b eh av io r. T h is is a n e n o rm o u s
d o m a in in co m p lex societies since it in clu d es b o th eth ica l a n d legal
situ atio n s.

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I n legal situ atio n s th e re are to beg in w ith th e codification o f th e rules a n d

re g u la tio n s fo r th e p erfo rm a n c e o f c e rta in b eh a v io r o r th e c o n tra ry p ro h i­
b itio n a n d in h ib itio n o f actio n s. L aw s a n d c o n stitu tio n s h av e to be codified
a n d stabilized a n d sh ield ed a g a in st m isu n d e rstan d in g s a n d m isin terp reta­
tio n s. T h e sam e ca re a s to significance m u s t be ta k e n w h en preced en ts are
follow ed.
W h ile ethical situ atio n s m ay b e very different fro m legal ones, linguistic
fu n c tio n s still p lay a larg e p a rt in th em . T h e su m m u m b o n u m requires to be
en c o d e d to m a in ta in its influence as a n ideal o f g o o d a n d p ro p e r co nduct.
Evils to o m u st be m a d e m an ifest to b e av o id ed a n d w a rn ed against. In
g e n e ra l th e q u ality o f c o n d u c t re q u ires re in fo rce m e n t b y m ean s o f fixed
term s.
W h ile co n sid erin g all so rts o f su b tle activities like speculation, reasoning,
a n d logical system b u ild in g , it is n o t p o ssib le to proceed w ith o u t th e use o f
j yords a nd term s. T he roles o f th ese activities a re both good and bad. It is
w o rth w h ile con sid erin g this ty p e o f e la b o ra te b eh a v io r because it th ro w s
light o n th e m eth o d s a n d in te n tio n s o f th in k e rs as p h ilo so p h ers. H e re we
w a n t to in d icate th e use o f term s in th e larg e r phases o f h u m a n living such
as th e scientific activities.
S cientists, physicists, chem ists th ro u g h o u t th e ages h ave em p lo y ed su ch %
term s as force, m ass, valence, tim e, space, a n d so o a In biology term s like '
life, entelechy, vitality h av e sim ilarly b ee n effective in tu rn in g th in k in g i n t o .
w ro n g ch an n els. T h e field o f p sy ch o lo g y , p e rh a p s m o re th a n th e o th e r %
sciences h as b een influenced by th e u se o f term s psychic, self, ego, con-
scio u sn ess, a n d so on. T o a g re a t e x te n t in all th e sciences, th e term s th a t i.'j:
h av e influenced th in k in g in im p ro p e r w ay s h av e been u sed to d esignate ; -
n o n -e x isten t pow ers a n d agencies o f a c tio n . .... —

LINGUISTIC INFLUENCES ON PHILOSOPHYZING %

T h e e x a m in a tio n o f co m p lex c u ltu ra l system s d em o n strate s th e p o w er
o f linguistic b eh a v io r in every p h a se o f h u m a n intercourse. P e rh a p s be­
cau se p h ilo so p h y zin g consists p rim a rily o f su ch su b tle a n d im p o rta n t
activities as th in k in g , an alyzing, a n d re aso n in g , it is m o st affected by w ords
o r term s. By th e use o f w o rd s o r term s th in k e rs create system s o f th o u g h t o r
ex isten ce w h ich they re g ard a s different o r su p e rio r a n d so m etim es in ferio r
to th e w orld th e y a c tu a lly live in. E x a m p le s o f su c h c o n v e n tio n a l w o rd s o r
te rm s a re L ogos, D ivine, G o d , Id e alism , R ealism , P a n th e ism , S pirit,
U niverse, T ru th , C ertain ty , A b so lu te, Infinite, Evil, M o rality , R eality,

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U n d e rsta n d in g , E x p e rie n c e , Im m o rta lity , R e a so n , a n d in n u m b era b le

others.
In g en eral s u c h w o rd s a n d te rm s a re a b stra c tio n istic p ro d u c ts b ased o n
processes o f e x tra p o la tio n fro m linguistic a c ts d ev elo p ed in everyday living
co n d itio n s. F ro m th a t so u rc e arise th e m a n y h isto rical a n d tra d itio n a l
o n to lo g ie s a n d ep istem o lo g ies. T h e specific o p e ra tio n s em p lo y ed in th e
p ro d u c tio n o f p h ilo so p h ic a l te rm s a re reification, a n d tra n s fo rm a tio n o f
given w o rd s o r term s. O u ts ta n d in g ex a m p le s o f tra n sfo rm in g te rm s are th e
re in te rp re ta tio n o f th e classical w o rd s m etap h y sics, entelechy, psyche, a n d
th e divine. T h e G re ek s u sed th ese w o rd s as le g itim a te refere n ces to n a tu ra l­
i s t i c j^ o c e s se s a n d tilin g s' b u T th r o u g h , religious circu m stan ces th ey have
been tra n s fo rm ed in to au tistic a n d n o n e x is te n t .categories.
R eificatio n p ro c e d u re s a re clearly d e m o n stra te d w hen p a rtic u la r acts o f
inferen ce, so m etim e s o f a n especially sim p le s o rt, a re m a d e in to th in g s o r
q u alities w h ich th o u g h n o t ex isten t b eco m e p re v alen t a n d pow erful. T h e
felt need fo r so m e po w e rfu l perso n to a id o n e in difficult situ a tio n s results in
a n o m n iscien t a n d o m n ip o te n t G o d . N o ticin g th e fru stra tio n o f desires a n d ,,
a m b itio n a n d th e in h ib itio n o f activities th a t o n e w o u ld like to p e rfo rm
leads to th e in v e n tio n o f fre e d o m a n d b o n d ag e . A g ain , a n en tire u n satisfac-
to ry am b ie n c e stim u late s th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f b e tte r a n d m o re d esira b le np
h a b ita tio n s like th e m y th ic al a n d s u p e rn a tu ra l G a rd e n s o f E d e n a n d th e
E ly siu m F ields. F in ally , u n satisfac to ry life c o n d itio n s lead to th e co n c ep t .-
a n d te rm o f “ re ality ”, a s o v e r a g a in st c o n fro n ta b le events an d co n d itio n s. '*

LINGUISTIC PHILOSOPHY
F o r th e m o st p a r t w e h a v e b een co n c ern ed in th is c h a p te r w ith th e
p h ilo so p h y o f lan g u ag e, th a t is th e licit a n d illicit a ttitu d e s to w a rd th e all ^
p re v ad in g lin g u istic p h e n o m e n a . I n th e p re sen t sectio n o u r in terest is in th e
u n iq u e ty p e o f p h ilo so p h y z in g in w h ich th e em p h asis is o n th e im p ro v e­
m e n t o f p h ilo so p h ic a l th in k in g b y th e an aly sis a n d m o n ito rin g o f th e 1111
lan g u a g e em p lo y e d w hile d ev elo p in g system s o f a ttitu d e s c o n c ern in g
th in k in g o r th e w o rld th o u g h t ab o u t.
L ight is th ro w n u p o n th e n a tu re o f linguistic p h ilo so p h y by th e co n d i­
tio n s o f origin. P h ilo so p h e rs in th e 20th c e n tu ry sen sin g th e futility o f
tra d itio n a l m etap h y sics b eg an to insist u p o n th e clarification o f th e refer­
en ts fo r th e te rm s a n d sen ten ces em p lo y ed . T h ey ask ed w h a t is th e signifi­
can ce o f su c h te rm s as “ G o d ,” “ F re e d o m ," a n d “Im m o rta lity .” S o o n the
q u e stio n e x p a n d e d so th a t v a rio u s schools o f linguistic p h ilo so p h y aro se

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w ith v a ria tio n s co n c ern in g th e c o n stru c tio n o f m eanings. V ario u s n am es

w ere a d o p te d fo r th e d ifferent sch o o ls, A n a ly tic P h ilo so p h y , L ogical P o si­
tivism , Scientific E m p iricism , L in g u istic A nalysis, a n d still o th ers. O n c e th e
g en eral p h ilo so p h ical m o v em en t g ain ed s u p p o rt th e a d h e re n ts raised q u es­
tio n s as to w h e th e r p h ilo so p h y zin g c o u ld p ro ceed by th e use o f o rd in a ry
lan g u ag e o r req u ired special a n d ideal language.
M u c h o f c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y is m a d e u p o f futile assertio n s an d
c o n tra d ic tio n s based u p o n th e c re a tio n a n d use o f illicit v erb al a b stra c ­
tio n s. S a m p le s a re “a b so lu te v erificatio n ," “u ltim a te tru th ," a n d “u n iv er­
sals.” O n c e th e v erb al a b s tra c tio n is a d m itte d in to th e p h ilo so p h ic a re n a
m u c h a rg u m e n t an d c o u n te r-a rg u m e n t is in d u lg ed in to th e u ltim a te re su lt
o f u tte r o b fu sc a tio n . P uzzles in p ro fu sio n a re in v en ted a n d p ro p a g a te d to
th e ev erlastin g glory o f n e b u lo u s rh eto ric.
^ T h e e n tire set o f v erb al g am es serves as a p o w e rfu l m e a n s o f k eep in g
a lo o f fro m th e a c tu a l p len u m o f c o n c rete situ atio n s. V erbal g am es are
effective to o ls fo r escap in g fro m th e rig o rs o f ev ery d ay existence, a n d help
to p ro v o k e th e c o n stru c tio n o f system s o f g o ssam er to m a k e th e w o rld
n e a re r to o n e ’s h ea rt's desire.

LINGUISTIC PHILOSOPHY AND THE WORLD OF EVENTS

P h ilo so p h y being th e e p ito m e o f o b se rv a tio n an d reflection requires th e
m o st a d e q u a te use o f lan g u ag e to refer to a n d sy m b o lize th e events th o u g h t
a b o u t. O n e o b v io u s guideline is to a v o id c o n fu sin g th e p ro p o sitio n s fo r
d esc rib in g a n d in te rp re tin g ev e n ts w ith th e ev en ts them selves. T h is is th e
p ro c e d u re o f th e id ealists w h o v erb ally c re a te a u n iv erse o f sense m ateria l
a n d c o n sc io u sn e ss w ith a b so lu te s a n d deities o f v a rio u s so rts as well as
creativ e p sy ch ic pow ers.
L in g u istic p h ilo so p h e rs as o b je c to rs to sp iritistic m etaphysics reso rt to
th e n o tio n th a t p h ilo so p h y h as n o su b ject m a tte r. T h u s th e y tu rn to th e
a rg u m e n t th a t th e w o rk o f p h ilo so p h y z in g is to an a ly z e language. T h is
v iew p o in t is illu stra te d by th e sta te m e n t a ttrib u te d to P ro fe sso r W isd o m
q u o te d in C h a p te r 8. A cco rd in g ly , p h ilo so p h ic a l lite ra tu re is replete w ith
asse rtio n s a n d d e b a te s a b o u t th e n a tu re a n d m e a n in g o f w o rd s, sentences,
a n d p ro p o sitio n s.
Postulation. A critical e x a m in a tio n o f linguistic p h ilo so p h y ind icates th e
co m p le te ly invalid prem ises u p o n w h ich th e e n tire m o v em en t is based.
Specifically it is clear th a t linguistic p h ilo so p h y has been erected u p o n th re e
false p o stu la te s. F irst, u p o n im p ro p e r n o tio n s o f language; seco n d ly th e re
is a p p a re n t co m p lete m isu n d e rsta n d in g o f p sychology. M o d e rn d ev e lo p ­

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m en ts in p sychology a re co m pletely o p p o se d to th e n o tio n th at language

con sists o f w o rd s, sentences a n d p ro p o sitio n s w hich a re free-stan d in g units
a n d w hich have p a rtic u la r k in d s o f fu n ctio n s. In th e th ird place th e n a tu re
a n d dev elo p m en t o f p h ilo so p h y is m isco n stru ed w ith re la tio n to th e philos-
oph y zin g individual a n d th e p len u m o f events.
Language. T h e failu re to recognize th a t language in all its v ario u s form s,
as p ro d u c ts o f tex ts a n d p h ilo so p h ical system s, is based o n co n crete h u m a n
b eh a v io r w hich consists o f a d ju stm e n ts relative to a n d re cip ro cal w ith
events o f all so rts. A lth o u g h so m e linguistic p h ilo so p h ers in d icate th eir
a p p re c ia tio n o f th e a ttitu d e h y p o th esis, they still find them selves im p ris­
o n ed in th e tra d itio n a l in stitu tio n s a b o u t language. In ste a d o f p h ilo so p h y
b ein g confined to th e stu d y o f la n g u ag e , p e rh a p s because it d o es n o t hav e
its o w n p a rtic u la r subject m a tte r, its fu n c tio n a c tu a lly is to b eco m e cogni­
z a n t o f w h a t th e sciences d isco v er a n d w h a t p erso n s c a n fo rm u la te in th e
w ay o f u n d e rsta n d in g o r ap p reciatin g events.
L in g u istic fa cto rs in p h ilo so p h y a r e o f its very essence, b u t c a n th e
m eticu lo u s use o f la n g u ag e by itself co rrec t all th e evils o f p h ilo so p h ic al
enterprises, will it m o d ify th e th in k in g o f th e p h ilo so p h ers? P e rh a p s
bey o n d th e negative a im o f criticizing w ro n g th in k in g , lan g u ag e c a n n o t
im p ro v e p h ilo so p h ic a l situ atio n s. W h a t w ould be a n in d isp en sib le aid
w o u ld be a m o re in tim ate ac q u a in ta n c e w ith things a n d events.
Psychology. A fu n d a m e n ta l difficulty in th e linguistic p h ilo so p h y is th e
em p lo y m e n t o f a n invalid a n d useless view o f psychology. W rite rs o n th e
v . subject assu m e t h a t sp_eakers o r h earers c o n s is t o f ab stra c tio n a l m inds o r
^brains. T h is m eans th a t th e entire view to w a rd lan g u ag e will be m is­
co n stru e d a n d m isleading.
T h e scientific view o f psychology is th a t p sychological processes o r fields
c o n stitu te re cip ro ca l ac tio n s o f o rg an ism s o r an im als w ith o bjects o r
co n d itio n s th a t th e y sp eak of. T hese are th e referents w hich we have
described ab o v e. It is n o p a rt o f scientific psychology to assu m e o r deal w ith
a b stru se psychic processes o r b ra in s w hich a re reg ard ed as th e seats an d
centers o f psychic existence a n d activity.
It follow s fro m th is th a t sp eak ers can only refer to c o n c re te events w hich
th ey c o n fro n t as a c tu a l ad ju stm en ts. T h ere is n o allo w an ce fo r su p e rn a tu ­
ral p ow ers. A s we h av e in d icated , w h a te v er th in g s o r processes sp eak ers
refer to are ex tra p o la tio n s fro m a c tu a l c o n ta c ts in in te rb e h a v io ra l fields. It
is o b v io u s th a t h u m a n o rg an ism s can exercise th e ir im ag in ativ e o r creative
processes a n d say sentences a b o u t G o d s, angels, heavens, a n d ea rth s
beyond all possibility w ithin actu al in terb eh av io r.

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Philosophy. A s c o m p o n e n ts in discussions o f linguistic p h ilo so p h y th en

a re m an y co n c ep ts deriv ed fro m trad itio n s, especially religious ones. Sc
th e re a re q u e stio n s w h e th e r sen ten ces o r p ro p o sitio n s c a n co n cern abso
lutes o f a n y s o rt s u c h a s a b s o lu te ce rtain ty . It is a curio u s fact h o w hiehh
_ so p h istic a te d p h ilo so p h ers^w ill allow in th e ir discu ssio n infinities whicl
deriv e fro m th e field o f m a th em atics. O fc o u rs e it is possible th a t m ath em a
j tician s h av e b een m isled in to th e use o f su ch term s as ab so lu tes anti
!! infinities b ec au se o f th e religious tra d itio n in w hich p h ilo so p h y w as p ritn a r
ily co n c ern e d w ith sa lv atio n .
W h a t is clea rly m issin g in linguistic p h ilo so p h y is th e ab sen ce o f th
n o tio n th a t p h ilo s o p h y is p rim a rily a m a tte r o f intellectu al o rie n ta tio n ;
E ith e r fo r so m e o th e r o c c u p a tio n o r fo r sim ply evolving as h u m a n being
few if a n y lin g u istic p h ilo s o p h e rs o r p h ilo so p h ers in g en eral ta k e in t:
^ ac c o u n t th e fa ct th a t th e k n o w led g e o r system s o f th o u g h t are sim pl
'jU .m e a n s o f a d ju s tm e n t to th e th in g s a n d ev en ts w h ich co n stitu te th e i,
~ - inevitable a n d p e rm a n e n t en v iro n m en ts.
" T h e o b je c tio n to h isto ric a l an d tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y is th a t littl
co g n izan ce is ta k e n o f th e a c tu a l processes o f p h ilo so p h y zin g . F o r th e mo.<
p a rt p h ilo so p h e rs d e a l w ith to ta l universes a n d lim itless surrounding
in stead o f a p p re c ia tin g th e p h ilo so p h ie s co n cern ed w ith th e ac tu a l thing
a n d events th a t c o n s titu te th e fairly lim ited w o rld . T h e only valid know
edges are th o se g a in e d fro m o b se rv a tio n a n d researches o f individuals bot
lay m en a n d e x p e rt scientists. It is a sen sib le o b se rv a tio n th a t valid know
edge a n d in feren ces fr o m o b se rv a tio n a re ex trem ely lim ited fro m tl
s ta n d p o in t o f a n e n o r m o u s p le n u m s o th a t k n o w led g e is alw ays a m atter <
step by ste p p ro g re ss in d e a lin g w ith th in g s a n d events. U n fo rtu n a te ly eve
so p h istic a te d p h ilo s o p h e rs a p p e a r t o b e u n a w a re th a t th e only validity <
p h ilo so p h ic al p ro p o s itio n s is b ased o n k eep ing th o ro u g h ly in to u ch wit
th e p ro cesses a n d ac h ie v e m e n ts o f te c h n o lo g y w hich is m erely elab o ra
c o n ta c t w ith elem en ts a n d ob jects m a k in g u p th e m aterials o f know ledj
a n d u n d e rsta n d in g .

1 58
 C H A P T E R 15
PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN ETHICAL SITUATIONS

ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MORAL SITUATIONS

- > T h e first step in th e in v estig atio n o f a n y subject m a tte r co n sists o f its
iso la tio n a n d id en tificatio n . T o specify th e n atu re o f eth ical situ a tio n s it
b eco m es a p rim a ry re q u ire m e n t to clear aw ay the thicket o f fallacious
view s th a t have b een h a m p e rin g th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f ethical c o n d u c t an d
m o ra l situ atio n s. T h e en tire h isto ry o f eth ical p h ilo so p h y b ears w itness to
th e d is to rtin g effects o f sp ec io u s p h ilo so p h ical d o c trin e s a n d sp iritistic
psychology. In g en eral, e th ica l situ a tio n s have b ee n tre a te d a s a b stra c t,
a b so lu te , a n d u n iv e rs a l.......
E th ical p h ilo so p h y d isp lay s a g re a t h ia tu s betw een th e events stu d ied
a n d th e d e sc rip tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s fo rm u la te d a b o u t th em . T h is m a y
b e p a rtia lly e x p la in e d o n th e g ro u n d th a t m o ral b e h a v io r a n d eth ical
situ a tio n s a re aufond cu ltu ra l a n d w ith v ery little p artic ip a tio n by p h y sio -
ch e m ic al a n d b iological c o m p o n e n ts . A cco rdingly, it is m o st necessary to
k eep close to the fields in w h ich eth ical b eh a v io r occurs.
D e sp ite th e fact th a t th e p h ilo so p h ic al subdiscipline o f ethics co n cern s
th e c o n d u c t o r b e h a v io r o f h u m a n in d iv id u als, co n v e n tio n a l eth ical w rit­
ings a re replete w ith v erb al a b stra c tio n s. :A b so lu te an sw e rs a re so u g h t
c o n c e rn in g th e n a tu re o f th e “g o o d ,” o r “o b lig a tio n ” w hence th e y g en erate,
w h e th e r th e y can be d efin ed , o r w h e th e r th e y co n cern m ain ly so m eth in g
in te rn a l o r ex te rn a l to “m in d s ." J
F ro m a n objective a n d scientific p o in t o f view a m o ral situ a tio n is
essentially a specific b e h a v io r event w hich involves a ch o ice w h e th e r a
p e rs o n s h o u ld o r s h o u ld n o t p e r fo rm a c e rta in a c t, b ec au se d o in g th e a c tis
e ith e r rig h t o r w ro ng, g o o d o r b a d , p ro p e r o r j m p roper. W h e th e r it is right
o r w ro n g to p e rfo rm a c e rta in act d ep e n d s, o f course, o n a s ta n d a rd o r
- c rite rio n . S u c h s ta n d a r d s m a y be th e a d o p te d p re scrip tio n s fro m a g ro u p
re q u irin g th e d o in g o r n o t d o in g o f so m e a c t, o r by th e in d iv id u als ow n
fo rm u la tio n o f a c o d e o f b eh av io r.
T h e c o n tra s t b etw e en h isto rical a n d scientific philo so p h ical views co n ­
c e rn in g eth ical s itu a tio n s is clearly in d icated by listing som e basic criteria o f
m o ra l c o n d u c t as in th e a c c o m p a n y in g table.

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 H U M A N E V EN TS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

T a b l e 2. S a m p l e s o f C o n v e n t io n a l E t h ic a l C r it e r ia

P h il o s o p h ic a l
P r in c ip l e
S p o n s o r s h ip

Plato Self Realization as Summum Bonum

Aristotle Happiness
1. Kant Good Will
J. Bcnthaml
Greatest Good of Greatest Number
J. S . Mill (
G. E. Moore Indefinable Good
N. Hartmann Transcendent Values
A. J. Ayer )
Emotive Attitudes
wi C. L. Stephenson f

»*’l
Now it is undeniable that each of the traditional standards of morality
has its appeal. Interesting also are some of the argum ents for the proposed
standards. But it is Questionable whether there is a single type of good that
Ifc'l
& is basic to ethical behavior. or to moral judgements about right or wrong

absolutistic presuppositions but does not strike the target of a scientific

philosophy. All the traditional ethical systems incline strongly toward
verbal arguments rather than the actual choice behavior, and the specific
tail
conditions that environ them. Certainly there is more attention centered on
■b»i constructs than on the events which properly constitute their source and
origin.

ETHICAL EVENTS AND ETHICAL CONSTRUCTS

For the proper appreciation of moral events it is imperative to make
precise distinctions between actual ethical situations, and their description
and interpretation. Because moral events are embedded in numerous
complex affairs much opportunity exists for confusing them with some of
their parallel and coincident circumstances. A proper analysis of moral
conduct serves to separate the behavior of persons from the views of those
attem pting to describe and evaluate such events. To be stressed is the fact
that the primary feature of a moral situation entails a choice interaction of a
person with some other person or thing as stimulus object, in view of a code

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 ISSUES IN E T H I C A L S I T U A T I O N S

o r s ta n d a r d recognized by th e p e rfo rm in g p erso n . M o ra lity involves m any

ty p es o r classifications o f a c tio n , tim es o f p erfo rm an ce, co n sequences, and
circu m stan ces o r auspices.

MORALITY: ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE

A long line o f p h ilo so p h e rs have insisted th a t m o rals a n d eth ica l values
are a b so lu te a n d ev erlastin g , a n d th u s categorically im perative. A b solutis­
t s p h ilo so p h e rs b u ilt o n th e o lo g ical o r religious fo u n d a tio n s in th e w itting
o r u n w ittin g co n v ictio n th a t so m e s o rt o f d eity issues c o m m a n d s w hich
believers p re su m e to be s ta b le an d p e rm a n e n t rules, w hich c a n o n ly be
obeyed a n d n o t q u estio n ed . F ro m su ch so urces have a rise n n o tio n s o f
in trin sic o r a b so lu te rig h t a n d w ro n g . B ecause evidence to ju stify such
beliefs is lack in g th ey w ere q u e stio n e d a n d th u s aro se a ch allen g in g g ro u p
o f o p p o n e n ts w h o p ro p o se d a c o n tin g en c y view o f m o rality . M o ra ls o r
eth ical practices th ey held a re re la tiv istic jT h o se w h o o p p o se th e a b so lu tis- *
tic view o f m o ra ls p o in t o u t th e v a ria tio n s in ethical beliefs an d practices in
different c u ltu ra l c o m m u n itie s a n d also n u m e ro u s ch an g es a n d shifts in ' 4 ^ ' '
ethical attitu d es.
A m o n g th e best ex a m p le s o f ab so lu tistic a ttitu d e s is th a t o f K a n t w h o
declares th a t,
It is impossible to conceive anything at all in the world, or even out of it, which can be
taken as good without qualification, except a good will. Intelligence, wit, judgement, and
any other ta le n ts of the mind we may care to name, or courage, resolution, and constancy of
purpose, as qualities of te m p e r a m e n t, are without doubt good and desirable in many
respects; but they can also be extremely bad and hurtful when the will is not good which has
to make use of these gifts of nature, and which for this reason has the term 'ch aracter'
applied to its peculiar quality. It is exactly the same with g ifts o f fo r tu n e . Power, wealth,
honour, even health and that complete well-being and contentment with one's state which
goes by the name of 'h a p p in ess', produce boldness, and as a consequence often over­
boldness as well, unless a good will is present by which their influence on the mind — and so
too the whole principle of action — may be corrected and adjusted to universal ends; not to
mention that a rational and impartial spectator can never feel approval in contemplating the
uninterrupted prosperity of a being graced by no touch of a pure and good will, and that
consequently a good will seems to constitute the indispensable condition of our very
worthiness to be happy.. . .
_ A good will is not eood because of what it effects or accomplishes — because of its fitness
for attaining some proposed end: it is good through its willing alone — that is, good in itself. -Vor
"Considered in itself it is to be esteemed beyond comparison as far higher than anything it
could ever bring about merely in order to favour some inclination or, if you like, the sum vr.
total of inclinations. Even if, by some special disfavour of destiny or by the niggardly
endowment of step-motherly nature, this will is entirely lacking in power to carry out its
intentions; if by its utmost effort it still accomplishes nothing, a nd only good will is left (not,
admittedly, as a mere wish, but as the straining of every means so far as they are in our
control); even then it would still shine like a jewel for its own sake as something which has its

161
 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

full value in itself. Its usefulness or fruitlessness can neither add to, nor subtract from, this
value. Its usefulness would be merely, as it were, the setting which enables us to handle it
better in our ordinary dealings or to attract the attention of those not yet sufficiently expert,
i but not to commend it to experts or io determine its value.1

^ E th ic a l relativists a re to be a p p la u d e d in th eir a tta c k s u p o n the ethical

ab so lu te s o f th e a p rio ri p h ilo so p h e rs. H ow ev er, th ey to o rem ain a t fau lt in
esp o u sin g u n iv ersal a n d a b s tra c tio n a l view s co n cern in g ethical situations.
In th is respect th ey sta n d beside th e ab so lu tists. A lth o u g h th e relativists
co rrec tly a ss e rt th a t m o ra l c o m m a n d s deriv e fro m th e p ractices o f cultural
g ro u p s a n d th a t m o ral rules a re m a n -m a d e p re cip ita tio n s o f th e custom s
a n d h a b its as o b serv ed in p a rtic u la r so cieties,[they still d o n o t consider
sufficiently th e a c tu a l life c o n d itio n s o f m o ra l b e h a v io r j T h ey rem ain
obsessed b y th e c o m p ellin g a b stra c tio n ism o f w o rd s an d established tradi­
tio n s. T h e p ro p o n e n ts o f N Joral R elativ ism a re th u s ca rried fa r aw ay from
a c tu a l m o ra l situ a tio n s. (^For o n e th in g th e d iscussion ce n te rs a ro u n d •
p ro b le m s o f th e tr u th o f ju d g m e n ts , th e n th e q u e stio n is raised a b o u t tru th
o r b elief c rite ria. I n th e m e a n tim e th e n a tu re a n d o p e ra tio n o f m oral
situ atio n s a re left h a n g in g .}
T h e p ro b le m o f m o ra l relativ ism is tra n sfe rre d to a c o n v e n tio n a l fram e­
w o rk . M o r a l relativ ism is ta k e n as a situ a tio n in w h ich th ere is n o rational
w ay o f d ec id in g b etw e e n d if f e r e n t m o ra l ju dgm ents.* T o analyze m oral

I situ a tio n s is to be c o n c e rn e d w ith actors facing choices o f b e h a v io r o n the

e la b o ra te aw aren e ss o f th e a lte rn a tiv e s involved a n d th e m ean s o f p erfo rm ­
ing o n e o r o th e r a c tio n o n th e basis o f p a st c u ltu ra liza tio n an d accrued
cl desires o r tastes.
I W h a t is lack in g in p h ilo so p h ic a l lite ratu re is a th o ro u g h specification o f
|

w ?•‘* w h a t is in v o lv ed in eth ica l b e h a v io r fields. T h ere is t o o m u c h e m phasis

u p o n th e c o n stru c t “o u g h t" as a universal force o r guide to actio n . F ro m a
scientific p h ilo so p h ic al s ta n d p o in t o u g h ts a re the co n crete c o n d itio n s o f
beh av io r. T h e y v a ry fo r p erso n s, an d th e p a rtic u la r circum stances> sur-_
" ‘ *
ro u n d in g th e eth ical field a t th e tim e.
-yW hen m o ra l relativists sh y a w a y fro m a n analysis o f th e m o ra l event o r
field, th ey tu m to th e o b serv er a n d his ju d g m e n t. T h ey d iscuss th e existence
o f crite ria o r s ta n d a rd s a n d th e v alid ity o f s ta n d a rd s alto g eth er.
T h e fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m o f sta n d a rd s c o n cern s o n ly th e ir n a tu re o r

1Kant, I., Groundwork o f the Metaphysic o f Morals (H. J. Paton, trs.), London, Hutchinson’s
Univ. Library, 1947, pp. 61,62.
5Cooper. D. E.,"Moral Relativism," in Studies in Ethical Theory (P. A. French. T. E. Uehling. Jr..
H. K. Wettstcin, eds.), Morris, Minnesota, The Univ. of Minnesota, 1978.

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 I S SU E S IN E T H I C A L S I T U A T I O N S

ch a ra c te r. O b v io u sly th e re a re s ta n d a rd s b u t t hey a re n o t a p rio ri o r

intuitive. R a th e r th e y a rise a n d o p e ra te w ith in th e b o u n d arie s o f specific^
fields as we have re p e a te d ly d escrib ed them .

MORALITY SITUATIONS DOMINATED BY

INFALLIBLE PHILOSOPHY
T h e e n tire p o la rity o f a b s o lu te n e ss a n d relativity is sy m p to m a tic o f th e
influence o f a b so lu ten e ss a n d c e rta in ty in p hilosophy. Few , if a n y philos­
o p h e rs a re ab le to free them selves fro m d o m in a tio n by th e a ssu m p tio n th at
th ey are a b le to fo rm u la te a b so lu te a n d universal p ro p o sitio n s a b o u t th e
universe. (There is lack in g in m o st if n o t all philo so p h ical system s the
h u m ility o f a p p re c ia tin g th a t u n iv ersa l system s a re really th e c o n stru c tio n s
o f p a rtic u la r p e rso n s w ith specific ca p acities a n d w ith a large o r sm all fu n d (%j
o f u n iq u e e x p e riences th ro u g h o u t a p a rtic u la r b eh a v io r h isto ry .J
P h ilo so p h y z in g is a te c h n ic a l e n te rp rise a n d as such it is hedged in by the
influence o f ac cep ted a n d v alu ed tra d itio n s w hich tend to w ard fo rm ality
a n d d e p a rtu re fro m a u th e n tic o b serv atio n . F o rm u la tio n b ein g different
Ii fro m e v e n ts fo rm u la te d , to u c h is lost w ith th e actu al facts o f life. A rb itra ri-
ness, if n o t m y th o lo g y is th e n given free play. Im p erativ e a n d veridical
beco m e th e rules h a n d e d d o w n fro m heaven, an d th e laws stru c tu re d by
ven e rated law givers. R u les o f c o n d u c t are cherished th o u g h d ish o n o re d by
failu re to p ra c tic e w h a t th e y o rd e r to be d o n e o r to b e av o id ed . In th e
m ea n tim e p eo p le b e h a v e in a c tu a l living, in trad e , a n d in all so rts o f
in te rre la tio n s w ith o th e r p e rso n s in w ays th a t c a n n o t be p ro c ru stean izc d to
c o n fo rm w ith fo rm u la tio n s.
r~ It is h a rd ly n ec essary to a d d h ere th a t n o m o ral c o n sid e ra tio n s are
a p p lic a b le to th e b e h a v io r o f m a n y p erso n s w h o live a m o ra l lives, th a t is, ^40 ?
p erso n s ex istin g b ey o n d g o o d a n d evil, a n d w h o n eith er thin k n o r u n d e r­
sta n d a n y th in g b e y o n d th e ir d a ily ro u n d s o f w o rk an d play. T h e o u g h tn ess
; o f th e ir living d o es n o t e x te n d b e y o n d th e co n ti nuance o f th eir ex isten ce o r
\ its p ec u n ia ry im p ro v em en t.
PROMINENT MISCONCEPTIONS IN ETHICAL THEORY
W rite rs o n m o ra l su b je c ts n o t o n ly in clu d e in th eir th eo ries v ario u s
fallacies arisin g fro m th e d o m in a tio n o f a b stra ctio n a) p h ilo so p h y , b u t in
a d d itio n a lso e sp o u se fa lla cio u s p re su p p o sitio n s, especially e rro n e o u s co n ­
stru c ts a b o u t p sy ch o lo g y a n d psychological behavior. O u tsta n d in g ex a m ­
ples a re th e p re o c c u p a tio n w ith su c h p seu d o -p ro b lem s as F re e d o m , C o n ­
science, P erso n ality , a n d In trin sica lity o f M o ra l B ehavior.

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 H U M A N EV E NT S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

0 a . Freedom o f the Will. A m o n g th e p erennial pro b lem s in the philos­

o p h y o f ethics is th a t o f th e fre e d o m o f th e will. T h is h isto rical p ro b lem
involves m etap h y sical en titie s o f z e ro su b stan tiality w hich b lin d s th in k ers
to th e a c tu a l p ro b ab ilities a n d lim itatio n s o f co n crete h u m a n affairs.
/ S c ie n tifirp s y c h o lu gy is UTtarnbiguOus m T trd e c la fa tib fT th a t th ere is no ^
j su c h e n tity as a will a n d so th ere ca n be n o legitim ate q u estio n a b o u t the
( fre e d o m o r d e te rm in a tio n o f th e w ill/T h e will c o n stru c tio n derives directly
fro m fa cu lty p sy ch o lo g y w h ich is, o f co u rse, m e n ta lis ts a n d theistic. Will
w h e th e r free o r d e term in e d stem s fro m so u l psychology a n d n o t fro m any
o b se rv a tio n o f h u m a n b ein g s a n d th e ir b eh av io r, (in o rd e r to achieve a
p ro p e r p h ilo so p h ic a ttitu d e to w a rd m o ra l questio n s, it is necessary to abide
by a n a tu ra listic v iew p o in t c o n c ern in g h u m a n n a tu re ./ '
T h e futility o f th e fre e d o m p ro b le m in its negative an d positive versions
vw is clea rly d e m o n s tra te d in th e c o n tra s t d isp lay ed b etw een th e ab stra c t
m eta p h y sic a l v ersio n a n d w h e n it is p u t in th e fo rm o f th e co n crete .
q u estio n , “C a n o n e d o w h a t o n e w o u ld like to do?” T h e latter entails a not
to o su b tle a d m issio n th a t th e will p ro b le m m u st refer b a c k to th e actu al
b e h a v io r o f p erso n s in specific situ a tio n s. T h e fact th a t there a re lim itations
tint*
to th e p e r fo rm a n c e o f c e rta in ac tio n s co m pletely excludes p ro b lem s o f #
EP1 " n o n e x is te n t will. In m a n y circ u m sta n ces in d ividuals c a n n o t p e rfo rm w hat
th ey w o u ld like to d o . F o r e x a m p le , o n e c a n n o t trav el to a d is ta n t but
a ttra c tiv e city because o f th e lack o f fu n d s. It is futile f o r a d o c to r to tell the
p enniless c o n su m p tiv e p atie n t th a t he sh o u ld m ove to a n elev ated infirm ary
in S w itz erla n d . X c a n n o t h o p e to e n te r Y m edical sch o o l w h ich he intensely
Vt4 j j w a n ts to d o because h e d id n o t e a rn th e h igh g rad es w h ich h e co u ld have
uw { 'e arn e d w ith so m e w h a t less in tere st in ath letics. A n y o n e in tere ste d in
p ro b le m s o f a b ility o r in ab ility to d o so m e ch o sen a n d h ighly d esirable
ac tiv ity ca n refer to a n in n u m e ra b le set o f su ch in h ibiting situ atio n s. T he
Ml. fo llo w in g e x a m p le s o f h u m a n c irc u m sta n c e m ay b e th e so u rc es o f inhibi­
tio n s o f a c tio n , o r in fa v o ra b le circ u m sta n ces th e fa c ilita to rs o f specific
in stan ces o f m o ra l a n d im m o ra l b eh av io r.
a. P resen ce o f Specific C u ltu ra l In stitu tio n s
b. E co n o m ic, P olitical, a n d S ocial S itu a tio n s
c. S o cietal C o n tro ls
d. P sychological T ra its d ev elo p ed in fo rm e r tim es.
In ste a d o f d e a lin g w ith in v e n tio n s o f psychic en tities it is su rely m ore
j p ro fitab le to a p p r o a c h m o ra l s itu a tio n s as th e b eh a v io r o f p erso n s with
i respect to p e rso n a l o r c o m m u n a l crite ria o f p ro p rie ty . It is o n su ch a

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 I S S U ES IN E T H I C A L S I T U A T I O N S

n a tu ra listic a n d c u ltu ra l b asis th a t m o ra l situ atio n s c a n be p ro p e rly a n a ­

lyzed a n d assay ed a s well as d iffe ren tiated fro m o rd in a ry c u sto m s a n d fro m
legal in ju n ctio n s an d social c o n tro ls. ^
b . Conscience. A m o n g th e se rio u s eth ical m isco n cep tio n s d irectly ow ­
in g to th e e sp o u sa l o f sp iritistic p sy ch o lo g y , stan d s p ro m in e n tly th e co n ­
stru c t o f conscience o r m o ra l sense. E ssen tially ^ c o n science" is rega rd e d as
a faculty_of s o u l o r m in d w h ic h g u id e s t h e in d iv id u al to a ct m o ra lly o r in
conflict w ith his o w n crite ria o f p r o p riety.
N o tio n s o f c o n sc ie n c e a n d m o ra l sense h av e n o m a n n e r o f cred ib ility
w h en envisaged a s faculties o f a n a rb itra rily conceived m ind o r soul. N o
s u c h fa c u lty o r p sy ch ic m a trix c a n b e d eriv ed fro m a n y o b se rv a tio n o f
p e rso n s in th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e ir in d iv id u al o r c o m m u n a l activities
w ith in th e am b ien ce o f a c tu a l living c o n d itio n s.
It is a fa ir a s s u m p tio n t h a t th e p ersisten ce o f su ch a term a s conscience
reflects a c o n fu sin g o f v o c a b u la rie s. A side fro m th e use o f th e te rm to refer
to a n in n a te psychic e n tity th e te rm is also em ployed as a p ro p e r d escrip tio n
o f th e b e h a v io r o f p e rso n s in u n u s u a l o r critical c irc u m sta n c e sfP ro p e rly to
use th e te rm conscience in c o n n e c tio n w ith ethical p ro b lem s is to lo o k u p o n
it as a definite s o rt o f b e h a v io r w hich v aries in specific situ a tio n s a n d w ith
in te ra c tio n w ith p a rtic u la r o b jects in given circum stances])
c. Self-Ego. W e h av e a lre a d y p ro p o s e d th a t a p ro p e r psychological
basis fo r th e stu d y o f eth ica l q u e stio n s is to possess a n a d e q u a te ap p recia­
tio n o f h u m a n n a tu re . H o w ev er, c o n v e n tio n a l ethics is replete w ith c o n ­
stru c ts b ase d m o re o n tra d itio n a l lo re th a n o n o b se rv a tio n s o f ac tu a l
p erso n s as they a c t p riv ately o r in co n c ert. C o n seq u en tly ethical w ritings
fe a tu re p ro m in e n tly c o n c e p tio n s o f self p e rso n a lity o r ego as cen tral to
v irtu e s a n d v ices.U ’he g o o d o r th e m o ra l life is to c o n tro l o r d en y the
p ro p e n sities o f th e eg o o r s e lp V ic e s, o r im m o ral b eh a v io r sp rin g fro m the
n a tu ra l assertiveness o f o n e ’s ego o r self. V irtues consist o f th e realizatio n o f
th e self th o u g h th is view is d ev o id o f all specification as to a p ro c e d u re o r
en d to b e a tta in e d fo r a n o n e x iste n t entity.
N o tio n s o f self, selfishness, e g o , a n d eg oism c o n tra s t strik in g ly w ith
scientific p sy ch o lo g y w h ich d e p a rts ra d ically fro m theories o f in tern al
en tities w hich ex ist beside th e a c tu a l b eh a v io r an d exigencies involved in
su c h a d ju stm e n ts to b eh a v io ra l co n d itio n s. H en ce eth ical behavior like all
, b e h a v io r co n sists o f th e a c tiv ity o f p a rtic u la r in d iv id u a lsu n d e r th e auspices
o f m a n y a n d d iv erse c rite ria . T ec h n ically , h o w in d iv id u a ls a c t u n d er
v a rio u s circ u m sta n c e s m a y well b e ca te g o rized a s in stan ces o f p erso n ality
ad ju stm e n ts.

165
 H UMA N EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

Every individual is a u nique personality. T his signifies th a t in his past

experience d a tin g from infancy he has built up a repertoire o f action with
respect to p articu lar things, so th at at a n y given time he is equipped with
ways o f actin g o r habits. S u ch actio n s o r habits p ertain to specific stim ulus
objects, fo r exam ple, persons, things, conditions, o r change in circum ­
stances. T o stu d y personality in th e w ay we are suggesting, rules o u t once
an d fo r all tim e every n o tio n o f internal subjective entities. In all cases
scientific psychology is concerned exclusively and invariably w ith person­
ality traits o r h ab itu al ways o f acting.
d. Intrinsicality. F inally we consider processes o f inevitable m oral be­
havior because o f th e intrinsicality o f certain forces innate in the character
o f individuals, o r in c o n d itions su rro u n d in g an individual an d his behavior.
fit is said th a t th e re~are such Q u a lifie s in things an c fac tio n s as in trin sic
( go o d n ess o r e v il.rW hile th e im p ro p er co n stru ctio n o f such forces o r
conditions is n o t entirely psychological, still because o f th e topic o f ethical
b eh a v io r this term finds its place in a d iscussion o f ethical situations. O ur
p o in t c an be well m ad e w hen we co n tra st the idea o f intrinsicality w ith the
♦VJft co n stru ctio n o f sp atio tem p o ral circum stances w hich form the fram ew ork
o f h u m an behavior.
r O ne o f the best exam ples o f philosophical intrinsicality is provided by
th e em inent English p h ilo so p h er G. E. M o o re w ho proposes to correct all
w riters on ethics b y featu rin g tw o questions. T h e first is “W hat kind of
th in g s ou g h t to exist fo r th eir ow n sakes?” an d th e second is “W h at kind of
actions ought we to perform ?"3
^ He tries to show ,
exactly what it is that we ask about a thing, when we ask whether it ought to exist for its own
sake, is good in itself or has intrinsic value; and exactly what it is that we ask about anaction.
when we ask whether we ought to do it, whether it is a right action or a duty.4

A gain he writes,
'•hi
If I am asked ‘What is good? my answer is that good is good, and that is the end of the
matter. Or if I am asked 'How is good to be defined?' my answer is that it cannot be defined,
and that is all l have to say about it. But disappointing as these answers may appear, they are
of the very last importance. To readers who are familiar with philosophic terminology, lean
express their importance by saying that they amount to this: That propositions about the
good are all of them synthetic and never analytic; and that is plainly no trivial matter. And
the same thing may be expressed more popularly, by saying that, if I am right, then nobody
can foist upon us such an axiom as that 'Pleasure is the only good' or that The good is the
desired’ on the pretence that this is The very meaning of the word.’’
*Moore, G. E., Principia Eihica, Cambridge. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1929. Pref. p. viii.
•Ibid., preface, p. viii.
5Ibid., pp. 6-7.

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 I S S U ES IN E T H I C A L S I T U A T I O N S

ETHICAL PROBLEMS AS LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS

A n tim etap h y sica! p h ilo so p h e rs w h o w ish to sh u n th e fallacies a n d the
irrelevancies o f tra d itio n a l m y stic al a n d s u p e rn a tu ra l sp ecu latio n s fo rm u ­
late th e p ro p o sitio n th a t p h ilo so p h y consists entirely o f t rue p r o p o sitions
a b o u t th e w o rld . A c co rd in g ly they envisage th e eth ical aspects o f the
universe a s m a tte rs o f valid sen ten ces a b o u t th e co n stru ct o f “g o o d .” In this
w ay th ey h o p e to a v o id th e a b s o lu tis m o f h isto rical p h ilo so p h y su ch th a t
d u tie s a n d rules o f c o n d u c t ex ist ev en if th e re is no h u m a n being to k n o w o r
to c o n fo rm to th em . E ssen tially th e n , d o ’s a n d d o n ’t’s are fo r th em m atters
o f language.6
B ecause c o m p e te n t linguistic analyses in variably m u st reach b ac k to
a c tio n o r b eh av io r, so m e lin g u istic a n a ly sts hav e p ro p o se d th a t by co n tra st
w ith scientific lan g u ag e w h ich is d escrip tiv e o f events, ethical lan g u ag e is M
em o tiv e o r pleasing. T h is view , ev en if it erases m etap h y sical n o tio n s fails
u tterly to ta k e a c c o u n t o f a c tu a l ev e n ts in w hich reacting in d iv id u als
If
p erfo rm o b serv ab le b e h a v io r a c c o rd in g to so m e accepted sta n d a rd .7
— L inguistic analysis o f eth ics a p p e a rs to b e a d o u b le shift fro m ethical
events, th a t is, e th ica l fields o f b e h a v io r. F irst th ere a re sentences su b sti­
N
tu te d fo r acts, an d th e n th e sentences a re m ad e in to expressions o f feelings
su ch as a p p ro v in g o r d isa p p ro v in g . T h e sen tence “T his is g o o d ” is d eclared
to be tra n sla ta b le in to “ I a p p ro v e o r d isa p p ro v e o f this." B o th m oves shift
p ro b lem s o f ethics fro m e th ica l p e rfo rm a n c e to d escrip tio n s o r co m m e n ts
o f th e o n lo o k er.
i
PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR
S in ce e th ic a l b e h a v io r is a fo rm o f p sy ch o logical in terb e h av io r, a m odel „
o f eth ical s itu a tio n s sy m b o liz es a special ty p e o f psychological field. A c­
co rd in g ly , we c a n su m m a riz e psych o lo g ical fields by e n n u m e ra tin g the
c o m p o n e n t facto rs w ith in th e b o u n d a rie s o f a unit m o ral event. i
1. The behaving person. W h e n w e an aly ze a m oral situ atio n it is neces­
sary to ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e n a tu re o f th e p a rtic u la r p e rso n involved. It is
v alu ab le to k n o w th e in te rb e h a v io ra l h isto ry o f th e in d iv id u al. S u ch
in fo rm a tio n becom es im p o rta n t w h en q u estio n s are raised co n cern in g *
d u tie s a n d c o n sc ie n ce. A s is w ell k n o w n th e p ro p e r a p p re c ia tio n o f the
observed p erso n involves k n o w led g e o f his fam ily b ac k g ro u n d , th e n atu re
o f his e n v iro n in g c o n d itio n s a n d g en eral m o d e o f living. E specially im p o r-
* Ayre, A. J.. Philosophical Essays. New York. St. Martin's Press. 1954.
’ Cf. Stevenson. C. L„ Ethics and Language. New Haven. Yale. 1944. Also “The Emotive Concep­
tion of Ethics and its Cognitive Implications.' Philosophical Review. 59.

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE

ta n t is a n a p p re c ia tio n o f th e in stitu tio n s w hich influence th e individuals

beh av io ral h isto ry w hile d ev e lo p in g sta n d a rd s o r criteria o f m o ra l b eh av io r
w ith o r w ith o u t th e in te rv e n tio n o f p a rtic u la r individuals.
2. Stimulus Object. N e x t w e m u st ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e eth ical stim u lu s
objects o r circ u m sta n c e s c o n fro n tin g th e reacting individual. S am p les o f
su ch stim u lu s o b jects co n sist o f p erso n s in need o r g re at difficulty,
p rom ises to k eep , o b lig a tio n s to p erso n s o r o rg a n izatio n s, c o n trib u tio n s o f
fu n d s fo r c h a rita b le p u rp o se s o r fo r a id in g in th e salvaging o f en v iro n in g
c o n d itio n s, d u ties re q u ired by p rio r self-co m m itm ents o r by social obliga­
tio n s, in d iv id u al a n d social conflicts, a n d so o n a n d o n iW h a t co n stitu tes an
ac tu a l eth ical stim u lu s o b ject is o f co u rse a fu n ctio n o f th e specificities o f
l! p a rtic u la r b e h a v io ra l situ a tio n s^
3. Ethical Media of Contact. E x trem ely im p o rta n t in psychological
fields a re th e m ed ia w h e reb y th e re actin g o rg a n ism gets in to c o n ta c t with
stim u lu s objects. In g en eral perceiving b eh a v io r th e m ed ia are clearly air
w aves a n d light r a y s .J n eth ica l behaviorjw hich is c u ltu ra j} h e m ed ia consist
q \ o f g en eral o b se rv a tio n o f h u m a n events in clu ding th e in stitu tio n s jdom i-
han't ~m?spea H c so cieties a n d effective in in stru c tio n a l an d _ ed u catio n al
experiences as weil a s a d a p ta tio n a ! a d ju stm en ts to specific societies^
4. Setting or Auspices o f Behavior. F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f scientific
p sy ch o lo g y th e a u sp ice s u n d e r w h ich in te rb e h av io r occurs a re o f the
g reatest im p o rta n c e . T h e y fre q u e n tly influence w h eth er o r n o t th e essential
field is fo rm e d a n d th e q u a lity o f th e in terb e h av io r. In m o ra l b eh a v io r fields
it m ay b e th e settin g w hich c o lo rs th e facility w ith w h ich th e behavior
o ccu rs as w ell as th e in ten sity o f th e a c tio n . W h e th e r a p e rso n acts honestly,
sy m p ath etically , cruelly, m a g n an im o u sly , p atrio tically , o r otherw ise de­
pen d s u p o n w h o is p re sen t o r w h a t th e consequences m a y be to oneself o r
oth ers. In th e lite ra tu re o f ethics, su ch au sp ices o r setting factors are
cate g o rize d a s m o tiv a tio n , b u t su ch c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f th e co nditions
involved in m o ra l b e h a v io r im plies so m e fo rm o f m entalistic fram ew ork.
E th ical c o n d u c t co n sid ered fro m th e sta n d p o in t o f scientific philosophy
b ea rs n o re la tio n to m en talistic n o tio n s o f m o tiv atio n . T h ey are excluded in
c o m p a n y w ith all o th e r fo rm s o f m en talistic processes su ch as sensations,
im ages, ideas, a n d so on.
M O R A LS A N D VALUES

f S tu d e n ts o f th e p h ilo so p h y o f m o ra ls are p ro n e to c o n jo in p ro b lem s o'

\ values w ith th o se o f ethicsj T h e y assu m e th a t a m o ral ac t is a n act of valui
o r 'a f le a sT c o n fo rm s to values o r c o n trib u te s to th e re alm o f values. Th<

168
 SSUES IN E T H I C A L S I T U A T I O N S

q u e stio n arises w h e th e r p ro b le m s o f v alue a re ipso fa c to co n n e cted w ith

p ro b le m s o f m o ra l b eh a v io r. T o clarify th is q u e stio n it is d e sira b le to
c o n s id e r th e n a tu re o f v alu es a n d h o w they m a y relate to eth ical situ atio n s.
A to n c e w e m u st reject a n y a p rio iT o r m etaphysical n o tio n o f values. A
ty p ical a b stra c tio n istic sta te m e n t h o ld s th a t,
There is a pure valuational a priori, which directly, intuitively, emotionally permeates our
practical consciousness, our whole conception of life, and which tends to everything that
falls within the range of our vision the mark of value or anti-value.8

O f c o u rse n o t all p h ilo so p h e rs w o u ld ac cep t th e H a rtm a n n style o f

sta te m e n t th o u g h th e y d o n o t escap e th e m yth o lo g y ev id en t in th e q u o te d
sta te m e n t. V alu e is o ften re g a rd e d as a po w er, a so u rce o f g o o d , a n ideal, a
g o al o r a n e n d to b e reached.
F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f scien tific_D hilosoohv_values are in trin sic o r
a ttrib u te d p ro p e rtie s o f ac ts o r th in g s a n d events. In th e fo rm e r case objects ‘*tn
o r c o n d itio ns p ro v e to~be su ita b le ajid so m etim es necessary in p a rtic u la r
situ a tio n s. F o r e x a m p le , it is en tire ly p ro p e r to regard th e p hysiochem ical
q u alitie s o f w o o d o r e a rth a s v a lu a b le fo r th e c o n s tru c tio n o f d a m s by
b ea v ers o r h u m a n o rg a n ism s. A ttrib u te d p ro p e rties in gen eral c o n sist in
v alu es o f th in g s a s im p o se d b y th e e v a lu a to ry processes o f o rg a n ism s o r
*»lll
p e rs o n s in a n y " n u m b er o f s itu a tio n s, in d ustrial, co m m ercial, m ilitary,
p e rs o n a l d e c o ra tio n , a n d m a n y o th e r s . In n o sense m ay values b e reg ard ed
as d iv in e .o rd in a tio n s o r a b s o lu te a n d etern al creations.
A ll v alu es o f w h a te v e r s o rt a re th e n fa cto rs in th e w o rk a n d p lay o f
c o n c rete situ atio n s. V alues th a t h a v e b ecom e m o re o r less p e rm a n en t
fe atu res o f g ro u p s a n d c o m m u n itie s ste m fro m cu ltu ral in stitu tio n s. R ules
o f m o ra ls a r e fo rm alized a n d in stitu tio n alized attitu d e s based o n o b serv a­
tio n s b o th d e lib e ra te a n d ca su a l c o n c e rn in g th e b eh av io ral p ractices o f
in d iv id u a ls w hich a re a p p ro v e d o f by th e so-called leaders o f v ario u s social
system s. %
S T A N D A R D S O F M ORALS

M o ra l b e h a v io r a n d e th ica l in stitu tio n s, as w e h av e seen, a re closely

in te rre la te d w ith p ro b le m s o f crite ria o r sta n d a rd s. T h ese s ta n d a rd s are in
g en eral, o f tw o so rts. O n e , th o se in itiate d a n d fo rm u la te d by in d iv id u als
d u rin g th e c o u rse o f th e ir in te rb e h a v io ra l careers, a n d th e o th e r based
m ain ly o n c u ltu ra l o r social circu m stan ces.
a . Societal Standards. O n e o f th e clea r-cu t in g red ien ts o f m o ra l stan d -

*Hartmann, N., Ethics (S. Coit, trs.), Vol. I, London, Allen and Unwin, 1932, p. 177.

169
 HUMAN EVENTS IN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE

a rd s a re th e c o n tin u in g p ractices o f p eo p le o v er in terv als o f tim e, in som e

cases o v er d ec ad es o r m a n y ages. S ta n d a rd s a re fo u n d e d o n beliefs o r
sensitive a w a re n e ss w h ich b e c o m e staticised as h a b itu a l w ays o f ac tin g th a t
h av e p assed d o w n th ro u g h g en e ratio n s. T h e re a fte r su ch sta n d a rd s becom e
influential a s c rite ria f o r th e c o n tin u e d p e rfo rm a n c e o f c e rta in acts e ith e r as
o v ert p e rfo rm an c es o r m o re su b tle beliefs a n d ideas.
b. Personalistic Standards^ T h e b asic psychological fact o f individual
differences c o n stitu te s a n effective basis fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f private
s ta n d a rd s a s c rite ria o f rig h t o r w ro n g b e h a v io n ) A ttitu d e s in ethical
s itu a tio n s a re d e v e lo p e d in p recisely th e sam e w ay a s th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f a
h a b it, a p a rtic u la r belief, o r o th e r id io sy n cratic b eh a v io r. A s a m a tte r of
co u rse p riv ate a n d p e rso n al eth ic a l s ta n d a rd s a re p rim arily beliefs. ^

PU B LIC A N D PR IV A T E M O RALITY
A d istin c tio n o f c o n s id e ra b le im p o rta n c e m u st b e o b serv ed as betw een
w h a t a re called p riv a te a n d p u b lic m o rality . T h e b e h a v io r in e a ch case m ay
b e a r s o m e re se m b la n c e to th e o th e r b u t in essential d etails th ey a re very
different. A b rie f co m p a riso n d e m o n s tra te s this.
B eh av io r re fe rre d t o a s p u b lic m o ra lity co n sists p rim a rily o f co n fo rm ity
o r sh a re d b eh a v io r. T h e y fit in to a system o f a c tio n w hich sociologists call
cu sto m s, m o res, ta b o o s, o r folkw ays. S o cio lo g ists9 d o n o t h esitate to say
th a t it is m o re s o r c u sto m s th a t d efine w h a t is w ro n g o r rig h t to d o . F ro m a
p sych o lo g ical p o in t o f view p u b lic m o ra lity b eh a v io r is in teractio n sjw ilh.
in stitu tio n a l stim u lu s o b jects u n d e r ru les as results o f cu ltu ralizatio n .
^ P u b lic m o ra lity b e h a v io r is th u s identified as ite m s o f social psychology.10
By co n tra st w ith p u b lic m o ra ls p riv a te m o ra l a c tio n s m a y be reg ard ed as
id io sy n cratic o r in d iv id u a l b e h a v io r w h ich is recip ro cal w ith occasional
ev en ts, usu ally m o re serio u s a n d req u isite o f g re a te r alertn ess o n th e p a rt o f
th e reactin g in d iv id u al. C rite ria in th e case o f p riv ate m o rality m ay differ
fro m o n e p e rso n to a n o th e r.
*f<r M e n ta lis ts o r subjectivistic p sy ch o lo g ists d ifferen tiate betw een public
a n d p riv ate m o ra lity o n th e g ro u n d th a t p riv ate m o ra lity is b ased u p o n

( in d iv id u a l co n scien ce in stead o f so m e e x te rn a l ru le estab lish ed by custom .

T h is view c a n o n ly b e a c c e p ta b le if b y co n scien ce is m e a n t a n in clination o r
d isp o sitio n to p e rfo rm a n a c t o n th e b asis o f p rio r b e h a v io ra l histo ry . H ere
is a n e x a m p le o f h o w th e use o f c e rta in w o rd s ca n d is to rt a n d m islead
o b serv atio n a n d inference.

’Sumner, W. G.. Folkways: A S tu dy o f the Sociological Im portance o f Usages. Manners. Customs.

Mores, a n d Morals. New York. Dover. I9S9.
,0Cf. Kantor, J. R., A n Outline o f Social Psychology , Chicago. FoUett, 1929.
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 ISSUES IN ETHI CAL S I T UA T I O NS

MORALITY AND LEGALITY

A n even g re a te r d iffe re n tia tio n ex ists th a n th e on e betw een m o ra ls an d
cu sto m s; th a t w hich o b ta in s b etw een m o ra l a n d legal behavior. In b o th
types o f b e h a v io r a c tio n s m a y be c o rre c tly d e n o m in a te d as right o r w rong,
p ro p e r o r im p ro p e r, b u t f o r v ary in g reasons. Legal b eh a v io r is right o r
w ro n g o n th e basis o f p ro h ib itio n s o r d e m a n d s by a n en a cted s ta tu te o r
c o m m o n law , also by th e e d ic t o f a religious o rg an izatio n . S u c h ac tio n
influenced by legal system s w ith p o w ers o f penalizing refracto ry individuals
stresses ex te rn a l c o n tro ls. M o ra l b e h a v io r as we have seen e m an a tes from
th e choice a n d c rite rio n o f th e p erso n him self. T h e difference betw een
m o ra l a n d legal b e h a v io r is clarified w h en th ey are co m b in ed in th e sam e
act.
A sim p le e x a m p le o f b e h a v io r w hich m ay co m e u n d e r b o th o f th e
h ea d in g s o f m o ral a n d legal a c tio n is th a t o f calling a c o n d u c to r’s a tte n tio n
to his fa ilu re to collect th e fa re th a t w as ow ed to a tra n s p o rta tio n co m p an y .
F o r an individual it m ay b e illegal a n d im m o ral b o th to w ithhold m o n ey ”
d u e to th e tra n s p o r ta tio n c o m p a n y . It so m etim es h ap p e n s th a t th e legal
a u th o ritie s a re u n a w a re o f th e failu re to pay th e fare. H ow ever, so fa r as the H
in d iv id u a l is influenced b y m o ra l c o n sid e ra tio n s, it is his d u ty to p revent h
a n y lack o f p ay m en t to th e c o m p a n y involved.

I
u

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PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF POLITICS

H UM A NITY AS C O L O N IA L O R G A N ISM S
J u s t as h u m a n beings c a n n o t ex ist in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e ir terrestial an d
cosm ic en v iro n m e n ts, so they c a n n o t b e free o f in tim ate relatedness w ith
o th ers o f th e ir ilk. A ctu ally , h u m a n beings, like c o rals a n d o th e r sim p ler
o rg a n ism s, are co lo n ial c reatu re s, albeit w ith g re at differences in e v o lu tio n ­
ary origin, stru c tu re , fu n c tio n , a n d g en eral b eh av io r. M u c h as h u m a n
beings a re in d iv id u a lists a n d u n iq u e th ey a re in escap ab ly a n d in v ariab ly
greg ario u s. N o p e rso n ca n o r d o es live w h o lly a lo n e, a n d th a t fact is th e
p rim a ry basis o f p o litical ex isten ce. A s A risto tle has m ad e clear in his
ex p ressio n Z o o n P o litik o n , h u m a n beings a re social creatu re s. T h is is th e
basis fo r th e h a rm o n ie s a n d strifes a m o n g in d iv id u als, p lu s th e conflicts,
claim s, a n d benefits o f in d iv id u als relativ e to th e a u th o rity a n d c o n tro l by
societies a n d social in stitu tio n s.

H IE R A R C H Y O F H U M A N G R O U PIN G S

a. Community. All h u m a n o rg a n ism s a re m e m b e rs o f a sm all o r larg e

n u m b e r o f in terre lated g ro u p s. S u c h g ro u p s c o n s titu te h ierarch ies o f o r­
g a n iza tio n . A m o n g sim p le p eo p les it is a t lea st a fam ily th a t in c o rp o ra te s
in d iv id u als in to a n ag g reg ate. E very h u m a n in d iv id u a l even o f th e sim plest
cu ltu re o r civilization, fo rm s p a rt o f a c o m m u n ity o r social system , sm all as
it m ay be. S o cial system s m ay in clu d e o n ly a m ale a n d fem ale o rganism ,
w ith o r w ith o u t p ro g en y . S o m e w h a t m o re c o m p lex g ro u p in g s co n sist o f
th e fam ily m em b ers plus relatives o f th e sa m e o r d ifferent g en e ratio n s.
F u rth e r stages o f social h ierarch ies c o n sist o f trib a l u n its co m p risin g
several o r m a n y fam ilies w ith all th e in h ere n t o r a sso ciated m em bers.
b. Proliferation. H u m a n g ro u p h iera rch ies e x p a n d in c h a ra c te r a n d
co m p lex ity w ith th e m u ltip licatio n o f m e m b e rs a n d th e p resen ce o f fa v o r­
ab le circ u m sta n ces. B eyond trib a l g ro u p in g s sim p le c o m m u n itie s arise
b ev o n d b io lo g ical re la tio n sh ip s t o fo rm so cial u n its b o u n d to g e th e r by ties
o f m u tu a l a id , o r by c o m m o n a d v e n tu re s su c h as h u n tin g an d J tshim L
W h en a n u m b e r o f su c h u n its a re lo c a te d close to e a c h o th e r w ith in a
d ialectal system o r o th e r style o f in te rre la tio n s h ip th ere are evolved villages

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 ASPECTS OF PO L I T I CS

o r sim p le c o o p e ra tiv e societies. G r o u p m e m b e rs live close to g e th e r as

neighbors.
c. Cooperation. A h ig h e r p o int in th e h u m a n hiera rc h y is re a ched w hen
indiv id u als a nd th e ir g ro u p in g s c o o p e ra te fo r c o m m o n p u rp o se s, su ch as
ca rry in g o n tra d e o r b a rte r. In s u c h cases villages b eco m e cities w ith
co m p licated dw ellings a n d g ro u p ce n te rs w ith n u m e ro u s div isio n s an d
sp ec ia liz atio n o f la b o r. S o cio lo g ists m a k e m u c h o f th e process o f u rb a n iz a ­
tio n in w h ich in d iv id u a ls a re jo in e d to g e th e r in m an y ty p es o f su b g ro u p s.
W h e n th e sta g e o f u rb a n iz a tio n is re ach e d , th e re d ev elo p very co m p licated
h u m a n system s, w o rk e rs, m an ag e rs, rulers, a n d th e ruled. T h e m o tives m ay
be fra te rn a l o r fo r p u rp o s e s o f sec u rin g fo r th e g ro u p a n d its in d iv id u a l
u n its c e rta in a d v a n ta g e s w h ich m ay o r m ay n o t b e to th e d isa d v a n ta g e o f
o th e r g ro u p s. C ities m ay b eco m e political a n d sovereign system s a s co lo ­
nies, provinces, a n d city states.
d . Statism. S ta te s as p o litical in stitu tio n s c o n stitu te th e p ea k o f h u m a n
g ro u p in g s. M o re th a n a n v o th e r so cietal g ro u p , n a tio n a l u n its d isplay m ost
co m p lex o rg a n iz a tio n s . In v a ria b ly th ese c o n ta in m a n y su b g ro u p s, th e
n u m b e r o f w hich d e p e n d s o n th e size o f th e p rim a ry u n it a n d th e m obility
o f p e rso n s in n e ig h b o rin g s ta te units. L a rg e sta te s in clu d e m in o rity g ro u p s
o f v ary in g n u m b e rs w ith th e ir o w n lan g u ag e, d istinctive cu ltu re , a n d m ores
ran g in g fro m sim p le fo o d a n d d ress styles to th e m o st co m p licated religious
beliefs a n d practices.
e. Authority. T h e p h ilo so p h e r o f politics in q u ires in to th e n a tu re o f the
u n its m a k in g u p to ta l n a tio n s a n d th e g en eral re la tio n sh ip w ith o th er
n a tio n a l u n its. In g en e ral th e p o litica l system s ce n te r a ro u n d a leader, a
presid en t, h e a d m a n , o r king. P ro b le m s arise as to th e fu n c tio n in g m eth o d s
o f kings o r d ic ta to rs , a n d th e specific sy stem s by w hich th ey b ec am e the
lead e rs a n d m a in ta in th em selv es even d esp ite th e d issatisfactio n o f som e
in d iv id u a ls o r su b g ro u p s. N a tio n a l system s a re u sually divisible in to a
n u m b e r o f fa c to rs o r v aria b les, p ro m in e n t a m o n g th em a re p ro b le m s o f
sovereig n ty p o l i t i c a l sy stem s v a ry as to th e p o w e r a n d p erm a n en cy o f the
g re a t lead e rs a n d th e p ro cesses b y w h ich th ey m a in ta in them selves o r are
disp laced by o th e r in d iv id u a ls o r g ro u p s, fo r ex a m p le , m ilitary ju n to s as
su b u n its in m o d e m n a tio n s .)
VARIETY IN PO LITIC A L SYSTEM S

T h e g ro u p in g s called p ro v in ces o r states fo rm system s o f m a n y sorts.

M o st fre q u e n tly su ch u n its ach iev e u n iq u e fo rm s w ith so m e in d ividual o r a
g ro u p o f in d iv id u a ls serv in g as th e ru ler o r g u id e o f th e e n tire system . T h e

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

o b v io u s e x a m p le s o f c o u rse a re m o n arc h ies, em p ires, o r d em o cracies w ith

lead ers a n d ru le rs sta n d in g o n low er ru n g s o f political lad d ers su ch as
presid en ts, g o v ern o rs, m ay o rs, a n d so o n. S u c h p o litical system s give rise to
e v a lu a tio n s as to th e s u p e rio rity o r in fe rio rity o f th e sy stem a n d as to the
a d v a n ta g e o r d isa d v a n ta g e o f th e m em b ersh ip .
N o th in g is ea sie r th a n to b lu e p rin t a sp ecial ty p e o f po litical system . T h e
differences betw een system s a re freq u en tly m an ifested by th e ir c o n tra sts
a n d conflicts. M o n a rc h ists d erid e R e p u b lic a n s a n d vice versa. A s a rule, all,
sy stem s a re g o o d in b lu e p rin t th o u g h o fte n th ey a re q u ite b a d in actu al
stru c tu re a n d in p ra c tic e . It is en tire ly a m a tte r o f th e k in d o f c rite rio n
c h o se n a s a m e a n s fo r d ec id in g th e s u p e rio rity o r in fe rio rity o f a p a rtic u la r
^ % system . B asically, th e m e rits o f a n y sy stem d e p e n d u p o n th e initiativ e a n d
x th e b e h a v io r o f c e rta in m e m b e rs o f th e c o m m u n ity , fo r e x a m p le , in
A d e m o c ra tic sy stem s w h ere th e leaders a r e p re su m e d to b e th e ch o ice o f th e
^ p u b lic a n d th e w in n e r o f a m a jo rity o f elec to rs’ b allo ts. H o w e v er, in such
d e m o c ra tic sy stem s circ u m sta n ces m a y fa v o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f political
" "m ac h in e s b y v irtu e o f th e c o n tro l o f a p p o in tm e n ts a n d th e b u ild in g u p o f
loyalties a m o n g p e rso n s w h o p ro fit b y th e m ach in e . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e
lead ers o f su ch m achines m ay w in o v er th e g en e ral p u b lic b y d e m o n stra tin g
th e ir c a p acities to g o v ern well a n d b u ild u p in s titu tio n s beneficial to th e
en tire co n stitu en cy o f th e p a rtic u la r g o v e rn m e n tal unit.

PO L IT IC A L SYSTEM S A N D P O L IT IC A L PH IL O SO PH Y

T h e g ro u p in g o f p erso n s co n stitu te s th e ra w m ateria l o r th e raw d a ta fo r

th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f ph ilo so p h ic al h y p o th eses a n d th eo ries co n c ern in g the
g re g a rio u s asp ect o f h u m a n p o p u la tio n s . C u ltu ra l h isto ry is indeed replete
w ith th e view s o f p h ilo so p h e rs relative to th e o rig in a n d n a tu re o f political
system s. B u t here th e insistent q u e s tio n arises c o n c e rn in g th e v alid ity o f th e
specific fo rm u la tio n s offered. T h e critical m ader-aslcs h o w well an y p artic u -
la r p h ilo so p h ic a l a ttitu d e e n te rta in e d b y th e p h ilo s o p h e r o f politics co n ­
fo rm s to th e a c tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n s o f p e o p le - M o r e p a rtic u la rly p u t, w h a t
a re th e b asic assu m p tio n s o r p o stu la te s u n d e rly in g th e d esc rip tio n s a n d
in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e p a rtic u la r p h ilo so p h y ? A re co n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so ­
p h ies b ased u p o n a b s tra c t a p rio ri c o n s tru c ts in ste a d o f th e ac tu a l d a ta o f
p erso n s in asso ciatio n ? lit m a y well b e a ssu m e d th a t th e p h ilo so p h y o f
politics to be valid m u st oe b ase d u p o n o b se rv a tio n s o f co n crete in tera c­
tio n s o f p e rso n s u n d e r ec o n o m ic , eth ica l, g e o g rap h ic, co sm o lo g ical, a n d
o th e r c o n d itio

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_ E x trem e ly im p o rta n t to o is th e an aly sis o f p o litical p h ilo so p h ies as to the_

psy chological assu m p tio n s u p o n w hich they a re based . N o descrip tio n s o f
th e o rig in o r n a tu re o f c o m m u n itie s c a n b e v alid if b a se d u p o n v en erab le
beliefs in ste a d o f n a tu ra listic ev e n ts o f h u m a n in te rb e h a v io r. It is th e plan
o f th is c h a p te r to g lan ce at so m e o f th e p ro m in e n t h istorical p h ilo so p h ies o f
politics a n d to a sc e rta in th e ir values as d e p a rtm e n ts o f g en eral p h ilo so p h y .
O f th e n u m b e r o f p o litical p h ilo so p h e rs th e re is n o e n d . T h ro u g h o u t the
intellectual h isto ry o f th e W est, o bservers o f every p erio d have fo rm u la te d
d esc rip tio n s o f th e societies in w hich they lived o r re ad a b o u t a n d th u s
p ro v id ed successive view s co n c ern in g th e social a n d po litical o rg a n iz a tio n
o f th e ir o w n a n d n e ig h b o rin g g ro u p s. O fte n th ey w ere in terested in th e
im p ro v e m e n t o f these system s they d escribed. O n the w h o le it is th e case
th a t co n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h e rs have em p lo y ed a b stra c tio n s a n d ultim ates
as well a s im p ro p e r psychological views.

SPE C IM E N S O F PO LITIC A L P H IL O S O P H IE S

P o litical o rg a n iz a tio n s w ith th e ir c o m p e titio n s, conflicts, a n d lead er­

ship s h av e alw ay s b een a fa v o rite su b ject o f p h ilo so p h ers. A lo n g w ith th e ir
in tere st in th eo lo g y , co sm o lo g y , epistem ology, a n d psychology th ey have
ta k e n n o te o f m a n k in d as u n its in th e ir v a rio u s o rg a n iz atio n s. T h e h isto ry
o f p h ilo so p h y is rep lete w ith such w o rk s as P la to ’s Republic a n d Laws,
A risto tle s' Politics, S t. A u g u stin e’s City o f God, H o b b e s’ Leviathan, R o u s ­
sea u ’s The Social Contract, a n d in n u m e ra b le o th e rs in th e c a re e r o f
p h ilo so p h ic al sp e c u la tio n .1
A s in d ic a te d in th e n am es o f th e treatises m en tio n ed th e succession o f
w o rk s re p re se n ts v a rio u s places an d c o n d itio n s in w h ich th e p h ilo so p h ers
w ere im m ersed an d influenced by. T o a g re at e x te n t th e co n ten ts o f the
v a rio u s p h ilo so p h ie s o f politics suggest th a t th e in tere st sh o w n b y the
v a rio u s p h ilo so p h ers in th e ir succeeding tim es w as religious an d ethical.
L ate r, o f c o u rse , th e e v o lu tio n o f political w ritings definitely assu m es an
objective o r scientific tu rn . P o litic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s a re tre a te d m u ch m o re
o n th e p la n o f d esc rib in g briefly fe atu res o f view s o b serv ed in v ario u s
n a tio n s o r states. F o r o u r p u rp o se s w e p re sen t briefly a sam p lin g ta k e n
fro m th e lin e o f su ccessio n o f p o litica l p h ilo so p h y . O u r sa m p lin g begins
w ith th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry th e o rists w h o s o u g h t a m o re n a tu ra listic
in te rp re ta tio n o f th e g ro u p life o f peoples.
'Cf. Sibley, M. Q.. Political Ideas and Ideologies; A H istory o f Political n o u g h t, New York,
Harper and Row, 1970. Also McDonald, L. C., Western Political Theory: The M odem Age, New
York, Harcoun, Brace, 1962.

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A. Divine and Human Philosophy

T h e p h ilo so p h ie s u n d e rly in g p o litica l th e o rie s o f m o d e rn tim es m a y b e
co n v e n ie n tly d iv id ed inicTiwo d iv isio n s. T fie firs t is p rim a rily religious a n d
is directly trac ed b a c k to th e clerics w h o d o m in a te d th e cu ltu ra l a n d
IrTteTTedual d o m a m T o rW e s te rn C iv iliza tio n a n d to a g re at e x te n t still d o .
h 'ro m a p o llfic a l sta n d p o in t w e o b serv e th e c o m p e titio n o f th e g re at c h u rch
system s d o m in a tin g a n d th e n c o m p e tin g w ith th e sec u la r g ro u p system s.
A n ex cellen t sy m b o l o f th e re lig io u s in flu en ce is th e d iv in e rig h ts o f kings
a n d em p ero rs.

B. Philosophy o f Social Compacts

P h ilo so p h e rs o f th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry a n d b ey o n d assu m e d th a t a
satisfac to ry co rre c tio n to th e div in e rig h ts view w as th e n o tio n o f a c o m p a c t
b etw e en in d iv id u als to jo in to g e th e r f o r c e rta in specific en d s. W e co n sid er
th re e versions o f th e co m p a c t p h ilo s o p h y .
,, , , , , . , ^«nk*re . . . . . .
a. Hobbes and Leviathan. C o n s o n a n t w ith th e g en eral p ro c e d u re o f
p h ilo so p h e rs to ch o o se so m e p a rtic u la r asp e ct o f politics an d inflate it to a

fgeneral principle, H o b b e s (1588-1679) ch a ra c te rized th e en tire process o f

p o litical re la tio n sh ip a n d activ ities as th e selfish a n d a b so lu te b e h a v io r o f
lead ers o r g o v ern o rs o f all-inclusive g ro u p s? ~
W h e n w e in q u ire in to th e p h ilo so p h ic al b a c k g ro u n d o f H o b b es’ varia­
tio n o f th e social c o m p a c t view w e find a n e x tre m e ab so lu tism . T his
e x tre m ity how ever, rep resen ts a n a tte m p t b y H o b b e s to leave b eh in d m u ch
o f th e m ed iev al th in k in g w h ich h as c h a ra c te riz e d p h ilo so p h y ev en in to th e
sev e n te e n th c e n tu ry a n d b e y o n d . H o b b e s m u s t b e c red ited w ith a definite
scientific in tere st a risin g p e rh a p s fro m c o n ta c t w ith su ch scientists a s
G alileo , a n d disciples o f D escartes a s M erse n n e, a n d o th e rs d u rin g his
trav els to th e co n tin e n t. H is th in k in g ta k e s o n a d e rid e d m ech an ical a n d
g eo m e tric fo rm . D e te rm in ism , p o w e r, a n d m o tio n are p ro m in e n t item s in
his vocab u lary .
F o r H o b b e s th e c o m p a c t p rin c ip le is s ta te d a s a c o n tra c t o r c o v e n an t
m a d e b y in d iv id u als w h o w illingly a n d m u tu a lly tra n s fe r th e ir ab so lu te
rig h ts fo r th e benefits o f h a rm o n y a n d safety .3 A n in terestin g fe a tu re oi
H o b b e s’ p h ilo so p h y o f po litics is h is b e lie f t h a t c o v e n a n ts a re reflections ol
n a tu ra l laws;fhe su b scrib es to th e view th a t all th e m em b ers o f a c o m m o n ­
w ealth “c o n fe r all th e ir p o w er a n d stre n g th u p o n o n e m a n " a lev iath an whc

JHobbes, T., Leviathan (E. Rhys, ed.), New York, Dutton, (1651), 1950.
1 Hobbes, T., Leviathan, ch. 14.

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 ASPECTS OF P O L I T I C S

will p ro te c t th em fro m all hazardsT jT he le v iath an beco m es th e ab so lu te

so vereign o f th e e n tire c o m m o n w e a lth .4 S ufficient here is th e c o m p a riso n
o f H o b b e sia n p h ilo so p h y o f politics w ith h u m a n asso c ia tio n s as they
ac tu a lly ex ist. Is it re a so n a b le to re g a rd h u m a n beings as u tterly an d
inevitably savages living in a n im a g in a ry s ta te o f b ru ta l n atu re ; everyone
en d o w ed w ith w arlik e d isp o sitio n s to d e stro y th e o th ers? S o it seem s
m anifest to H o b b e s th a t w ith o u t a c o m p a c t to create a lev iath an w ith
c o m m o n p o w e r to k eep e v e ry o n e in aw e, w a r w o u ld exist w ith o u t a rts an d
in d u stry w ith th e lack o f so ciety in w h ich th e life o f m a n is so litary , p o o r,
nasty , b ru tish , a n d s h o rt.5
b. Locke and his Compact. H isto ria n s o f p h ilo so p h y credit L o ck e w ith
th e esta b lish m e n t o f a n em p iristic p h ilo so p h y as o p p o se d to th a t o f the
ra tio n a lism o f su ch figures as D e sc arte s, a n d L eibniz. ^A lthough L o ck e is
also influenced by th e a d v a n c e m e n t m a d e by scientists, he d eviates fro m the
fo rm a listic a n d m ech an ical n o tio n s o f his E nglish predecessors!] L ocke
£ em p h asizes p sy ch o lo g ical o r su b jectiv istic fa c to rs in th e fo rm o f sen sa tio n s
£ an d th u s gets aw ay fro m th e fo rm alistic a n d m ech an ical n o tio n s o f H o b b es
an d o th e rs w h o th in k a lo n g H o b b e s’ m e c h a n ical m o d el. In general. L o ck e
a p p ro a c h e s a m o re n a tu ra listic fo rm o f p sy ch o lo g y th a n is tru e o f H o b b e s.
H e tre a d s th e w ay o f ideas, p u ttin g a g re a t d eal o f e m p h asis u p o n th e
processes o f k n o w led g e as o v er a g a in st a m in d alre a d y sto ck ed w ith
✓ principles.
L ocke, ho w ever, n o less th a n H o b b e s accepts th e n o tio n o f a c o m p a c t o r
c o n tra c t as a fa c to r in th e origin an d e stab lish m en t o f n a tio n s o r states. But,
o f co u rse, w ith d ifferent em p h ases. L o c k e tak es a m o re genteel a ttitu d e
to w a rd h u m a n asso c ia tio n s. H e d o es n o t lo o k u p o n g o v e rn m e n ts as
escapes fro m b ru ta l a n d d a n g e ro u s situ atio n s. S o cial life fo r him does no t
re q u ire a n a b s o lu te ru le r b u t stresses th e c o n se n t o f th e g o v ern ed . L ocke,
to o , relies o n th e fu n c tio n s o f a n elected p a rlia m e n t to g u id e the political
system in th e w a y it sh o u ld proceed.
c. Rousseau and the Social Contract. T h e social c o n tra c t o f R o u sse a u is
very m u c h m o re like th e c o m p a c t view o f L o ck e th a n th e m echanical
c o m p a c t o f H o b b e s. [R o u ssea u lived in a n age w h en p a rtic u la r h u m a n
beings w ere a c c o rd e d a la rg e r p lace in a b o d y p olitic. T h e ag e o f R o u sse a u
is th e ag e o f re v o lu tio n , a tim e w h e n p e rso n s ca rried g re a te r w eight th a n in
tim es o f kingly c o n tro l a n d d o m in a tio n . A c co rd in g ly , his id ea o f th e social
c o n tra c t is p u t in to th e fo rm o f a g en u in e c o o p e ra tiv e asso c ia tio n w hich he
‘ /bid., p. 89.
i Ibid., pp. 64-65.

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referred to a s th e G en eral W ilT jln m a n y w avs R o u sseau ’s v ersio n o f th e

c o m p a c t id e a rep resen ts a n evo lu tio n o f th e freed o m o f p erso n s as o v er
a g a in s t th e ir ru lers an d co n tro llers. O f c o u rse th e type o f psychology th a t
influences R o u sse a u ’s th in k in g is fa r fro m n atu ralistic. B ut his political
p h ilo so p h y is m o re flexible a n d a rtic u la te s b e tte r w ith th e actual b e h a v io r
o f in d iv id u a ls th a n is th e case o f th e o th e r tw o versions o f th e c o m p a rt idea.
T h e significance o f R o u sse a u ’s G e n e ra l W ill is th a t w hile each p erso n
w ith d raw s fro m th e full possession o f his lib erty an d tran sfers so m e o f his
sovereign rig h ts to th e g ro u p , he still d o es n o t sacrifice all o f his rights b u t
rem ain s in co n tro l as a p artic ip a n t in th e G en eral W ill.6
R o u sse a u re g ard s th e social c o n tra c t a s a m eth o d o f asso ciatin g w hich
will defen d a n d p ro tect, w ith all th e collective m ight,
Ihe person and property of each associate, and in virtue of which each associate, though he
7 becomes a member of the group, nevertheless obeys only himself, and remains as free as
‘ before.7

C. Philosophy o f Political Utility

T h e p h ilo so p h y zin g o f D av id H um e m ay well be regarded as a n ep ito m e
o f c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y in g eneral. L ik e all p h ilo so p h ers H u m e is
ad d ic te d to th e rigidity o f ab so lu tistic a n d universalistic principles. H o w ­
ever, the analysis o f H um e's w orks indicates th a t he is. op p o sed to the
ra tio n a listic ten d en cy prevalent in th e n h ilo so p h vzine o f m ost th in k e rs.
H u m ia n p h ilo so p h y in consequence clearly sh ow s a decided m o d e ra tio n o f
h isto rical p h ilo so p h y w hich a p p e a rs as c o n tra d ic tio n b u t is ac tu a lly 'in d e -
term in a tio n . T his in d eterm in atio n show s itself clearly a n d rath er e m p h a ti­
cally in H u m e’s p h ilo so p h y o f politics. B efore tu rn in g to his political
theo ries it is well to co n sid er his p h ilo so p h ic al views as usually presen ted .
jjC H u m e is g en erally co n sid ered to be a n c m p iristic p h ilo so p h er, w h o
sta n d s in line o f succession fro m L o ck e a n d B erkeley. Indeed he is en­
gro ssed in th e em p h asis o f sen satio n s a n d a sso ciatio n o f m entalities ra th e r
th a n reaso n b u t by differentiating betw een w h at is sufficient fo r th e c o n d u c t
o f life ra th e r th an the reflections o f p h ilo so p h y , he leaves ro o m for m u ch
am b ig u ity an d uncertainty. T h u s he d eem s it sufficient to ex p lain th e n a tu re
an d causes o f im pressions a n d ideas in stead o f th e real n atu re o f things
presented to th e senses.1'

' R o u s s e a u . .1 I . Vw Stmu / Cnntrutt ( W K e n d a ll. I r v ) . C h ic a g o . R e g n e r y , 1 954, p . 4 2 .

Hud-, p IK.
' H u m e . ! > ../! Ircultwnf Human Xuiurtd I .. A . S e l b y - H i g g e . e d . ) . O x f o r d . C l a r e n d o n . 1X 96. h k I.
set 5

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 A S P E C T S OF P O L I T I C S

H o w H u m e ’s in d eterm in istic p h ilo so p h y w orks o u t in practice is attested

by his d e n ia l o f th e ex isten ce o f a unified p e rso n ality o r ego. H e ta k e s th e
sta n d th a t w h a t has p assed fo r a unified so u l o r eg o is n o th in g m o re th a n a
series o f p e rcep tio n s, yet his w ritings a re replete w ith references to m in d T
a n d h o w th ey o p e ra te in k n o w led g e a n d feeling. A gain, th o u g h H u m e ’s
m in d is th o u g h t to b e free o f in n a te ideas, th e p resence o f p ro p e n sities
affo rd s th e m co n sid erab le su b stan tiality .
H u m e’s political p h ilo so p h y exem plifies a definite in d eterm in ism . H u m e
is o p p o se d to th e d iv in e o rig in o f ru le rs b u t h a rb o rs n o tio n s o f necessity
w h ich suggest a b so lu tism a n d universalism . S till w ith respect to th e origin
o f g o v e rn m e n t H u m e a d o p ts a p rin cip le o f u tility. T h a t p erso n s c a n live
to g e th e r in p eace a n d o rd e r th ey m u st en jo y th e benefits derived fro m
g o v e rn m e n t. O n ly g o v e rn m e n t c a n p ro v id e th e g re at necessity o f ju stice.
B ut, to a ssu re th a t ju stic e will p rev ail ru lers in th e guise o f m ag istrates,
prin ces, kings, a re re q u ired . T h e ex isten ce o f g o v e rn m e n ts d e m o n stra te s
th e benefits to be d eriv ed fro m th e existence o f rulers. H e w rites th a t,
Nothing appears more surprising lo those who consider human affairs with a philosophical
eye than the easiness with which the many are governed by the few and the implicit
submission with which men resign their own sentiments and passions to those of their
rulers.9

W h e n th e q u e stio n is raised as to th e q u ality o f g o v ern m e n t, H u m e’s

a n s w e r is utility. In th e light o f his p h ilo so p h y u tility is re d u c e d to o p in io n .
| H e h o ld s th a t o n ly u p o n o p in io n is g o v e rn m e n t fo u n d ed . In g en eral he
l believes th a t th e re a re th re e fo rm s o f o p in io n . T h ey are p u b lic in tere sts, th e
rig h t to p o w e r, a n d th e rig h t to p ro p e rty . S in c e F o rc e is a lw a y s o n th e side
o f th e g o v ern ed , th e g o v e rn o rs h av e n o th in g to su p p o rt them selves bu t
o p in io n .
H o w H u m e sw ings fro m necessity o r u n iv ersality to specificity is well
in d icated in th e follow ing q u o ta tio n c o n c ern in g th e values o f v ario u s
system s o f go v ern m en t.
It is a question with several, whether there be any essential difference between one form
of government and another? and, whether every form may not become good or bad,
according as it is well or ill administered? 10 Were it once admitted, that all governments are

’ Hume, D., “Of the First Principles of Government,” Essay 4 in The Philosophical Works. 4 vols.,
Edinburgh, Black-Tail, 1826, vol. 3, p. 31.
10He quotes Pope:
For forms of government let fools contest
Whate’er is best administered is best
Essay on Man. bk. 3 quoted
in Hume, D.,"That Politics may be reduced toa ScienceEssay 3 in The Philosophical Works. 4 vols.,
Edinburgh, Black-Tait, 1826, vol. 3, p. 14.

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alike, and that the only difference consists in the character and conduct of the governors,
most political disputes would beat an end, and all Z e a l for one constitution above another
must be esteemed mere bigotry and folly. But. though a friend to moderation, I cannot
forbear condemning this sentiment, and should be sorry to think, that human affairs admit
of no greater stability, than what they receive from the casual humours and characters of
particular men. 11
[j\.n o u ts ta n d in g featu re o f H u m e’s p o litical theories is his co m p lete an d
final o b jectio n to a n d criticism o f th e th e o ry o f c o m p a c ts^ H e ad v an ces a
n u m b e r o f a rg u m e n ts ag a in st th e c o m p a c t id ea o f orig in o f g o v ern m en ts.
A lth o u g h H u m e o f c o u rse w as n o t c o n v e rs a n t w ith m o d e rn a n th ro p o lo g i­
cal view s w hich w ould ipso fa cto rule o u t an y such n o tio n as co m p acts, he
ad v a n ces re a so n a b le o b jectio n s. F o r e x a m p le , he assum es th a t w hen gov-
ern m e n ts w ere fo rm ed th e p rim itiv itv o f th e h u m a n p o p u la tio n a t th a t tim e
m a d e it u n re a s o n a b le to s u p po se th a t th ey c o u ld form c o m p a c ts . A lso he
relies o n th e fact th a t n eith er he n o r a n y b o d y else co u ld cite a case o f a
g o v e rn m e n t being form ed o n th e basis o f th e c o n se n t o f th e p eo p le fo rm in g
th e n a tio n o r state. In general H u m e th in k s th a t n o th in g is a clea rer p ro o f
\ th a t th e social c o n tra c t th e o ry is e r ro n e o u s th a n th a t it leads to “p a ra d o x e s
re p u g n a n t to th e c o m m o n sen tim en ts o f m a n k in d , an d to th e practice an d
o p in io n o f all n atio n s an d all ag e s."12

I). Religious Philosophy and Political Revolution

a. Hegel: Absolute and Universal Spirit. T h e p h ilo so p h y o f politics
tak es o n a very u n iq u e aspect in th e id ealistic ro m a n tic p erio d o f G e rm an
sp ec u la tio n . T h ro u g h th e efforts o f K arl M a rx w ith F ried rich Engel’s
c o lla b o ra tio n a special type o f p o litical system cam e in to being. W h a t is
especially novel a b o u t M a rx ia n po litics is th a t it w as fo u n d e d n o t in
c o n fo rm ity w ith a ce rtain p h ilo so p h ic al system b u t bv in v ertin g one and
se ttin g it o n its h ea d , as M a rx said. W h ile M a rx grew u p a n d a b so rb e d
H egelian sp iritism he later p artia lly rejected it in his political a n d ec o n o m i­
cal th in k in g .
- T h e p h ilo so p h y o f Hegel re p resen ts a n e la b o ra tio n a n d a fulfillm ent o f

r
,
the P o s t-G re c o -R o m a n religious w ay o f th in k in g . C o n v ersely to w hat
Hegel h im self w ould agree to , he d o e s a w a y co m p letely w ith the n atu ra l
w orld o f th in g s an d co n d itio n s. He w o u ld say th a t he glorifies th e ex tern al
w orld by p u ttin g it sq u arely in to c o n sc io u sn e ss, a n o th e r n am e fo r spirit.
I Specifically, he invented a co m p lete to ta lita ria n system in w h ich th e cu-

" Hume. I).. - 1hat Polities may be reduced to a Science." p. 14.

' Hume. I) . “Of the Original Contract," Essay 12 in The Philosophical Works, 4 vols. Edinburgh.
Illack-1 ail. IK2h. vol V p 5.11 I

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; m u lativ e c o n tin u u m o f th in g s a n d ev e n ts is tra n s fo rm e d in to a b so lu te

spirit. T o a ce rta in ex te n t th e a b so lu te spirit o f H egel is a n o m niscient a n d
o m n ip o te n t G o d w h o c o n ta in s w ith in h im self ev ery th in g th a t is, becom es,
o r co u ld be.
N eedless to say th e e n tire p hilo so p h y o f H egel is o n e strea m o f w o rd s
w ith o u t a n y p ro p e r asso c ia tio n w ith n a tu ra l th in g s a n d n a tu ra l p rocesses.
As is well k n o w n H egel in v en ted a d ialec tica l system m o d eled an alo g ically
to history. E very th in g , p erso n , or c o n d itio n rep resen ts a n u n fo ld in g o f
sp irit fro m a n in d efin ite s ta te to a n y th in g th a t o n e m ig h t k n o w a b o u t.
B asically th e H egelian a b s o lu te is a n a u tis tic c re a tio n w h ich b e a rs no
re se m b la n c e to e v e ry th in g th a t exists, o r o rg a n ism s d o o r re fra in fro m
d o in g . It is n o t in co rrect to th in k o f it as a c a n c e ro u s ep istem ological
g ro w th th a t ca n o n ly a rb itra rily a n d v erb ally be related to th e a c tu a l w orld
a n d th e ev en ts th a t o c c u r w ith in it.
A selected p assag e fro m th e Phenomenology o f Mind illu strates well the
style a n d th e c o n te n t o f H egel’s system o f th e A bsolute.
. . . I is merely universal, like Now, Here, or This in general. No doubt I “mean" an
individual I, but just as little as I am able to say what I “mean" by Now, Here, so it is
impossible in the case of the 1too. By saying “this Here," “this Now," “a n individual thing,” I
say all Thises, Heres, Nows, or Individuals. In the same way when I say “1,"“this individual
I," I say quite generally “all Ps," every one is what I say, every one is “I," this individual 1 .
When philosophy is requested, by way of putting it to a crucial test—a test which it could
not possibly sustain—to “deduce," to “construe," “to find a priori," or however it is put, a
so-called th is th in g , or th is p a rtic u la r m a n , it is quite fair to ask that this demand should say
w h a t “this thing," or w h a t “this 1" it means: but to say this is quite impossible. 13

I T h e p h ilo so p h y o f H egel m a y p ro p e rly be c o n sid ered as a m o d e o f

/ ego istic o r p a ra n o ia c in flatio n o f th e o rd in a ry aw aren e ss b eh av io r. T o .
k n o w a th in g is fo r h im to be th a t th in g . F o r being is th o u g h t14 in th e w av
th a t G o d is u ltim a te T ie in g .15 A ty p ical H eg elian s ta te m e n t m irro rs this
inflation.
With self-consciousness, then, we have now passed into the native land of truth, into that
kingdom where it isat home. We have to see how the form or attitude of self-consciousness
in the first instance appears. When we consider this new form and type of knowledge, the
knowledge of self, in its relation to that which preceded, namely, ihe knowledge of an other,
we find, indeed, that this latter has vanished, but that its moments have, at the same time,
been preserved; and the loss consists in this, that those moments are here present as they are
implicitly, as they are in themselves. The being which “meaning" dealt with, particularity
and the universality of perception opposed to it, as also the empty, inner region of
IJ Hegel, G. W. F., The Phenom enology o f M ind{ J. B. Baillie. trs.), London. Sonnenschein, 1910, p.
96.
'•Ibid., p. 53.
» lb id „ p. 61.

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understanding—these are no longer present as substantial elements ( W esen ), but as mo­

ments of self-consciousness, i.e. as abstractions or differences, which are, at the same time, of
no account for consciousness itself, or are not differences at alt, and are purely vanishing
entities ( H/e s e n ).“‘

b. Marxism and Economic Determinism. A stu d y o f th e political w rit­

ings o f K a rl M a r x stim u la te s th e w o n d e r th a t a m a n o f his intellectu al
p ow er, a n d c o n c e rn fo r th e w elfare o f p e o p le o f all classes w ould be ta k e n
in b y su ch n o n se n se as H egel p e rp e tra te d . Y et th e reco rd sh o w s th a t a s a
y o u n g s tu d e n t K a rl M a rx , like so m a n y o th e r stu d e n ts o f his d ay , w as
fascin ated by th e religious p h ilo so p h y o f H egel. H ow ever, M a rx d e te r­
m in ed th a t th e b est he co u ld d o w ith H eg elian p h ilo so p h y w ould be to tu rn
it o n its head . A n d so, th o u g h M a rx n ev er co u ld rid him self com pletely o f
his early sp iritistic teachings, h e b ec am e w h a t th e h isto ry b o o k s call a
m a te ria lis t. In th e co u rse o f tim e h e d ev e lo p ed a n a n tip o d a l ty p e o f
p h ilo so p h y w h ich he em p lo y ed as a fo u n d a tio n fo r his w o rk in eco n o m ics
a n d in politics. H is a ttitu d e to w a rd th e p h ilo so p h y o f his d a y a n d o f th e
d a y s p a st is well in d ic a te d by his c o m m e n t p u b lish ed in F rie d ric h E ngel’s
b o o k o n L u d w ig F e u e rb a c h . A t th e e n d o f th a t b o o k K arl M a rx p u b lish ed
a series o f th eses o n F e u e rb a c h . A s n u m b e r eleven, th e last o f th e series, he
said,
The philosophers have only in te r p r e te d the world in various ways; the point however is to
change U P

T h e b a sic significance o f M a rx ’s a ttitu d e is th a t o f a re tu rn to actu al

e v e n ts su ch as a n e c o n o m ist a n d a rebel a g a in s t im p ro p rie ty a n d injustice
ca n deal w ith.
T h e re is g o o d evidence e x ta n t in the w ritings o f K arl M a rx a n d F ried rich
E ngels th a t th e ir p o litical p h ilo so p h y is a n eg ativ e one. S o im pressed are
they w ith th e ad v erse c o n d itio n s o f th e p ro le ta ria t in historical d ev elo p ­
m en ts a n d in th e c u rre n t c o n d itio n s o f th e ir d a y th a t th ey seem to have
d evelo p ed a d ecid ed negative a ttitu d e to w a rd th e state. O n e o f th e o u t­
sta n d in g bits o f evid en ce is th e ir d o c trin e o f th e w ith erin g aw ay o f th e state.
By increasingly transforming the great majority of the population into proletarians, the
capitalist mode of production creates the force which, under penalty of its own destruction,
is compelled to accomplish this revolution. By increasingly driving towards the transforma­
tion of the vast socialized means of production into state property, it itself points the way to
the accomplishment of this revolution. T he p r o le ta r ia t s e iz e s s t a t e p o w e r a n d t o b e g in w ith
tr a n s fo rm s th e m e a n s o f p r o d u c tio n in to s ta te p r o p e r ty . But it thus puts an end to itself as
'* Ibid.. p. 165.
’’ Marx, K„ “Theses on Feuerbach," in Marx, K.. and Engels, F., Feuerbach: Opposition o f the
Materialist anil Idealist Outlooks. London. Lawrence and Wishart, 1973, no. XI, p. 95.

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proletariat, it thus puts an end to all class differences and class antagonisms and thus also to
the state as state. . . . The first act in which the state really comes forward as the
representative of the whole of society — the taking possession of the means of production in
~the name of society — is at the same time its last independent an as a state. The interference
of the state power in social relations becomes superfluous in one sphere after another, and
then dies away of itself. The government of persons is replaced by the administration of
1/ things and the direction of the processes of production. The state is not ‘'abolished," it
w ith ers a w a y .18

In connection with M arx’s attitude toward the Hegelian religion or

Absolute it is well to note how utterly opposed he was to the Hegelian
religion or any type of religion. W riters of all sorts_QUQte hiS-Com m ent that
religion is the opium of the people. T o religion M arx attributes m any of the
evils which are suffered by people in general and especially the so-called
lower or economic classes. Not the least of the evils consist of the poverty of
the working people and the oppression of persons at the hands o f the rulers
of political systems.
W h a t M a r x re ta in s o f th e H eg elian system is th e em p h asis o f ch a n g e in
p olitical o r o th e r h u m a n affairs. T o th is m a y be a d d e d tw o o th e r te n d e n ­
cies. O n e is th e n o tio n o f h o m o g e n e ity o f h u m a n events so th a t so cietal a n d
p o litical circ u m sta n c e s a re all assim ilated to th e all-p e rv ad in g co n sc io u s­
ness. T h e o th e r is th a t w hile th e resem b la n ce o f M a rx ’s views to H egel’s
p h ilo so p h y m ay a p p e a r as o n ly a reflection a n d n o t a n ac tu a lity , n o d o u b t
ex ists a b o u t th e b o rro w in g fro m H egel o f th e p rinciple o f conflict. It is q u ite
likely th a t M a r x ’s stress o f class o r social conflict is a ca rry -o v e r fro m
H egelism ra th e r th a n fro m th e o b se rv a tio n o f th e c o n tra sts an d struggles o f
^ the b o u rg e o is a n d th e p ro leta rian s.
T h e o u ts ta n d in g fe a tu re o f M a rx ’s p o litica l p h ilo so p h y is its d ecid ed
ec o n o m ic asp ect. T h is n o tio n a d u m b ra te s M a rx ’s d u alism o f society a n d
th e state. P o litics fo r M a rx p erta in s to society w hich is so different fro m th e
state , so th a t th e la tte r m ay be ex p ected to w ith er aw a y a lo n g w ith th e
cap italistic fo rm o f its e c o n o m ic o rg a n iz atio n .
M a r x d iffe ren tiates b etw e en th e sta te w h ich co m p rises m ain ly th e gov­
e rn m e n ta l a p p a ra tu s a n d th e c o m m u n ity o r society w h ich has to d o m ain ly
w ith th e c o n c re te a ffairs o f h u m a n o r social living. T h e la tte r fo r M a rx is
c o n c e n tra te d o n m a k in g a living b y m ean s o f p ro d u c tiv e p ro c esses.M acx !s
se p a ra tio n o f state an d society reveals a ro y a l ro a d to thp d ivision betw een
sp iritistic p h ilo so p h y a n d th e p ra c tic a lity o f o rd in a ry ex isten ce a n d surviv-_ .
al. A s in all h u m a n situ a tio n s th e c o n c e rn w ith co n c re te ev en ts im plies a

' ‘ Engels, F., Socialism: Utopian and Scientific. Peking, Foreign Language Press, 1975, pp. 93.94.

183
 H U M A N E V EN TS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

N ame N a tio n a lity P u b lica tio n s 19 B asic P r in c ipl e

P. V. Proudhon French W h at is P ro p e rly ? Property is Theft

(1809-1865)
W. Godwin English E n q u iry co n c ern in g Continual seeker after
(1756-1836) P o litic a l J u stic e personal freedom.
G. Sorel French Illu sion s d u p ro g r e s ; Propagator of effective
(1847-1922) R e fle x io n s s u r la violence
violence; M a te ria u x
p o u r u n e th e o rie d u
p ro le ta r ia t

M. A. Bakunin Russian The P o litic a l P h ilo s o p h y Perennial Rebel against

(1814-1876) o f B aku n in : S c ien tific established Authority.
A n a r c h ism : S ta tis m a n d
A n arch y

M. Stimer German The E go a n d H is O w n Supreme Anti-social

(1806-1856) Egoist.
J. Most German S c ien ce o f Preacher of political
(1846-1906) R e v o lu tio n a r y W arfare rebellion and
revolution.
P. Kropotkin Russian K r o p o tk in 's R e v o lu tio n ­ Individual liberty
a r y P a m p h lets: A through mutual and
C o lle c tio n o f W ritings; sympathetic support.
Ethics. O rig in a n d
D e v e lo p m e n t; M u tu a l
A id . A F a c to r o f
E v o lu tio n

A. Blanqui French l a C ritiq u e S o c ia l Individualistic

(1805-1881) Revolutionary
E. Goldman Russo-American M y D isillu sio n m e n t in Social Improvement by
(1869-1940) R ussia; L ivin g M y L ife Violent Action

Chan I. Samples of Persons Listed as Anarchists

''•Proudhon, P. .1. M-'Anl n Pru/tern 'A n enquiry mm the Principle o f Right ant! Government (B. R.
lucker, trs). New York. II. Fertig, IWi.
(iodwin. W . I.itquin m n tvrn in i1 ‘olilital Justice am! its Influence on General i'irtue and
llup/nnew (K. A. Preston, cd). 2 vols„ New York. Knopf, 1926.
Sorel. <i . Illusions duprugres. 2nd ed.. Paris, Marcel Riviere, 1911.
..................Ktflexiuns stir la violence. Paris. Marcel Riviere, 1972.
_____ . Mulenaux pour one tliruric do proletariat. Ird ed., Paris. Marcel Riviere. 1929.

184
 A S P E C T S OF P O L I T I C S

license to sp e a k a n d sp ec u la te a b o u t “e x p la n a tio n s ” a n d “ a ttrib u tio n s ” o f

fa b u lo u s a n d im ag in ary principles a n d causes.

E. Materialistic Philosophy and Anarchical Society

a. Statism vs. Freedom. A lth o u g h p erso n s a re in v aria b ly a n d indef­
initely u n its in po litical system s they a re p eren n ially irk ed by th e c o n stra in ts
involved in p o litica l a n d o th e r g ro u p m em b ersh ip . W h a t p erso n s find
u n s a tis fa c to ry is th e a p p a re n t loss o f fre e d o m , p lu s th e lim itatio n s b y .
a u th o rity a n d th e law s. It is th e d ish a rm o n y b etw een th e in d iv id u a l w ith his
necessities a n d his desires, p lu s th e p ro h ib itio n s o f th e v ario u s g ro u p ^
in stitu tio n s m a k in g u p th e state, th a t e n g e n d ers th e p o litical d o ctrin e s an d <
a n tis ta te p ractices o f an a rch ists.
A n a rc h is ts a re alw ay s m in o ritie s b u t th e w id esp read a n a rc h ic o r a n ti-
s ta te beliefs a re in d iv id u a listic a n d v a rio u s. S o m e o f th e a n a rc h ists a rc
activ e a n d p ro m o te d istru b an ce s, rebellions, a n d g en eral violence th o u g h
o th e rs a re passive believers a n d g o n o fa rth e r th a n a n tis ta te a n d p erso n alis-
tic g ru m b lin g . In th e a c c o m p a n y in g c h a rt w e in d ic a te a sa m p lin g o f
perso n s w h o a d o p te d th e ro le o f a n a rc h ist in o n e fo rm o r oth er.
A s we h a v e in d ic a te d a b o v e , th e te rm a n a rc h ist refers o n ly to th e a ltitu d e—
o fflissa tisfa c tio n a n d re b ellio n a g a in st so m e th in g identified w ith a p olitical
•system o r so m e fe a tu re .o f it as a h o ld in g g ro u p . In d iv id u a l a n a rc h ists a re
u n h a p p y a 6 o u t g en eral o p p re ssio n , e x p lo ita tio n s, o r in d iv id u a l re strain ts
o f a n e c o n o m ic , d o m e stic n a tu re , ta x a tio n , o r c o m b in a tio n s o f su ch lacks
o f s p o n ta n e ity a n d freed o m .

Bakunin, M.A., The Political Philosophy o f Bakunin: Scientific Anarchism (G. P. MaximofT, ed.),
Glencoe, Illinois, Free Press, 1953.
______________ , Sialism and Anarchy (C. H. Plummer, trs., J. F. Harrison, ed.). New York, Revision­
ist Press, 1976.
_______________ The Confession o f Mikhail Bakunin (R. C. Howes, trs.). Ithaca, New York, Cornell
Univ. Press, 1977.
Stimer, M., The Ego and His Own (S. T. Byington, trs.). New York, Benj. R. Tucker. 1907.
Most, J., Memoiren. erlebtes, erforschtes und erdachtes, New York, Selbstverlag des Vcrfassers,
1903.
Kropotkin, P. A., Kropotkin’s Revolutionary Pamphlets: A Collection o f Writings (R. N. Baldwin,
ed.). New York, Dover, 1970.
---------------------- Ethics. Origin and Development (L. S. Friedlartd and J. R. Piroshnikoff. trs.). New
York, Dial Press, 1924.
_____________ _ Mutual Aid. A Factor o f Evolution (P. Avrich, ed.). London. Penguin Press. 1972.
Blanqui, A., Critique sociale, Paris, F. Alcan, 1885.
Goldman, E„ My Disillusionment in Russia. Garden City, New York, Doubleday. Page. 1923.
---------------------- Living My Life. New York, Knopf, 1931.

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 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

IN D IV ID U A L S VERSU S P O L IT IC A L SYSTEM S

N o p erso n can ex ist o u tsid e th e p o litica l h ierarch ies yet n o n e c a n be

en tirely h a p p y w ith in them . P o litical system s co m p rise in a d d itio n to th e
g ra n d p e rip h e ra l sta te th e m an y v a rio u s g ro u p s o f o th e r p erso n s d o w n to
o th e r single p erso n s o f a fam ily, clu b o r a n y o th e r v o lu n ta ry association.
T h e p o te n tia lity fo r d issatisfactio n w ith th e a c tio n s o f o th ers is greatly
in creased w ith th e c o m p lex ity o f social a n d political o rg a n iz atio n s o f th e
h ie ra rc h ic a l m em b ers. It is su ch d is h a rm o n ie s th a t lie a t th e basis o f th e
''l m ax im , de gusiibus non est disputandum.
W h a t is o f special im p o rta n c e here a re th e sec ta rian ism s o f every sizable
p o p u la tio n . S u c h seg reg atio n s o cc u r w ith respect to religion, ed u catio n ,
a n d so cial classes o f every d e sc rip tio n . E v ery m acro p o lis becom es th e
h o m e o f n u m e ro u s m icro p o lises. A fine illu stra tio n o f th e d ev elo p m en t o f
i*
m a n y su b g ro u p s is a v a ila b le in th e w ritin g s o f H e rb e rt S p e n c e r u n d e r th e
* x<w
g en eral title o f Man versts the S ta ie .;olw h a te v e r m av be th e co n d itio n s fo r
it theT orm alion-O L specific political in stitu tio n s it a p p e a rs inevitable th a t n o t
a l l o f th e m e m b e rsh ip is e q ually satish e'd lv itlf th F leadership^and.the_res]jJtS--
o f th e ir g o v e rn m e n ta l c o n tro ls. F o r o n e th in g , states alw ays signify v a rio u s
re stric tio n s o RT hTfre e d o m o f th e in d iv id u a l. P e rh a p s it is inevitable th a t
0
o rg a n iz a tio n s sh o u ld have to set u p rules o f co n d u c t a n d p ro m o te various
l» s o rts o f in stitu tio n s su c h as ta x a tio n , w h ich m ay n o t b e to th e en tire
« sa tisfac tio n o f ce rtain individuals!]
T h e la tte r p a rt o f th e tw en tieth ce n tu ry is w itness to th e n u m ero sity an d

I p o w e r o f m icro p o litic al g ro u p s. S ince th e second W o rld W a r th ere has

been a stead y g ro w th o f n atio n alistic d e v e lo p m e n t w ith n u m e ro u s splin ter
C g ro u p s p lay in g large p a rts in th e p rocess. T h e m o st sp ec ta cu lar o f such
4 su b g ro u p s h av e been a n d still a re th e g u erillas w ith th e ir terro rism an d
tu rm o il. K ings an d ru lers n o t o n ly lie u n e a sy b u t regicide, violence, strikes,
a n d g en eral m u rd e r, m a rk th e new style in g ro u p living a n d in in tern a tio n al
relations.

S PE C IF IC PO LITIC A L P R O B LEM S

T h e v ersatility a n d c o n tro l analysis o f p h ilo so p h y is n o t lim ited to the

o v erall p h ilo so p h y o f states o r o th e r m a jo r p olitical u n its, b u t ex ten d s also
to th e d etails o f h u m a n asso ciatio n . T h u s im p o rta n t p ro b lem s exist w ith
refere n ce to th e d e sc rip tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n o f su ch featu res o f greg ar-

Spencer, H., The Man t'enus the State (T. Beale, ed.). New York. Kennerly, 1916.

186
 A S P E C T S OF P O L I T I C S

ious living a s so v ereig n ty , a u th o rity , freed o m , ju stic e , a n d eq u ality . In the

follow ing p a ra g ra p h s w e c o n sid e r briefly s o m e o f th ese societal item s.
a. Slavery. A s a ru le, w riters o n th e subject o f slavery lim it them selves to
th e m o st o b n o x io u s ex p erien ces o f g re a t a n d sm all states, o r o th e r political
c o m m u n itie s by re fe rrin g to c o m p u ls o ry la b o r a n d th e en slav e m en t o f
m e m b e rs o f p o litic a l u n its.[It is th e b la m e -w o rth y h isto ry o f m a n y highly
refined g ro u p s th a t th e y relied to a g re a t e x te n t u p o n slav e la b o r, u p o n
slaves v a rio u sly d e riv e d , fo r e x a m p le , fro m c o n d e m n a tio n b y c o u rts o r by
ste a lth a n d im p o rta tio n o f in d iv id u a ls fro m m o re o r less b a c k w a rd c o m ­
m u n i t i e s ^ is h a rd ly necessary to rem in d th e re a d e r th a t g ro u p s a sp irin g to
th e m o st a d v a n c e d id eals o f th e b ro th e rh o o d o f m a n h av e to le ra te d th e
en slav e m en t o f p eo p le ta k e n b y fo rce fro m th e ir h o m e c o m m u n itie s an d
sold fo r c o m m o n g a in as th o u g h they w ere th in g s o r c o m m o d itie s o f som e
sort.
H o w e v er, slav ery o f th e k in d m en tio n ed is o n ly th e m o st strik in g o f th e
d o m in a tio n re la tio n . T h e re a r e m a n y o th e r fo rm s o f o w n e rsh ip an d
c o n tro l o f p e rs o n s b y o th e r p erso n s, o r by re g u la to ry in stitu tio n s. L aw s
a n d c u s to m s serve effectively to force o r in h ib it th e b e h a v io r o f persons.
O b v io u s e x a m p le s o f po litica l slavery a re th e ta x in g p ro c ed u re s? ' a n d the
legal c o n tro ls w ith resp ect to h o u sin g , fo o d a n d d ru g use, m arriag e,
a b o rtio n , a n d m a n y o th e r fa c to rs. A t o n c e it m ay b e a d d e d th a t h u m a n
b o n d a g e m a y b e beneficial as w ell as h arm fu l to th e p erso n s located a t the
v a rio u s stag es o f th e g en eral po litical h ie ra rc h y . T h e benefits o f b o n d a g e
a re n o d o u b t o w in g to su ch lack o f c u ltu re a n d k n o w led g e in th e illiterate
a n d ill-th in k in g p o p u la tio n th a t th e states, g o v ern m e n ts, o r local agencies
m u st serve a s g u a rd ia n s.
b. Sovereignty. T h e p ro b le m o f so v ereig n ty like all th e o th e r p ro b lem s
in th is series h a s a lo n g h isto ry w ith a g re at v a rie ty o f in te rp re ta tio n s.
P ro b a b ly th e ea rliest in te rp re ta tio n o f so v ereig n ty w as religious in n atu re.
U n d e r th e fe u d al w a y o f th in k in g , kings a n d o th e r rulers w ere sovereign
ab so lu te ly b e c a u se o f th e assig n m e n t o f th e deity. S in ce th a t tim e so v er­
eig n ty h as b e c o m e m o re a n d m o re a m a tte r o f c o n c re te so cial c irc u m sta n ­
ces. B u t ev en in th e m o st re cen t tim es th e re is so m e so rt o f m etaphysical
a ssu m p tio n u n d e rly in g th e p h ilo so p h y o f so vereignty.
./ F r o m th e s ta n d p o in t o f in te rb e h a v io ra l p h ilo so p h y so v ereig n ty is
sim ply a m a tte r o f p o w e r b ased o n ec o n o m ic , d o m estic, o r so m e o th e r
social c irc u m sta n ce. T o d a y w e a re b eco m in g ex tre m ely fa m iliar w ith the

Jl The power lo tax is the power to destroy.

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 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

te n ta tiv e a n d tra n sitiv e so v ereig n p o w e r o f ru lers w h e th e r kings o r em p e r­

ors. W e a re w itnesses o f th e ru th less m a k in g a n d u n m a k in g o f presid en ts
even in g o v e rn m e n ts th a t a re p re su m e d to be d e m o c ra tic in stru ctu re a n d
fu n c tio n . C o u p s a re everyday o cc u rre n ces a n d in som e cases it is op p ressed
m asses o f p eo p le w h o d ecide a n d effect th e d e stru c tio n o f th e sov ereig n ty
o f rulers o f p a rtic u la r p arties a n d political tendencies.
^ T h e so v ereig n ty p ro b le m o b v io u sly in clu des th e p o w e r n o t o n ly o f
in d iv id u a ls a n d th e ir e n to u ra g e s b u t o f states, n atio n s, a n d g o v ern m en ts.
W h a t is to be stressed is th a t in th e case o f political entities o r in th a t o f
ind iv id u als so v ereig n ty co n cern s p o w e r w ielded ag a in st m em b ers o f th e
g ro u p o r u n it o r o th e r state units. A p ertin e n t q u estio n co n cern s th e source
o f a c h a lle n g in g po w er. Is it localized in a single p erso n o r in a sm all o r
larg e g ro u p s u c h as a n a rm y u n it, o r in a self-nam ed te rro rist g ro u p w ith
p o litical g oals, m o n e ta ry ad v an tag es, o r o th e r specific d em an d s? In gen­
eral, so v ereig n ty m ay pro v e to be a n e b u lo u s item .
c. Authority. E very g o v ern m en tal system includes personalities w h o
fu n c tio n in th e o rg a n iz a tio n a n d c o n tin u a tio n o f th e g ro u p . It is su ch
m a n a g e rs w h o p re su m a b ly p ro v id e fo r th e safety o f th e g ro u p as well as
ca rry in g th e resp o n sib ility fo r th e p ro p e r o p e ra tio n o f the different
d e p a rtm e n ts o f g o v ern m en t.
A u th o rity is a t b o tto m th e p o w er fo r th e o p e ra tio n a n d c o n tro l o f the
ex isten ce a n d b e h a v io r o f a political in s titu tio n . A n an aly sis o f th e political
u n it reveals m a n y loci o f this p o w e r as well as th e specific form s it tak es on.
U sually th is a u th o rity is believed to reside in a n ind iv id u al w h o occupies
th e su p re m e p o sitio n as king, e m p e ro r, o r presid en t. A m o re critical
an aly sis, h o w ev er, in d icates p lain ly th a t it is m ost likely to be d istrib u te d
a m o n g a n u m b e r o f perso n s. R ussell22 cites th e case o f th e p erio d o f K aiser
W ilh elm II, w hen B aro n H olstein th e p e rm a n e n t h ea d o f th e G e rm an
F o re ig n Office exercised im m ense pow er.
P a rtic u la r types o f a u th o rity d ep en d u p o n th e specific ch aracteristics o f
th e so ciety o r state. A u th o rity m ay be placed in a p a rtic u la r p erso n a n d his
follow ers w hich ev en tu ates in a d ic ta to rs h ip o f a sh o rt o r lasting perio d . In
so -called d e m o c ra tic states o r societies a u th o rity is p laced in a set o f
p e rso n s called rep resen tativ es, legislature, o r co n g ress elected in som e
fa sh io n a n d em p o w e red to m a k e law s a n d re g u la tio n s fo r th e c o n d u c t o f
in d iv id u a ls a n d in stitu tio n s. S u c h a u th o rity m ay be later ab u sed w ith
m a rk e d difficulties fo r th e g o v e rn m e n t w hich a u th o rity is presu m ed to

"Russell. H.. I'tnwr: A new Stniul Anatv\i\. New York, Norton. I9.1K, p. 4X.

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 A S P E C T S OF P O L I T I C S

direct. S h a k e sp e a re has d escrib ed su ch a n in d iv id u al in th e follow ing

term s,
But man, proud man,
Drest in a little brief authority.
Most ignorant of what he’s most assur’d,—
His glassy essence,— like an angry ape.
Plays such fantastic tricks before high Heaven,
As make the angels weep.33

d. Justice. N o p ro b le m o f p o litical life b e tte r d e m o n stra te s th e failings

o f a b s tra c tio n a l th in k in g in p h ilo so p h y th a n th e m a tte r o f justice.
T h ro u g h o u t th e h isto ry o f p h ilo so p h y th in k e rs o f m an y p ersu asio n s have
s o u g h t to d isco v er th e n a tu re o f ju stice as th o u g h it w ere so m e single ty p e ot
-essen ce o r existence. T h e p a tte rn o f th is m o d e o f th in k in g is excellently
T ep re se n te c fin tfie~first b o o k o f P la to ’s R ep u b lic. T h e q u e stio n , W h a t is
ju stic e? receives m a n y answ ers; it is p ay in g d eb ts, sp eak in g th e tru th ,
usefulness, in terest o f th e s tro n g e r,24 excellence o f th e p erso n , fairn ess.25
E ac h p e rio d o f p h ilo so p h ic al reflection h as its o w n d efinition w h e th e r o f
ju stic e o r a n y o th e r co n stru c t a b o u t po litics.26
P ro b a b ly th e on ly sin g u larize d d e sc rip tio n o n e ca n give o f ju stic e is th a t j
it is a p erso n a liz e d re la tio n , a n event in v o lv in g th e sa tisfa c to ry b e h a v io r o r
condition o f in d iv id u als w hen in tera ctin g w ith o th e r in d iv id u als o r w ith
social in stitu tio n s o f v ario u s sorts. ------ '
W h ile o b serv in g ju s t events o r reflecting u p o n th em it is ad v isab le to
d ifferen tiate betw een th e g re a t v ariety o f s itu a tio n s w h ich are classed as
ju stic e . A t o n c e o n e co n sid ers th e p ro p e r tre a tm e n t o f in d iv id u als fro m the
s ta n d p o in t o f th e sta te co m p le x b u t th e re a re m a n y c irc u m sta n ces w ith in
th e g re a t co m p lex w hich m u st be se p a ra te d a n d ta k e n a c c o u n t of. Basically
we h av e h ere th e p ro b le m o f a b s tra c tio n is m v ersu s co n crete events o r
situ a tio n s in w hich p erso n s a re involved u p o n v ario u s levels. It m ight be a
d o m e s tic p ro b le m o r o n e involving ta x a tio n o r still m o re a p ro b le m o f
ju stify in g s o m e a c tio n su ch as self-defense w h e n a tta c k e d . O f o n e th in g we
m ay b e c e rta in a n d th a t is d o in g ju stic e to ju s tic e d e m a n d s th e critical
a n a ly sis o f in n u m e ra b le specific events a n d n o t be m isled by th e use o f a
, w o rd .
e. Freedom. Very o ften p o litical a n d relig io u s freed o m s a re p ro m ised in
th e c o n s titu tio n o f a p a rtic u la r state o r n a tio n . F o r th e m o st p a rt the
33Shakespeare. W„ Measure fo r Measure, act ii. Sc. 2.
“ Thrasymachus, in Plato, Republic, bk. I.
“ Rawls, J., A Theory o f Justice, Cambridge, Mass.. Belknap Press, 1971.
“ Cf. forexam ple. Barker, S.. The Principles o f Social ami Political Theory. London. Oxford Univ.
Press, 1961, p. 13.

189
 \ H U M A N E V E NT S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E
r V
rh e to ric o f c o n s titu tio n s w h e th e r o r n o t it ac tu a lly reduces re strain ts
im p o sed o n p erso n s, refers to fre e d o m g ra n te d by th e agencies o f a
g o v ern m e n t. A ccordingly, th e te rm “fre e d o m ” is a universal a b stra c tio n
re m o te fro m a c tu a l so cietal s itu a t i o n s ^ V h e n w e co n c ern ourselves w ith
sp erific circu m stan c es it is~Im possible fo r a n t n d ividual t o b e politically ffeeT^'
\J A m o n g th e m ost c o m p e llin g e x a m p le s are~tfie im possibility fo r a n ind iv id ­
NJ ual n o t to c o n fo rm to th e im p o sitio n o f tax es, to ev ad e being d ra fted fo r
m ilitary service, to p ro d u c e a n d c o n su m e c e rta in beverages, o r to w ear
K c e rta in clothes.
■x ■^4-To a v o id m etap h y sical p ro b le m s is to esch ew all sp ec u la tio n a b o u t
g en e ral fre e d o m o r co e rcio n . W h e th e r a p e rso n is free to d o som e act o r to
reTrairTTrom a c tin g is e n tire ly .a .m a tte r o L p a rtic u la n c irc u m stan ce s. T h ey
m ay d ep e n d u p o n legal in ju n ctio n s, e c o n o m ic o r d o m estic co n d itio n s, a n d
freq u en tly m atters o f health.
W h ile co n sid erin g p ro b le m s o f po litical freed o m it is well to em p h asize
th a t it is th e state, n a tio n , o r o th e r g o v e rn m e n ta l agency th a t is in c o n tro l o f
th e p o w e rs a n d forces to co m p el c o n fo rm ity . In m an y o th e r cases th e re is a
p ro b a b ility o f p e rfo rm in g c e rta in ac ts o rig inally stim u lated by p riv ate
c o n sid e ra tio n s. In m o st d e m o c ra tic o rg a n iz a tio n s th ere is little co m p u lsio n
to g o to th e polls to vote. In o th e r m o re d ic ta to ria l system s th e re is no
ch o ice a n d th e re fo re n o freed o m in this respect. T h e c o m p ariso n o f the tw o
ty p es o f s itu a tio n a d d s to th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p ro b lem s o f freed o m in
political life.
f. Equality. M an y p o litical c o n s titu tio n s fe a tu re th e g en eral prin cip le o f
e q u a lity , b u t in n o case c a n e q u a lity c o n sist o f a n y a r b itra ry a b stra ctiv e
q u a lity . F o r ex a m p le , a co n g ress o r p a rlia m e n t c a n d eclare th a t a n y p erso n
b o rn in th e c o m m u n ity is eligible to p a rtic ip a te p olitically, to vote, to ru n
fo r office. In view, how ever, o f th e sta tu s o f c e rta in racial m em bers, w om en,
o r re lig io u s affiliates w h o are n o t tre a te d as citizens, it is q u ite a futile an d
Active p ro p o s itio n th a t all p e rso n s a re c re a te d eq u a l. E q u a lity is a sta tu s
alw a y s allo w ed o r c u ltiv ated by a n ag e n cy o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d th ere fo re
m u st a c co rd w ith th e rules o f th e g o v e rn m e n t.
T h e local d isc o rd a n c e m e n tio n e d sy m p to m ize s th e g re at difference be-
/ tw een co n v e n tio n a l a n d in te rb e h a v io ra l p h ilo so p h y . A c co rd in g to co n v en -
/ tio n al p h ilo so p h y o f politics e a c h in d iv id u a l is g ra n te d eq u a l pow ers an d
) cap acities ju s t because he is a p erso n . A c tu a lly , how ever, th a t e q u a lity is
\ sim ply a n a b stra c tio n , a statistical n u m b e r, a n av erage. T h e in terb eh av -
( ioral view re g ard s e q u a lity o r in eq u ality as co n c rete a n d specific qualities
( a n d potentialities. W h e th e r o r n o t A is eq u a l to B is ev a lu a ted on th e basis

190
 A S P E C T S o f p o l i t i c s

o f p recise crite ria o f d efin ite legal, c u ltu ra l, ec o n o m ic , in tellectu al, political,
a n d so cial situ a tio n s. A a n d B m ay b e eq u a l legally b u t n o t eco n o m ically o r
socially. C a n d D m ay b e eq u a l in telle ctu ally b u t n o t eco n o m ically o r
socially. E v ery possible c o m b in a tio n exists a n d a n y single e q u a lity m ight
be th e sole e q u a lity o n th e basis o f law o r o th e r criterio n .
g. Liberty. I f ju stific a tio n is re q u ire d fo r tre a tin g th e p ro b le m o f political
lib erty a lo n g w ith th e p ro b le m o f freed o m , w e c a n find it in th e a s su m p tio n
th a t liberty consists in allo w in g p e rso n s to exercise th e ir n a tu ra l rights.
^ A t o nce, h o w e v er, th e serio u s q u e stio n arises w h e th e r th ere a re rights,
rq u a litie s, o r privileges in h erin g in p erso n s d e rived fro m n a tu ra l co n d i­
t i o n s o r w h e th e r th e n o tio n o ^ n a t u r a l r i g h t s ) 5 sim p ly a n a p p ro v e d
' sen tim en tality . -------------
■p O n ly c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y allo w s th e p o ssib ility th a t th e re are a n y
n a tu ra l rig h ts. T h is is b ec au se c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y o p e ra te s o n the
b asis o f a u tis tic c o n s tru c tio n s in ste a d o f o b s e rv ab le ev en ts. E v en c o n v e n ­
tio n a l p h ilo s o p h e rs a p p e a r to q u e s tio n th e ex isten c e o f n a tu ra l rights, fo r
ex am p le, S tu a rt H a m p s h ire a n d H . L. A. H a rt. T h e la tte r w rites,

1 shall advance the thesis that if there are any moral rights at all it follows that there is at least
one natural right, the equal right of all men to be free.27

- F ro m th e s ta n d n o in t o f In te rh e h a v io ra l p h ilo so p h y th e a sse rtio n o f th e

ex isten c e o f a n y n a tu ra l rie h t re p resen ts a c o n fu sio n b etw een w h a t o n e
w o u ld lik e to h a v e h a p p e n w ith th e a b s e n ce o f J h a t h a p p e n in g in actu ality . __
It is im p o ssib le to s u p p o r t su c h a c o n te n tio n as th e e x isten c e o f n a tu ra l
rig h ts o f a n y d e sc rip tio n w ith evidence. It h as o fte n been said o n th e basis o f
in fra h u m a n a n im a ls th a t n a tu re is red in b e a k a n d claw . B u t if th a t
p ro p o s itio n is c o rre c t o n th e basis o f o b se rv in g th a t o rg a n ic beings d e stro y
o th e r an im als, it d o e s n o t im p ly a g re a t difference b etw een different fam ilies
o f o rg a n ism s so th a t h u m a n a n im a ls p o ssess n a tu ra l rights. C e rta in it is
th a t th e b e lie f in th e e x iste n c e o f p ro p e r rig h ts is a trib u te paid to asp ects o f
c u ltu ra l ex isten ce. It is to p re su m e th a t so cial ex isten ce b rings to th e front
in stitu tio n s o f m u tu a l aid a n d a gen eral resp ect a n d re g a rd fo r o th e rs u n d e r
p a rtic u la r c irc u m sta n ces. A t a n y ra te it is clea r th a t rig h ts a re established by
c u s to m a ris in g fro m th e c irc u m sta n c e o f p e rso n s living to g e th e r w ith a
c o m p le m e n t o f p a rtic u la r in stitu tio n s.

27Han. H. L. A., "Are there any Natural Rights?" in Poliiical Philosophy l A. Quinton, ed.), New
York, Oxford Univ. Press. 1967, p. 53.

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 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

PSY C H O LO G IC A L A SPEC TS O F PO L IT IC A L PH ILO SO PH Y

T h r o u g h o u t th is c h a p te r w e h av e in d ic ated th e ro le o f a b stra c tio n ism in
th e c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h ies o f p o litics. N o w w e m u st tu rn to th e qu es­
t i o n h o w p sy ch o lo g ica l view s have in fluenced p o litical th in k in g. S ince
p o litics b asically co n c e rn s people, it is o n ly to b e ex p ected th a t p sychology
s h o u ld play a larg e p a r t in political p h ilo so p h y . P h ilo so p h ical a ttitu d e s
in v o lv in g c o rre c t n o tio n s o f h u m a n p sy ch o lo g y m u st o b v io u sly be m o re
serv iceab le th a n in c o rre c t ones. In fact e rro n e o u s a ssu m p tio n s a b o u t
m e m b e rs o f po litical asso c ia tio n s are liable to b e d isa stro u s b o th th eo re ti­
cally a n d p ractically . U n fo rtu n a te ly , tra d itio n a lly political p h ilo so p h y has
been c o n s tru c te d u p o n psychological p rinciples co m p letely o u t o f acco rd
w ith th e events o f political o r o th e r h u m a n behavior.
— I n o rd e r n o w it is briefly to c o m p a re tw o types o f psychological fo rm u la ­
tio n , o n ly o n e o f w h ich influences fa v o rab ly political th in k in g w hile the
0t» o th e r h a m p e rs p ro g ress in th a t a re a o f p h ilo so p h y . T h e fo rm e r w e ca te g o ­
rize as scientific psychology, a n d th e la tter as h istorical psychology.
#{jjj a. Historical psychology. P olitical p h ilo so p h y based u p o n th e n o tio n
th a t m e n ta lity is so m e s o rt o f psychic su b sta n c e co rrelated w ith th e physical
*- s u b s ta n c e o f b o d y in ev itab ly d isto rts p o litical o b se rv a tio n s an d in te rp re ta ­
a** tio n s. T o th in k in term s o f eg o o r m ind as fixed, blinds o n e to the in tim ate
a n d in tric a te a c ts a n d tra its o f p e rso n s in po litical situ a tio n s. T o neglect
V a c tu a l p sy ch o lo g ical events is to b e im p o te n t to a d a p t to th e b e h a v io r o f
« p
d issid en ts, re v o lu tio n arie s, a n d general d istu rb e rs o f th e usu al stable o p e ra ­
tio n s o f political units. It is h a rd ly necessary to e x p a tia te u p o n th e e rro r o f
re g a rd in g political affairs as c o n sistin g only o f e x te rn a l c o n d itio n s like
g eo g rap h ic, eco n o m ic, a n d social conflicts.
b. Scientific Psychology. F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f scientific psychology,
$
m e n ta lity is a type o f ad ju stm e n t o f o rg a n ism s to th eir en v iro n in g things
a n d events. E ach a n d every psychological item consists o f in tera ctio n s o f
% p e rso n s w ith o th e r persons, objects, c o n d itio n s, o r events o n th e basis o f
#S | li
d ev e lo p m e n ts in p rio r c o n fro n ta tio n s. C o m p le x political b e h a v io r is devel­
o p e d in a b eh a v io ral h isto ry w hich we m ay call c u ltu ra l psychology.

j P sy ch o lo g ical b eh a v io r w h e th e r sim ple sen so ry d ifferen tiatio n o r e la b o rate

ideas a b o u t m a n , g o v ern m e n t, social system s, an d so o n is influenced by

| societal circ u m sta n ces. W h a te v er tra its in d iv id u als d isp lay in th eir political
b e h a v io r h av e been o rig in ated a n d d ev e lo p ed u n d e r th e influence o f cul­
tu ra l co n d itio n s. N o p erso n is a m o n a rc h ist, d e m o c ra t, re p u b lic an , o r
; a n a rc h is t w ith o u t th e in tera ctio n s o f th e in d iv id u al w ith p a rtic u la r circ u m ­
i
stan ces w hich fa v o r th e d ev elo p m en t o f su ch attitu d es.

192
 ASPECTS OF PO L I T I CS

H o w to a c c o u n t fo r th e p o litica l b e h a v io r o f p erso n s o r g ro u p s is g reatly

a id e d b y re s o rt to scientific p sy ch o lo g y .[in q u iry in to th e a c tio n s o f p eo p le
a n d th e ir m o tiv a tio n is to e x a m in e th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th e ir in terb e h av io ral
h isto ry as w ell as th e c u rre n t fields o f a c tio n in w hich th ey are involved. In
th is w a y o n e c a n d e te rm in e w h e th e r a c tio n s a re p a trio tic , crim in al, co n ­
cern ed , o r in d ifferen t, a n d s o on. It is k n o w led g e o f th e p e rso n a lity ev o lu ­
tio n o f p e rso n s th a t allo w s so u n d in te rp re ta tio n o f w h y an y p a rtic u la r
p erso n believes his p o litica l sy stem is s u p e rio r to all o th e rs o r th a t it is in
need o f to ta l r e v o lu tio n ]
W h e th e r a n y p o litical sy stem is sufficient a n d effective is a m a tte r o f th e
in tellig en ce a n d th e e d u c a tio n o f th e p a rtic ip a n ts in th e system . S ince
scientific p sy ch o lo g y is clear th a t th e q u alities a n d sta tu s o f p erso n s a re all
d e v e lo p e d , th e im p o rta n c e o f se ttin g u p p ro p e r in stitu tio n s fa v o ra b le as
e n v iro n m e n ts f o r e n g e n d e rin g p a rtic u la r k in d s o f a ttitu d e s c a n n o t be
o v e re stim a te d . O f co u rse, th e re a re m a n y im p e d in g c irc u m sta n ces to w a rn
u s a g a in s t th e e v o lu tio n o f a c c e p ta b le c itizen s th a t will m a k e fo r a p o litical
sy stem sufficient a n d p e rh a p s su p e rio r to o th e r n e ig h b o rin g system s. O n e
o f th e g re a tly im p ed in g circ u m sta n ces is th a t every so ciety is rep lete w ith
in stitu tio n s a n d c irc u m sta n c e s th a t c o u ld p re v en t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
sa tisfa c to ry m em b ers o f a n ideal c o m m o n w ea lth .

193
 C H A P T E R 17
PHILOSOPHY A N D ECONOMICS
EC O N O M IC S IN P H IL O SO P H IC A L PER SPE C TIV E

O b se rv e rs o f th e e c o n o m ic scene a p p e a r to fa c e m o re in h e re n t am b ig u i­
ties th a n stu d e n ts o f m o st o th e r d iscip lin es, w h e th e r o f th e h u m a n a n d
societal realm s, o r in q u iries in to ev e n ts o f n a tu re . T h u s th e p h ilosophical
an aly sis o f e c o n o m ic s en tails g re a t difficulty. E co n o m ic ev e n ts a re clear-cut
w ith in th e fra m e w o rk o f o b serv ab le ev en ts, w hile e c o n o m ic th e o ry co nsists
to a g re at e x te n t o f o p in io n s, beliefs, a n d v e rb alism s w h ich in d u ce scepti­
cism a n d d o w n rig h t d e n ials o f th e v ery ex isten ce o f m a n y types o f h u m a n
affairs. M an ifestly , th e re is a tre m e n d o u s h ia tu s b etw een ec o n o m ic events
a n d th e d e sc rip tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e m . T h is g re a t g a p is filled u p
w ith v erb al a b s tra c tio n s w h ich fo rm b a rrie rs b etw een ev en ts a n d valid
p ro p o sitio n s. A s P ro fe sso r K n ig h t says,
. . . all ‘economic' theory in the proper sense of the word, is purely abstract and formal,
without content. It deals, in general, with certain formal principles of ‘economy* without
reference to what is to be economized, or how; more specifically, price-economics deals with
a social system in which every individual treats all others and society merely as instrumental­
ities and conditions of his own Privatw irtschaft, a mechanical system of Crusoe economies.1

T h e n u m e ro u s difficulties o f th e e c o n o m ic field a re n o t to o difficult to

O '*
a c c o u n t for. T o begin w ith, e c o n o m ic situ a tio n s a re o m n ip resen t a n d to u c h
im m e d ia tely th e v ery being o f all c o n c e rn ed w h e th e r o b serv ed o r observ-
W - tng. M o re o v e r, e c o n o m ic situ a tio n s a re c o n s ta n tly c h a n g in g , in tricate, a n d
■\! \ h
su p erla tiv e ly in te rre la te d w ith th e e v e n ts o f o th e r ty p es pf_discipiines,
p o litical, so cietal, a n d psychological.
n o th e r o b v io u s fe atu re o f e c o n o m ic situ a tio n s is th e ir e n o rm o u s
variety . T h e re a re so m a n y types o f e c o n o m ic system s, so m e p e rta in in g to
sim p le local h a b ita tio n s, w hile o th e rs c o n c e rn g ro u p s o f co m p lex p o p ­
u la tio n s s u c h a s p ro v in ces, states, c o u n trie s, o r g e o g ra p h ic regions. O u t­
sta n d in g a re th e differences b etw e en e c o n o m ic system s o f prim itiv e o r
a n th ro p o lo g ic a l g ro u p s as c o m p a re d w ith p o p u la tio n s o f highly developed
cu ltu re s, ju s t as g re a t differences c a n be fo u n d as b etw e en cap italistic an d
so cialistic system s in d ifferent p o litica l e n tities a n d co m m u n itie s. W ith in
g iv en g ro u p s th e v a ria tio n s o f d a ta m a y be b ased o n u rb a n o r ru ral

1Knight, F. H„ Risk, Uncertainty a n d Profit, New York, Kelley, (1921), 1964, p. xii.

194
 P H I L O S O P H Y AND E C O N O MI C S

situ a tio n s. T h e n th e re a re p ro b le m s a s to th e divisio n s o f la b o r, so m e p a rt

o f p o p u la tio n s p e rfo rm m en ial ta sk s w hile o th e rs w o rk a t m o re refined
pro fessio n s o r businesses.
F in ally , e c o n o m ic ev en ts a n d p ro p o s itio n s are heavily involved w ith
psychological fa cto rs b u t e c o n o m ists a re b u rd e ned w ith tra d itio n a l views
th a t serve to set th e d isc ip lin e o f e c o n o m ic s u p o n g o alless o r m islead in g
p a th s ! ™ “ ...... ....... '
O R IG IN A N D N A T U R E O F EC O N O M IC EVENTS

T h e s tu d y o f e c o n o m ic s, lik e every o th e r discipline, d e m a n d s th a t o n e be

cle a r a n d p o sitiv e a b o u t th e n a tu re o f th e d a ta o r su b ject m a tte r to be
in v estig ated . S tu d e n ts o f ec o n o m ic s c a n n o t, th ere fo re , fo re g o b asic a n a ly ­
sis o f e c o n o m ic in stitu tio n s a n d e c o n o m ic p ra ctices d o m in a tin g h u m a n
ex isten c e a n d living. It is su c h an aly sis th a t p ro m o te s ex p e rtn ess o f o b se r­
v a tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n , a n d affo rd s cred en ce to final acco m p lish m en ts.
O f c o n s id e ra b le aid in a p p re c ia tin g th e n a tu re o f e c o n o m ic ev en ts is to
p e n e tra te d eep ly in to o rigins a n d ro o ts. D o in g so p rev en ts g ettin g lost in
th e w ild ern ess o f n o tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e h ighly evolved tech n iq u es a n d
p ra ctices o f p a rtic u la r e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n s. E co n o m ics is n o t m erely co n -
' c e rn e d w ith th e w e a lth o f n a tio n s , v ested in te re sts o f in divid u als, o r eo m -
i m ercial statistics o f p ro d u c tio n a n d d is trib u tio n o f goo d s, b u t w ith all these
d a ta a n d o th e rs in v o lved in e la b o ra te e c o n o m ic sy stem s. E co n o m ic p ra c ti­
ces a n d th e o rie s find a fu n d a m e n ta l s o u rc e in th e fact th a t o rg a n ism s a n d
th e ir e n v iro n m e n ts c o n stitu te a single c o m p le x system o f m etab o lic in terac­
tio n s w ith fo o d m ateria ls th a t, in p a rt a t least, beco m e assim ilated to the
o rg a n ism . S u c h is th e ele m e n ta l c o n ta c t o f o rg a n ism s w ith th e ir s u rro u n d ­
ings th a t e v e n tu a lly evolves to b eco m e c o m p lex a c tio n s o f a n egocentric,
social, a n d in te rc o m m u n a l type.
E c o n o m ists a re b io lo g ical o rg a n is m s w h ich evolve first th ro u g h sim p le
bio lo g ic al stag es a n d e v e n tu a lly d e v e lo p b y m o re a n d m o re c o m p lic a te d
in te ra c tio n s to b ec o m e in tric a te ec o n o m ic th eo rists. S im p le m etab o lic
in terb e h av io r w ith its elem en tary needs becom es am plified to w ants, desires,
a n d preferences th a t m a k e u p co m p lex e c o n o m ic events. S u ch am plifica­
tio n s g e n e ra te p ro b lem s o f su p p ly a n d d e m a n d , m o n o p o lie s o f g o o d s a n d
services, a s well as ju s t e x c h a n g e s o f g o o d s, th e p ro d u c tio n a n d d e stru c tio n
o f c o n s u m e r g o o d s to c o n tro l sales, p rices, a n d g en e ral ad v a n ta g e s o f
salesm en a n d th e d isa d v a n ta g e s o f co n su m ers.
— ^ T h e _ g ro w th o f p o p u la tio n s in p a rtic u la r cen ters resu lts in increased
p ro d u c tiv ity a n d su rp lu ses o f p ro d u c ts fo r b a rte rin g o r o th e r exchange.

195
 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

W ith fu rth e r c o n c e n tra tio n s o f p o p u la tio n arises m o re in tricate g ro w th o f

w a n ts a n d e c o n o m ic ex ch an g es. T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f to w n s a n d u rb a n iz a r
tio n in g en eral is b ased o n th e n ee d a n d d e sire to b u y a n d sell a n d generally
to p ro m o te in te rc h a n g e o f g o o d s a n d services. U rb a n iz a tio n p ro m o te s th e
tra n s f o rm a tio n o f la n d f o r g ro u p uses, w h ile th e g re a t c o m p lic a tio n o f
in d u stria l p ra ctices a n d co m m ercial tra n s a c tio n s as b etw e en in d ividuals
a n d in d iv id u als, a n d b etw een in d iv id u a ls a n d g ro u p s, b eco m es a strik in g
a n d c o m m a n d in g fe a tu re o f h u m a n existence.
-y A t th e p e a k o f e c o n o m ic ev e n ts is th e o u ts ta n d in g p lace w ealth a n d th e
ac q u isitio n o f e c o n o m ic su b sta n c e a n d p o w e r o cc u p ies in c o m m u n ities a n d
g T o u p sin ^ very ty p e o f civillzati o iT F ro m th is has arise n th e d iffe ren tiatio n
r V f th e rich a n d th e p o o r, a n d th e m o n e ta ry s ta n d a rd s w h ic h influence
<, a lm o s t ev e ry in sta n c e a n d level o f in d iv id u a l a n d g ro u p activ ity . In m a n y
I** c u ltu re s, even th e w o rld o f s p o rts, in g en e ral pu b lic a n d re stricted acad em ic
situ a tio n s , h av e b ee n influenced a n d so m e tim e s c o n ta m in a te d by p ecu n ­
iary co n sid e ra tio n s. n J / )
III

C R U C IA L P R O B L E M S IN EC O N O M IC A N A L Y S IS
iik
B ecause o f th e u b iq u ity , co m p lex ity , a n d v ariab ility o f ec o n o m ic events__ .
(K
th e p h ilo so p h y o f ec o n o m ic s faces a n u m b e r o f cru c ia l p ro b lem s cen tered
a b o u t th e v alid ity o f d esc rip tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s c o n c e rn in g eco n o m ic
i ft d a ta ^ B asically th ese p ro b le m s arise fro m th e a d h e re n c e to invalid ph ilo ­
so p h ical a s s u m p tio n s a n d fo u n d a tio n s. T h e result is a n in h ib itio n o f critical
analysis. In g en e ral, th e p h ilo so p h y o f ec o n o m ics is b ased o n a n ab stra c-
tio n istic a n d u n iv ersa listic set o f a ttitu d e s a lo n g w ith a fallacio u s p sy ch o l­
ogy. In th e p re s e n t c h a p te r w e e x p lo re th e c o n sid e ra tio n s w h ich m a rk off
a n a d e q u a te fro m a n in a d e q u a te a ttitu d e to w a rd e c o n o m ic events. F o r
e x a m p le , u n iv ersa l ec o n o m ic s is re g ard e d as a su bjectivistic a n d n o t a n
o b jectiv e d iscipline. T h e ec o n o m ic p h ase o f h u m a n so ciety involves c o n ­
l» crete ev e n ts o f p erso n s a c tin g a n d m a te ria ls acted u p o n , b u t th e th eo ries are
en c ased in to v a c u o u s a b s tra c tio n s fre q u en tly o f a su p e rn a tu ra l co m p lex ­
io n .2 E c o n o m ic s is m a d e in to a d ism al science in stead o f a d e p ictio n o f
co m p le x h u m a n living.

EX C E SSIV E A B ST R A C T IO N ISM IN E C O N O M IC S

C o m p le x ities o f ec o n o m ic d a ta follow fro m excessive a b stra ctio n ism .

F irs t th e re a re p ro b le m s arisin g fro m th e ec o n o m ic s o f th e u n it a t larg e as
2Invisable hands, divine ordinations, and so on.

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o v e r a g a in s t th e ec o n o m ic s o f specialized su b -g ro u p s o f p ersons. M o re
gen erally th e re is a d iffe ren tiatio n if n o t o p p o sitio n b etw een th e statistica l
g ro u p in g o f e c o n o m ic ev en ts as a g a in st th e a c tu a l specific b e h a v io r a n d
tra n s a c tio n s o f ec o n o m ic s itu a tio n s.
N ex t th e re is th e u n w ittin g a d m ix tu re o f th eo retical p re su p p o sitio n s w ith
th e b asic d a ta o f a c tu a l e c o n o m ic events. P e rh a p s even m o re th a n G o e th e 3
in te n d e d to asse rt, ev en ts o r facts a re a lre a d y th eo ries. E ven perceiving
eve n ts b e sp e a k p r io r in te rb e h a v io rs a n d th e assig n m en t o f p ro p e rtie s to
stim u lu s objects.
T h e co n c lu sio n is in escap ab le th a t ec o n o m ic d esc rip tio n s an d in te rp re ta ­
tio n s a re heavily c h a rg e d w ith su p p o sitio n s derived fro m such sources as
o n e’s g e n e ra l W e lta n sc h a u u n g , n a tio n , a n d c o u n try lived in, social statu s,
an d p erio d o f stu d y .

E C O N O M IC C O N STR U C T IO N S A N D ECO N O M IC EVENTS

C ritical an a ly sis o f ec o n o m ic situ a tio n s d e m a n d s a n e x p e rt differentia­

tio n b etw e en th e d e sc rip tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s o f p ro d u c e r an d c o n s u ­
m er p e rfo rm a n c e s. T h e activ ities o f b o th a c to rs in ec o n o m ic s itu a tio n s
a lo n g w ith th e activities o f in terv e n in g p erso n s are definitely o b serv ab le
affairs, b u t th ey a r e very' d ifferen t in th e o ry . T h e a b stra c tio n istic p rin cip le
influences e c o n o m ists to o v erlo o k th e d y n a m ic ch aracteristics o f such
b e h a v io r so th ey fit c o m fo rta b ly u n d e r c e rta in s ta n d a rd categ o ries. M o ­
m e n ta ry a n d freq u en t o ccu rren ces a re m a d e in to tim eless entities. P a lp a b le
tra n sa c tio n s a re tra n s fo rm e d into in v ariab le exchanges.
A t th e basis o f c o n fu sin g c o n stru c tio n s w ith d a ta lies th e c o n v e n tio n a l
h ab it o f o v erstressin g statistical g en e raliza tio n s. O f co u rse, o n e sw allow
does n o t m a k e a su m m e r, b u t o n th e o th e r h a n d, it is ad v isab le n o t to
squeeze o u t all su b sta n c e fro m a n a v e ra g e o f unit o p e ra tio n s. It is incalcu­
lable h o w m u c h a n ev en t is tra n sfo rm e d w h e n reduced to a n a b stra c t
n u m b er. By a b stra c tly a d d in g to g e th e r in to o n e u nit te n p u rch ases o f a
p a rtic u la r o b ject o n e m a y lose th e k n o w led g e in h ere n t in th e specific
instances, o n ly so m e o f w hich m ay coincide in significant details.

T H E LAW O F SU P PL Y A N D D E M A N D

S cientific p h ilo so p h y finds m u ch g ro u n d fo r criticizing the tra d itio n a l

a ttitu d e o f e c o n o m ists to w a rd th e p rin cip le o f su p p ly a n d d e m a n d . N o on e

' Das Hochste wa re: Zu begrcifen. das altes factische schon Thcorie ist. Ma ximen und Reflexionen.
No. 575.

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ca n im p e a c h th e circ u m sta n ce th a t th e av a ila b ility o f c e rta in g o o d s m u st

affect th e p rice ch a rg ed to th e c o n su m e r. S c a rc e su p p lies c o m m a n d h ig h er
prices. R ut wfrpt u th p ..statu s o f th e su p p ly ? C o n s u m e rs m a y well ask
w h e th e r th e su n n lv o f c e rta in g o o d s is co n tro lle d b y a c tu a l c o n d itio m s u c f u
as c ro p failu res, tra n s p o r ta tio n a c cid e n ts , a n d so o n , o r by a r tif ic ia lm a n ip ^ -
u la tio n s, th a t is, g o o d s a re w ith held fro m c o n s u m e rs in o rd e r to e x a f it
h ig h er prices a lth o u g li~ th e g o o d s co n c e rn e d m a y b e in a c tu a lly g o o d _
s u pply. It is o b v io u s th a t su p p lie rs o f g o o d s n ee d ed o r w a n te d are eq u ally
fa c to rs in e c o n o m ic tra n s a c tio n s as th e c o n s u m e r, re ta ile r, o r o th e r in te r­
m ed iary . T h e re is alw ay s th e q u e stio n w h e th e r th e su p p lier o f necessities
p e rfo rm s well o r ill w ith respect to a g ric u ltu ra l o r in d u stria l c o m m o d itie s
a n d th e ir sale.

S PE C IF IC IT IE S IN T H E EC O N O M IC C O M PL E X

a. Macroeconomics and Microeconomics. S o m u ltip lex a re th e spe­

cificities o f ec o n o m ic s th a t th ese te rm s h av e b e e n p ro p o se d to sim plify th e
disciplin e. M a c ro e c o n o m ic s is p re su m e d to re p re se n t th e w o rk in g s o f th e
ec o n o m y as a w hole w hile th e la tte r te rm sim ilarly fu n c tio n s to rep resen t
tra n sa c tio n s o f a sim p le r type, f o r e x a m p le , tr a d e in single p a rtic u la r
co m m o d itie s. T o a ce rta in e x te n t m ic ro e c o n o m ic s is d ev o ted to th e p ra c ti­
cal o r c o n c re te d a ta o f ec o n o m ic s, th e n u m e ro u s in d iv id u a l tra n sa c tio n s
w ith o th e r p e rso n s, a n d b e h a v io r w ith re sp ect to m a te ria ls fo r p ro d u c tiv e
processes. W ith referen ce to b o th m a c ro a n d m ic ro eco n o m ics we m ay
re g ard th e fo llo w in g list as sa m p le s o f th e su b je ct m a tte r o r c o n te n t o f
ec o n o m ic situ a tio n s, p ro d u c tio n , c o n s u m p tio n , tra d e , cap ita l, interest,
co n v ersio n o f n a tu ra l m aterials, b ro k e ra g e , d esig n ers a n d co n stru c to rs,
engineers, sellers o f v a rio u s g rad es, in d iv id u a l jo b b e rs , w holesalers, special­
ists, a n d a h o s t o f p u rv ey o rs o f services, a n d so o n .
b. Regularities and Irregularities in Economic Situations. T h a t eco ­
n o m ic s itu a tio n s a re ex trem ely co m p lic a te d is a trite o b serv atio n . T h e basic
re la tio n s b etw e e n p ro d u c e rs o f g o o d s, th e v a rio u s d e a le rs o r su p p liers, a n d
th e u ltim a te c o n su m e rs a re g re atly in v o lv ed . E a c h asp ect o f p ro d u c tio n ,
ex ch an g e, a n d final co n su m p tio n , m ay be in te g ra te d w ith n u m e ro u s o th e r
processes. R a w m ateria ls m ay re q u ire a series o f tre a tm e n ts befo re b ec o m ­
ing finished p ro d u c ts re a d y fo r use o r sale. M a n u fa c tu re rs m ay b e m erely
assem b lers o f p a rts su p p lied b y n u m e ro u s o rig in al p ro d u c ers. M a k e rs o f
p a rts th em selv es m ay b e lesser asse m b lers o f p a r ts su p p lied by o th e r
su b p ro d u c e rs. M a n u fa c tu re rs m a y be salesm en a s well a s b an k e rs. S u c h
p ro d u c e rs m a y deal o n ly w ith w h o lesalers, jo b b e rs , o r d ealers. T h e n th ere

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a re o th e r su b fu n c tio n a rie s o r fu rth e r in term ed iarie s w h o a re exclusively in

c o n ta c t w ith p u rc h a se rs as co n su m ers. T h ese a re o n ly su g g estio n s o f th e
in tricacies th a t ev e n tu a te fro m th e a c c u m u la te d g re g ario u sn ess o f h u m a n
beings. T h e ag g re g a tio n o f su c h co m p lex ities typifies th e in cre asin g d im e n -
sio n s o f co m m u n itie s fro m fam ilies to states a n d em pires.
A ll such a rtic le s a n d p artic u la ritie s o f e c o n o m ic situ a tio n s sym bolize the
reg u larities o f e c o n o m ic c irc u m sta n ces. C o in cid e n ta lly e c o n o m ic situa-
tio n s are re p le te w ith irre g u larities as is th e in v ariab le c o n d itio n o f h u m a n
b e h a v io r in in d iv id u a l o r g ro u p circ u m sta n ces. E x am p les are th e m an y
~ d is^ rd e rly a n c T m p ro perTela tio n s hi ps betw een su p p liers a n d consum ers. It
is a w e ll-k n o w n stra te g y o f tra d e rs to m o n o p o liz e m a rk e ts fo r necessary
item s, o r in g en e ral fo r all supplies re q u ired by p u rc h a se rs w h e th e r su b o r­
d in a te tra d e rs o r p a rtic u la r individuals.
It is b ey o n d th e sco p e o f th is w o rk to m u ltip ly ex a m p le s o f the w o rk in g s
o f th e in ten sely c o m p lic a te d tra n s a c tio n s a n d c o n d itio n s o f th e ec o n o m ic
w o rld . B ut w e c a n n o t resist th e te m p ta tio n to sug gest t he m a n y ty pes o f
irreg u larities th a t ch a rac te rize th e ec o n o m ic d o m a in . S u flic e rt to m en tio n
th e g ra n d s e r ie s ltf pH ariW s~ vm h th e rich at o n e pole a n d th e p o o r a t the
o p p o site pole, even th e m o st d estitu te, ag a in th ere a re th e polarities se p a ra t­
ing th e ec o n o m ic m asters fro m th e subjects, th e o w n ers fro m the w o rk ers,
th e rights o f m en a n d w o m en , a n d so o n a n d on.
c. Legal and other Influences in Economics. It has a lre ad y b een inti­
m a te d h o w ec o n o m ic asp e cts in te rp e n e tra te all th e o th e r featu res o f cu ltu r­
a l existence. T h is in terd iscip lin ary in te rp e n e tra tio n o p e ra te s by w ay o f ..
re cip ro ca l in flu en ce o f one ty p e o f social ev en t u p o n a n o th e r. T h u s eco-
n o m ic affairs a re influenced by legal c o n d itio n s w hile th e p articu larities o f
la w .a r ^ e f f e c te d b y e c o n q r h T c ^ q n s id e r a tib T i^ A h ^ x tr e m e ly ih te r e T tr r ^
e x a m p le o f h o w ec o n o m ic affairs influence law s is fo u n d in th e p ro cess by
w hich b a n k e rs c o n triv e to h av e law s m a d e to fa v o r th em instead o f th eir
cu sto m ers. T h is is tru e o f airlines, hotels, a n d m a n y o th e r en terp rises. T h e
m a c h in e ry em p lo y e d in b rin g in g su ch effects a b o u t co n sists o f lobbies th at
in v ad e th e h alls o f legislative in stitu tio n s. B an k s, c o rp o ra tio n s , a n d o th e r
business o rg a n iz a tio n s ex ert consid e ra b le p ow ers o v er sta te legislatures
a n d federaLcongresses.to_secu re a d v an tag es fo r th e ir p a rtic u la r enterprises.
^ C o n s id e r h o w b a n k s a n d savings societies" a r e 'a b le to T n fiu en o T Iaw
m a k e rs to e n a c t law s fa v o rin g them selves as o v e r a g a in st d ep o sito rs a n d
th o se w h o o w e th e b a n k , also m o n ey savers. O f assu rity it is n ecessary th a t
th e re sh o u ld b e law s e n a c te d in o rd e r to p ro d u c e so m e so rt o f civility a n d
h a rm o n y as b etw e en th e p artie s im p lica ted in e c o n o m ic situ atio n s. H ow -

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ever, th e q u e s tio n arises w h e th e r law s sh o u ld be eq u ally in th e interest o f

b o th len d ers a n d b o rro w e rs , b a n k e rs a n d c lie n ts. P e rh a p s it is to o m u c h to
ex p e c t th a t su c h c o m plica te d s itu a tio n s as a re th e.eco n o m ic ones s h o uld b e _
o rg a n iz e d o n th e basis o f e q u ity an d -th e.com m Q n.go.odj3fallm em .bgrs o f a _
p o p u la tio n in ste a d o f b e in g s la n te d b a d ly t o w a rd a n exclusive ac c u m u la -
tiori b r p f o f its b v -^ r t a i n in d iv id u als a n d c o m p an ies.__
d. Constancy o f Economic Changes. M u c h o f th e reg u larities an d
irreg u larities in e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n s a re clearly ow ing to th e c o n sta n t
ch a n g es in h u m a n c irc u m sta n ces. E c o n o m ic situ a tio n s are in c o n sta n t flux,
new o rg a n iz a tio n s a re p erio d ically a p p e a rin g , th e re are n u m e ro u s novel
w ays o f d o in g th in g s. M a n y o f th e ch a n g es are d irectly re la te d to h a p p e n ­
ings in n a tu re , su c h as floods, d ro u g h ts , to rn a d o e s , e a rth q u a k e s w h ich
b rin g a b o u t ch a n g es in e c o n o m ic b e h a v io r a n d in e c o n o m ic situ a tio n s. All
th ese a re p ara lle le d b y a n e n o rm o u s n u m b e r o f m a n -m a d e m o d ifications,
so m e re la ted to co sm ic c o n d itio n s, b u t o th e rs co n c o cted fo r th e p erso n al o r
p riv a te benefit o f ec o n o m ic m a n ip u la to rs .
e. Obsolescence and Seasonality. A very in tere stin g fe atu re o f ec o n o m ic
life arises w h e n th e c rite rio n fo r e c o n o m ic processes is th e profits o f a
p ro d u c e r in ste a d o f th e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e c o n su m er. O u ts ta n d in g h ere is
th e p ro b le m o f o b so lescen ce a n d sea so n ality . In g en eral it is a ssu m ed th a t
in o rd e r to p ro d u c e p ro fits m a n u fa c tu re rs hav e to intensify th e ir m o d es o f
p ro d u c tio n . T h e ir re m e d y is to b u ild o b so lescen ce in to th e ir p ro d u c t w ith
th e c o n se q u e n t esta b lish m e n t o f th e in stitu tio n o f seasonality. In th e m o re
a d v a n c e d c o u n trie s th is process is easily a n d w idely o b serv ed in th e p ro d u c -
i tio n a n d sale o f m o to r cars. M a n y p e o p le c o m p ly w ith th e sea so n ality

(\ in s titu tio n a n d e x c h a n g e c a rs e a c h y e a r even if th ey d o n o t use th e m so fa r

ju as to p ro d u c e fau lts w ith th e m ach in e ry . H o w ev er, th e m o to r c a r e x a m p le
1 is o n ly o n e o f very m an y . T h e sa m e th in g is tru e o f fa sh io n s in clo th in g a n d
' | in o th e r m a rk e ta b le goods.
A s im ila r ty p e o f o b so lescen ce is o b se rv ed a m o n g c o n su m e rs w h o m ay
n o t w ish to b o th e r w ith sm all rep airs to a p p lian ces w hich beco m e in need o f
re p a ir, b u t im m e d ia tely tu rn to th e s h o p s a n d re p la ce th e d iscard ed articles
w ith new o n es a t a larg e p rofit to th e p ro d u c e r a n d seller.
f. Idiosyncracies in Economics. P u rs u a n t to th e p ro b lem s ju s t m en­
tio n e d w ith resp ect to th e d iffe re n tia tio n b etw een e c o n o m ic ev en ts o f th e
p o p u la tio n a t larg e a n d o f th e specific e c o n o m ic sectio n s, is th e p ro b le m o f
th e re la tio n o f p e rso n s to o th e r p e rso n s a n d to th e in stitu tio n s. By eco­
n o m ic id io sy n crac ies we refer to th e re la tio n sh ip s b etw een in d iv id u a l
p e rso n s a n d g ro u p s o f p erso n s w ith re la tio n to o th e r g ro u p s. In co m p lex

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societies we find th a t p e rso n a l in tere st lo o m s larg e w ith re la tio n to o th e r

perso n s a n d g ro u p s a n d th e la rg e r co m m u n itie s to w h ich th e individual
belongs.
S in g le p e rso n s m a y find th em selv es w ith se rio u s p ro b le m s w ith respect
to th e p ro d u c tio n a n d d is trib u tio n o f g o o d s. A s a n o u tg ro w th o f th e
in s titu tio n o f slavery in d iv id u a ls in su c h situ a tio n s have n o resources w ith
w hich to e n fo rce th e ir c laim s to a p ro p e r sh a re o f th e w e alth o f th e large
c o m m u n ity . B u t w h e n th e ec o n o m ic s o f a c o u n try o r a specific g ro u p
consists o f a n u m b e r o f p e rso n s d o in g sim ilar w o rk o r c o n trib u tin g to th e
p ro d u c tio n o f a c e rta in k in d o f g o o d s, th e n th e y ca n jo in to g e th e r to m a k e
d e m a n d s a n d to e n fo rce th e ir claim s to im p ro v e co n d itio n s. T h u s in
p e rh a p s all co m p le x e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n s th ere arise u n io n s o f p erso n s w ith
th e resu lt th a t th e y c re a te sp ecial facilities fo r fo rm u la tin g th e ir d e m a n d s,
a n d m a k e th e m k n o w n by lo b b ies in legislative in stitu tio n s, a n d fu rth e r,
im p le m e n tin g th e ir d e m a n d s by strikes o r cessatio n o f w o rk .

T H E D O G M A O F P R IC E

By fa r th e stro n g e s t ev id en c e o f th e re p le tio n o f eco n o m ics w ith a b s tra c ­

tio n s is th e e m p lo y m e n t o f tra d itio n a l d o g m as like price, su p p ly a n d
d e m a n d , eq u ilib riu m , a n d s o on.
T h e p ric e th e o ry o f v a lu e h a s so lo n g p ersisted a n d b a d ly serv ed eco­
n o m ic th e o ry t h a t it h a s s h u t o ff fro m view th e a c tu a l d a ta o f eco n o m ics,
n am ely , th e w ay s o f p e o p le d eriv in g th e ir m e a n s o f ex isten ce, th e ir p ro d u c ­
tivity, th e ir c o n tro l o v e r th e ir c o n su m p tio n , b a rte r o r tra d e , p ro fits a n d
losses, a n d so o n . Eve ry th in g p e rta in in g to th e c o ncrete e x p e rie nces o f d a ily
. living h as b e e n o v e rsh a d o w e d b y p rice th e o ry . W e a lth o r m o n e y in its
fu n c tio n , in crease o r d ecrease, e x c h a n g e a n d m e th o d o f ex ch an g e, is
reg ard e d as th e key to th e o p e ra tio n o f th e to ta l ec o n o m ic system . C a n a n
a b s tra c tio n b e m o re p o te n t a n d a t th e sa m e tim e m o re irrelev an t? N ever­
theless, th e p rice th e o ry o f v alu e co n tin u e s to influence ec o n o m ic th in k in g
a lth o u g h it h as been p o w e rfu lly a tta c k e d . W e p o in t to th e c a m p a ig n o f
V eblen a n d his follow ers in th e In stitu tio n a l tra d itio n . V eblen an d th e
in stitu tio n a lists e n d e av o re d to replace th e p rice th e o ry w ith d a ta ob serv ed
in th e p ra ctices o f th e in d u s tria l a rts a n d in th e in stitu tio n s o f o rg an ized
society.
— ^ N o w we m u st re ite ra te th a t a n y o n slau g h t u p o n a b stra c tio n s m u st itself
n o t b e irresp o n sib ly ab slractiv eT T h ere a re tw o preventives. In th e first place
o n e m ust, n o t .co n fu se c o n stru c ts a n d events, n o r av o id relev an t a b stra c -
tions. P ro p e r a b stra c tio n a l c o n stru c tio n s are o f value in science, a n d in

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sy ste m a tic th in k in g in g e n e ra l. T h e sec o n d p re v en tiv e is to co n stru ct.

a b s tra c tio n s exclusively fro m c o n c re te ev en ts. C o n s tru c tio n s u n d eriv ed
fro m ev en ts are d o g m as. ~

SU PPL Y A N D D E M A N D AS D O G M A S A N D AS EVENTS

A n excellent e x a m p le o f th e o p e ra tio n o f a b stra c tio n s a n d un iv ersals in

e c o n o m ic s c e n te rs a r o u n d th e d o g m a o f su p p ly a n d d e m a n d . S u p p ly a n d
d e m a n d a re o b v io u sly c o n c re te e v e n ts in e c o n o m ic situ a tio n s, b u t th ey are
m a d e in to a b s tra c t p rin cip les in e c o n o m ic th e o ry to d is to rt ac tu a l h a p p e n -
ings a n d to falsify th e ir d escrip tio n .
T h e su p p ly o f ce rta in g o o d s m ay b e lim ited b ecau se o f u n av a ila b ility in
n a tu re o r difficulty o f tra n s p o r ta tio n , as w ell a s v a rio u s accid en ts. H o w ­
ever, all ty p es o f sca rcity c a n b e o v e rc o m e by su b stitu tio n , ch em ical
synthesis, o r so m e o th e r m e a n s o f a d a p ta tio n to c o n d itio n s. T h e m o st
fla g ra n t m a n ip u la tio n o f su p p ly c irc u m sta n c e s is fo u n d in co m m ercial
s itu a tio n s . P ro d u c tio n o f g o o d s in m a n y re sp ects c a n be lim ited in o rd e r to
e x a c t h ig h e r prices, o r th ey m a y sim p ly h o ld th e ir in v e n to ry u n til th e
d e m a n d results in h ig h e r prices.

EQ U ILIBRIU M IN EC O N O M ICS

T h e c o n s tru c t o f e q u ilib riu m in eco n o m ics p ro v id es a perfect illu stra tio n

o f a n illicit a b s tra c tio n . W h e th e r it refers to a n e q u ilib riu m o f su p p ly an d
d e m a n d , o f savings a n d in v estm en ts, th e eq u ivalence o f th e m a rk e t ra te o f
in te re st to th e n a tu ra l rate, o r th e e q u a lity o f e m p lo y m e n t a n d u n em p lo y ­
m e n t, o r so m e o th e r e c o n o m ic situ a tio n , it im m e d ia tely suggests fixity an d
finality ra th e r th a n th a t ch an g es are c o n sta n tly ta k in g place. A ccordingly, it
re p re se n ts w ell th e h ia tu s b etw een 1) a c tu a l e c o n o m ic tra n s a c tio n s an d
o th e r e c o n o m ic events, a n d 2) th e c o n s tru c tio n o r d e sc rip tio n o f ec o n o m ic
events.
T h e p rin cip le o r law o f ec o n o m ic eq u ilib riu m is in g en eral a q u estio n ab le
o n e. T h is is ev id en t in th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f S ay ’s (1767-1832) law o f
m a rk e ts a c c o rd in g to w hich th e re c a n b e n o general o v e rp ro d u c tio n o r
u n d e rc o n s u m p tio n .4 S u rely th e e q u ilib riu m p rin cip le is a n a rb itra ry co n ­
s tru c tio n w ith little basis in ec o n o m ic fact.

4Ayres. C. E., The Theory o f Economic Progress, Chape) Hill, North Carolina Press, 1944, p. 267.

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C A PITA LISM A N D SO C IA LISM AS V A R IA N T E C O N O M IC SY STEM S

T h e ec o n o m ic sy stem u su ally re ferred to as ca p ita lism m a rk s a definite

m o v e m e n t aw ay fro m th e c o n c re te affairs o f ec o n o m ic living to w a rd th e
a b stra c tio n is m o f w e a lth a n d p e c u n ia ry fu n d s ._The m a in e m p h asis o f
ca p ita lism is th e a c c u m u la tio n o f m o n ey th a t c a n b e used fo r ca rry in g o u t
v ario u s ec o n o m ic en te rp rise s. T h is m o v e m e n t signifies th a t th e g o al o f
ec o n o m ic tra n s a c tio n s is p rim a rily th e benefits o f e n tre p re n e u rs. In a
g en u in e sen se ca p ita listic ec o n o m ic s te n d s to w a rd th e c o n tro l o f ec o n o m ic
processes b y specific in d iv id u als w h o h av e a n effective c a p acity to c o n tro l
th e fu n d s n ec essary fo r d o in g th in g s w hich c a n n o t b e ac co m p lish e d by
in d iv id u a l la b o re rs o r g ro u p s o f w o rk ers. In m a n y w ays it is tru e th a t
ca p ita listic eco n o m ics leaves b eh in d th e p a rtic u la rs co n c ern in g w o rk e rs in
fa v o r o f th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f e c o n o m ic assets a n d c o n tro l in th e h a n d s o f
b an k e rs a n d m a n ag e rs in stead o f th e p ro d u c e rs o f th e g o o d s created fo r use
a n d e x c h an g e.5
By c o n tra s t socialistic eco n o m ics te n d s in th e o p p o site d irectio n . T h e
stress is to w a rd c o n crete affairs in w hich th e w o rk e rs o r p ro d u c e rs o f ponds,
h av e so m e s h a re IrTThe c o n tro l o f e c o n o m ic p ro cesses. In a definite w ay
socialistic ec o n o m ic s as it is d escrib ed in th e lite ra tu re a lso preserves a fo rm
o f u n d e sira b le a b stra c tio n ism , d esp ite th e tre n d o f p ro fitab ility fav o rin g th e
ag g re g a te p o p u la tio n . It is in tere stin g to n o te th a t th e specific processes o f
socialistic e n d e a v o r a re sim ila r to th o se o b ta in in g in ca p italistic econom ics.
F o r e x a m p le , in d iv id u a ls u n ite to fo rm u n io n s w h ich in th e ag g reg ate
a ssu m e p o w e rs sim ila r to th a t o f th e m a n a g e rs o r ca p ita lists. U n io n ism has
its definite a r m o r in th e s tra te g y o f lax ity in w o rk in g , a n d strik in g . By these
u n io n s h a v e d ev e lo p e d a larg e m e a su re o f c o n tro l a n d p o w e r o v e r ec o ­
n o m ic situ atio n s.

BUSINESS A N D PU B LIC W E L FA R E

W h e n e m in e n t e c o n o m ists asse rt th a t “ec o n o m ics is a science o f h u m a n

b eh a v io r,” th e y d o n o t o v e rlo o k th e existence o f ec o n o m ic institu tio n s,6
a lth o u g h th e y m ay n o t realize fully th a t in stitu tio n s a re th em selves phases
o f h u m a n b e h a v io r. In s titu tio n s fu n c tio n in th e ro le o f stim u la tio n s a n d
settin g fa c to rs J n th is sectio n , th e n , o u r e m p h a sis will b e o n th e co rrectn ess
o f th e p sy ch o lo g ical prem ises w h ich a re used in th e d iscu ssio n s o f ec o n o m ic
’ Among the prominent authorities to be consulted are, Marx and Engels. T. Veblen. and R. H.
Tawney.
'■Cf. Mitchell, W. C.."The Prospects of Economics," in The Trend o f Economics (R. G. Tugwell.
ed.). New York. Knopf. 1924.

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situ atio n s. Scientific p sy chology, w h ich sh o u ld be helpful fo r th e u n d e r­

sta n d in g o f e c o n o m ic d a ta , in stru c ts u s th a t p sy chological b eh a v io r is
alw ays in terb e h av io r. P sy ch o lo g ical ev en ts co n sist o f fields in w hich o rg a­
nism s in te ra c t w ith stim u lu s o b jects su c h as social in stitu tio n s u n d e r
specified co n d itio n s.
*
, - ^ N o w in c o m p le x e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n s a n in v aria b le a n d o m n ip resen t
ty p e o f in stitu tio n is th a t called business en terp rises. S u c h enterprises exist
a n d o p e ra te as ag g reg ates o f p erso n s in p a rtn e rsh ip s, o r c o rp o ra tio n s for
*V th e p u rp o s e o f p ro d u c in g o r d is trib u tin g g o o d s a n d services fo r profit. It is
i.N su ch in stitu tio n s th a t in v o k e th e d ic h o to m y o f p o p u la tio n s in to business
> ' a n d g en eral w elfare a n d force to th e fro n t th e conflict b etw een th e general
w elfare o f p eo p le as o v er ag ain st th e excesses o f business enterprises.
B usiness o f co u rse ta k e s o n m a n y fo rm s su c h as th e o w n e rsh ip o f th e
m ean s o f p ro d u c tio n , a n d b a n k s as th e so u rc e o f ca p ital o u tlay s b ased on
th e sav in g s o f th e gen eral public. B ecause o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l in te rre la tio n ­
sh ip o f w elfare p ro b le m s a n d th e success o f b u sin ess m a n y p ro b lem s arise
su c h as th e su p e rio r claim s o f b u sin ess tra n s a c tio n s o v er th e needs o f
in d iv id u als. A c co rd in g ly , businesses o f v a rio u s so rts su ch as m a n u fa c tu r­
in g a n d fo reig n tra d e claim a d v a n ta g e s s u c h as freed o m fro m all o r p a r t o f
ta x e s th a t m ig h t be levied o n th e ir b u y in g a n d selling. Specific in d u stries
claim p ro te c tio n fro m th e im p o rts b ro u g h t in fro m o th e r c o u n trie s. H ere
arises a p ro b le m o f g ra n tin g o r d e n y in g benefits to in d iv id u al co n su m ers
arisin g fro m th e im p o rta tio n o f g o o d s fro m co u n trie s w h ere co sts o f
m a n u fa c tu re a r e low er. O n th e o th e r h a n d , m a n u fa c tu re rs o r im p o rters
claim th a t in th e first p lace th e y m u s t h a v e th e a d v a n ta g e o f tra d e p ro te c ­
tio n , as w h en local in d u stries fa lte r o r fail th e n p rices w o u ld rise an y w ay .
A uniq u e a n d c m c ia l p h ase o f th e c o nflict b etw een business a n d w elfare
is th e stru g g le.b etw ee n th o s e jy h o wouFd m o d ify th e e n v iro n m e n t (as in
d e stro y in g fo rests o r strip m in in g ) f o r p ro fit^ a n d J h o s e j y f i q j w s h j t o
preserv e th e fo rests a n d o th e r n a tu ra l am en ities. C o n s ta n t w a rfare exists
b etw een lu m b e rm e n w h o w S H lo d e n u d e th e forests a n d th o se o p p o sed to
th e d e stru c tio n . S im ilarly, coal o p e ra to rs b a ttle w ith en v iro n m e n ta l p ro tec­
to rs f o r th e privilege o f strip m in in g fo r co a l. H e re it m u s t b e n o te d th a t th e
c o a l d e a le rs a rg u e th a t n o t o n ly is p ric e a n d p ro fit involved in th e ir
o p e ra tio n s, b u t also th e need to a d d to th e c u rre n t su p p ly o f energy.

EC O N O M IC C O N FU SIO N S: C A U SES A N D R E M E D IE S
O b serv ers o f th e e c o n o m ic scene c a n n o t b u t c o n c lu d e th a t th e discipline
is rep lete w ith u n c e rta in tie s a n d c o n fu sio n s. A w ide g a p sep a rates eco­

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n o m ic tre a tise s fro m th e ev en ts w ith in th eir purview . It is a n urg en t

p ro b le m to c le a r u p th e c o n fu sio n , if a t all possible. W e illu strate w ith a few
instances.
a. Excessive Specializations. E v ery c o m p lex e c o n o m ic system ex h ib ­
its a p ro fu sio n o f specialists. In th e d o m a in o f p ro d u c tio n th e re a re o f
co u rse, th e la b o re rs, to w h o m a re a d d e d th e su p erv iso rs, th e tim e keepers,
a n d th e p a y m a ste rs. In a d d itio n are th e fu n c tio n a rie s o f th e u n io n s in th e ir
v a rio u s levels. In d is trib u tio n th ere a re tra n s p o rte rs , salesm en o f all so rts,
retailers, w holesalers, jo b b e rs o f several varieties. C o o p e ra to rs vie with
single o w n ers. In th e h e a lth services a re to be m en tio n ed the d o c to rs,
d e n tists, n u rses, an d th e ir m a n y aid s a n d su p p o rte rs. T h e rule is to fu n c tio n
m o re an d m o re intensely in n a rro w e r a n d n a rro w e r enclaves. T h e result is a
cu m u la tiv e re tre a t fro m th e c e n te r o f th e lives a n d fu n c tio n s o f patien ts.
a*
M edical services m u s t be c a rrie d o n by c o o rd in a tio n a n d c o n su lta tio n
in stead o f in tim a te a c q u a in ta n c e w ith th e a d ju stm e n ts a n d g eneral m odes
o f living o f th o se w h o re q u ire a tte n tio n . ✓
b. Advertising. O rig in ally th e basis fo r the im m ense in d u stry o f ad v ertis­
ing w as th e sim p le a n n o u n c e m e n t th a t c e rtain c ra ftsm e n have fo r sale
c e rta in artic le s o f th e ir o w n m a n u fa c tu re . F ro m this sm all b eg in n in g the 2
ec o n o m ic s o f ad v e rtisin g h as reach ed e n o rm o u s scope,7 o n e o f th e w o rst
fe atu res o f w h ich is th e a g gressive b e h a v io r o f in d ucing p erso n s to buy
c e rta in Things m a n y o f w h ich th ey d o n o t n e e d o r w o u ld n o t w a n t orH m ar-
ily. T h e ad v e rtisin g ty p e o f influencing p e rso n s reaches tre m e n d o u s im p o r­
ta n c e w ith all so rts o f im m o ra l an d illegal side issues. It is well k n o w n th at
v a rio u s legislative agencies h av e a tte m p te d to p ro d u c e re g u la to ry law s such
t
u*
as fo r e x a m p le T ru th in A dv ertisin g . H o w g reat this in stitu tio n o f ad v ertis-
j in g h as b e c o m e is in d ic a te d by th e fact th a t o f th e m a n y cars th a t are
p ro d u c e d , ev ery o n e is th e best. S avings in stitu tio n s assert th a t th eir
p a rtic u la r c o m p a n y is th e p r o p e r p lace to save d esp ite th e fact th a t v ario u s a
g o v e rn m e n ta l agencies set lim its to w h a t th e in stitu tio n s c a n offer an d
g ra n t, so th a t it is v ery difficult to d isco v er in w h a t su p erio rity , if an y , a
p a rtic u la r savings asso c ia tio n lies.
c. Intensive Competition. T h e excessively co m p etitiv e a n d aggressive
processes o f c o m p le x o r highly in d u strial system s b rin g in th eir train
in stitu tio n s o f c u n n in g a n d deceit. T h e d rive fo r p rofits an d e c o n o m ic
p o w e r g en erates sw indles o f all sorts. E x am p les o f th e m o d e ra te so rt arc th e

’"In 1974. American business spenl $26 billion dollars on advertising." according to Attiych. R..
Back. G. H.. and Lunsdcn. R.. Basic Economics: Theory aiul Cases. Englewood Clifls. 1977.

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m eth o d s o f p ricin g g oods. N o th in g co sts $10,000, b u t ra th e r “9,999.00.”

S m a lle r articles a re n o t generally p rice d a t $20.00, b u t a t $19.99. M o re
serio u s sw indles c o n c e rn th e p ro v e n ie n ce o f m a n u fa c tu re , th e im itatio n o f
go o d s, a n d th e s u b stitu tio n o f in ferio rity fo r p e rfe c tio a
S u c h a re so m e o f th e im p ro p rie tie s th a t m a k e fo r co n fu sio n s a n d
m isu n d e rsta n d in g s in e c o n o m ic situ atio n s. T h e clarification an d rem ed y
a p p a re n tly d o e s n o t reside w ith in th e a m b ia n c e o f p ro d u c tio n , d istrib u tio n ,
an d c o n su m p tio n .
S in c e it is th e case th a t eco n o m ics is th e d o m a in o f h u m a n b e h a v io r, it
a p p e a rs th a t im p ro v e m e n ts m ay fo llo w fro m im p ro v e m e n ts in h u m a n
b eh av io r. T h is is a psychological p ro b lem a n d w h at seem s to be called fo r is
an effective scientific psychology. S u c h a p sy ch o logy is well eq u ip p e d w ith
k n o w led g e f o r b rin g in g im p ro v em en ts a b o u t in h u m a n u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d
w ays o f a d a p tin g to u n satisfac to ry circu m stan ces.

IN T E R R E L A T IO N S O F P H IL O S O P H Y A N D ECO N O M ICS

S y m p a th iz e rs w ith scientific p h ilo so p h y need h a rd ly be re m in d e d o f th e

o b v io u s fact th a t p h ilo so p h ies a re g re atly influenced by ec o n o m ic ev en ts as
b y o th e r circ u m sta n ces o f h u m a n living, n o r th a t th e influence is reciprocal.
E co n o m ists erect th e ir th eo ries a n d m o d els u p o n p rev ailin g philo so p h ies.
A strik in g e x a m p le o f th e e a rly d ay s o f m o d e rn ec o n o m ics is th e s u p p o rt
S ir W illiam P e tty (1623-1687) received fro m th e p h ilo so p h ic al view s o f
T h o m a s H o b b e s (1588-1670). P h ilo so p h ica l influences o n ec o n o m ists an d
th e ir w o rk s a r e a t tim e s d ire c t a n d o v e rt as in th e case o f th e classical
ec o n o m ic s o f S m ith (1723-1790) a n d R ic a rd o (1772-1823) influenced by
L ocke (1632-1704) a n d H u m e (1711-1776), a n d th e M a rx ia n eco n o m ics
b ased o n H egel (1770-1831). In m an y o th e r cases th e influence is c o v e rt as
in m o st o rig in a l w riters o n e c o n o m ic subjects.
W h a t m ay be a u n iq u e featu re o f th e in te rre la tio n sh ip o f p h ilo so p h y a n d
e c o no m ics is th a t even in c o v e rt circ u m sta n c e s p h ilo so p h ic al a ttitu d e s,
co m p rise th e u n w ittin g ly em p lo y ed h y p o th eses a n d p o stu lates o f ec o n o m ic
fo rm u la e , m o d els, a n d theories. W riters o n ec o nom ics m ay stress m ainly
th e un iv ersalism o f th e general p h ilo so p h ical tra d itio n , o r som e in d iv id u al
d o c trin e . T h u s th e h isto ry o f ec o n o m ic s is a reco rd o f th e a d o p tio n o f
specific ab stra c tio n s su ch as lab o r, value, ex c h an g e, eq u ilib riu m , w ealth , o r
w elfare. A s evidence o f th e in terre la tio n sh ip o f p h ilo so p h y a n d econom ics
we co n sid e r so m e o u ts ta n d in g h isto rical a n d recen t e c o n o m ic m o v em en ts
in w h ich m o re o r less u n iq u e fo rm u la tio n s sta n d out.

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1. Continuity of Economics
In a sm u c h a s eco n o m ics in clu d es th e ele m e n ta ry life processes o f o rg a­
nism s as they m a in ta in them selves by in te ra c tin g w ith th e ir biological an d
social en v iro n m e n ts as well as th e p ecu n iary circu m stan ces o f com m u n ities,
th e re ex ists a c o n tin u u m in th e a ttitu d e s s tu d e n ts o f eco n o m ics fo rm u la te
c o n c e rn in g th e ec o n o m ic activities p erfo rm ed by in d iv id u als a n d groups.
B ut w ith in this c o n tin u u m th ere is a succession b ased u p o n th e v aria tio n s in
ec o n o m ic s itu a tio n s o c c u rrin g in different cu ltu res, g eo g rap h ical centers,
natio n s, a n d o th e r political groupings.

2. Economics in Antiquity
T h e sto ry o f th e beginnings o f th e discipline o f eco n o m ics m ay pro p erly
be lo calized in G re ek tim es w h en well fo rm u la te d ph ilo so p h ies becam e
av a ila b le d esp ite th e c o m p a ra tiv e sim plicity o f ec o n o m ic situ atio n s th en
prev ailin g . It is tru ly said th a t a m o n g th e G reeks, in clu d in g th e em in en t
P la to a n d A risto tle , ec o n o m ic s a re m erely h o u seh o ld system s by c o n tra s t
w ith th e m o re g e n e ra l ec o n o m ic s o f la te r n a tio n s o r cu ltu re s. A s it m u st be
w h e n intellect uaF disciplines a re o n ly p artia lly specialized th e eco n o m ics o f
th e g re a t p h ilo so p h e rs a re o n ly in cid en tal to p o litical a n d eth ica l doctrines.
A n cien t ec o n o m ic tra n sa c tio n s a n d general eco n o m ic ev en ts are treated
fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f eth ical a n d political p ro p rie ty an d n o t so m u ch on
th e basis o f effective a d a p ta tio n s.
H o w so ev er sim p le a n d fra g m e n ta ry G reek eco n o m ics m ay be, to it
b elo n g s th e g lory th a t it c o rre sp o n d s to an objective a n d n atu ralistic
philo so p h y . G re e k p h ilo so p h ic al a ttitu d e s are firm ly ce n te red u p o n ac­
tu a l ev en ts o b serv ed a n d sp ec u la tio n s b ased u p o n co n stru c tio n s free o f
a rb itra ry a n d p erso n al assertiveness, o r m ystical trad itio n s. A n cien t m ini­
eco n o m ics co n fin ed itself to a c tu a l o ccurrences o f p ro d u c tio n , c o n s u m p ­
tio n , co m m o d ities, a n d interchanges o f v ario us sorts.

Transcendental Economics
A s w e learn fro m th e h isto ry o f p h ilo so p h y a n d fro m social h isto ry in
gen eral, th e objective c u ltu re o f p re ch ristian d a y s w as follow ed by a p erio d
in w hich p h ilo so p h y becam e en tirely s a tu ra te d w ith n o tio n s o f a p u tativ e
fu tu re a n d b e tte r life to co m e. T h e a c tu a l w o rld w as reg ard ed as u n real an d
only a c o rrid o r to the real su p e rn a tu ra l heaven o f G o d an d th e angels. O n
th e basis o f su ch a p h ilo so p h y n o reg ard needs to be h a d fo r th e co n d itio n s

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o f w a n t a n d necessity fo r G o d m a k e s p ro v is io n f o r all living th in g s so no

tre a su re w as to be laid u p o n e a rth b u t o n ly in heaven.
B u t as th e ir p re sen t w o rld h a d to be lived in a n d a d ju ste d to , eco n o m ic
p ractices h a d to be p erfo rm ed . A cco rd in g ly , th e C h u rc h F a th e rs w h o cared
fo r th e sp iritu a l a n d w o rld ly affairs o f p e o p le set up rules a n d re g u latio n s
fo r all tra n sa c tio n s. T h u s fro m the tra n s c e n d e n ta l perio d stem the n o tions
o f ju s t price, th e p ro h ib itio n o f in terest o r u sury, a n d o th e r th eo lo g ically
based p rin cip les.

Protosecular Economics
By th e 16‘h a n d 17Ih cen tu ries th e c u ltu re o f W estern E u ro p e re ach e d a
h ig h p o in t in th e ev o lu tio n a w a y fro m th e d o m in a tio n o f th e c h u rc h an d
th e s u p e rn a tu ra l. P ro m in e n t in th e g en e ral c u ltu re o f th e tim e is th e gro w th
o f sec u la r states w ith th e ch an g e in p ro b le m s o f living, a n d in th e th in k in g
o f th e p h ilo so p h ers o f th e tim e. A ty p ical in sta n c e is th e th in k in g o f H obbes
(1588-1670) w hich stressed th e a b so lu te n e ss a n d th e in d isp u ta b le sover­
eig n ty o f u n it states, a lth o u g h th e b asic s u p e rn a tu ra l p h ilo so p h y o f th e
tra n s c e n d e n ta l p erio d w as m a in ta in e d . S tu d e n ts o f ec o n o m ic affairs how ­
ever, p a id in creasin g a tte n tio n to p a rtic u la rs o f p ro d u c tio n a n d c o n su m p ­
tio n as co n crete experiences m u ltip lied .
A b o v e all th e p resen t p erio d w as m a rk e d by th e g re at b u rg e o n in g o f
science. T h e ac h ie v em en ts o f C o p e rn ic u s (1473-1543), K ep ler (1571-1630),
a n d N e w to n (1642-1727) w ere re co rd e d in th e a n n a ls o f science. G re at
em p h a sis w as being placed o n th e a sc e rta in a b le law s o f n a tu re w hich co u ld
m in im ize th e o m n iscien ce a n d o m n ip o te n c e o f a su p re m e law giver a n d
ruler. ...
P ro to s e c u la r eco n o m ics usu ally called p lerc an tilism )is_p ro b a b ly th e
b eg in n in g o f m o d e rn o r p ro fessio n al e c o n o m ics, its p rim ary ch aracteristics
a re s u m m ariz ed by R o sch er ( 1817-1894) as sh o w in g th e influence o f an
estab lish ed sta tg -Q m atio n ,.m an u fa ctu re processes, foreign trad e , em p h asis
o f m o n e y j s w ealth, a n d a su p re m e in te rest in m etals.8
A n o u ts ta n d in g tra it o f th is p e rio d is th e tu rn in g to w ard q u a n titiv e
asp e cts o f ec o n o m ic affairs, th a t is, e c o n o m ic ev e n ts a n d processes becam e
ex p re sse d in te rm s o f n u m b e r, w eig h t, o r m e a su re as W illiam P e tty said in
his P o litical A rith m etik .

•Cf. Johnson, E. A. J., Predecessors o f A dam Sm ith, New Vork. Prentice-Hall, 1957, p. 3.

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Instead of using only comparative and superlative words and intellectual arguments, I have
taken the course. . . to express myself in terms of n u m b e r , w e ig h t, or m easure-, to use only
arguments of sense, and to consider only such causes as have visible foundations in nature.9

A s to specific e c o n o m ic view s o f P etty , he w as o f co u rse keen o n th e

a d v a n ta g e s f o r th e s ta te , fa v o re d a d e q u a te ta x a tio n fo r th e n eed s o f th e
state, also h e re g a rd e d v alu e to be b ased o n lab o r. M ain ly , h o w ev er, he lent
his ta le n ts to th e ca u se o f e c o n o m ic a d v a n c e m e n t by a d v o c a tin g th a t
w riters b e g u id e d b y th e le a d s p ro v id e d by science a n d its m eth o d s.
H isto rian s o f e c o n o m ic id eas re fer to his w o rk as m erc an tilism w hich w ith
th e w ritin g s o f th e p h y sio c ra ts, fo r e x a m p le Q u e sn a y (1694-1774) a n d
T u rg o t (1727-1801), re p resen t th e p re sen t p eriod.
A . Mercantilism. T h e o rig in a n d g ro w th o f th e m o d e rn system s o f
eco n o m ics co in cide w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c a p ita lism in th e 16<h cen -
tujry.10 T h e earliest o rg a n iz e d th e o ry is th a t o f th e M ercan tilists w h o
stressed th e e c o n o m y o f a g g re g a te s su c h as n a tio n s as o v e r ag a in st th e
m ed iev al in tere st in th e e th ic a l life a n d w elfare o f indiv id u als. A c co rd in g to
A d a m S m ith , m e rc a n tilism is a th e o ry o f re s tra in t a n d re g u la tio n .11 W h a t \
they a b s tra c te d as im p o rta n t fro m th e e c o n o m ic p le n u m w as th e e n la rg e ­
m en t o f th e g ro u p s ’ p o p u la tio n , a fa v o ra b le b alan c e o f tra d e , low in tere st J
a n d w ages, a n d sim ila r a d v a n ta g e s fo r th e n a tio n a l w ealth a n d w e ll-b e in g /
B. Physiocratism. T h is n a m e o r its alte rn a tiv e , th e A g ric u ltu ra l S y stem ,
is given to th e d o c trin e s o f a g ro u p o f F re n c h w riters w h o stressed p ro b lem s
ce n te red a b o u t th e p rim a ry a g ric u ltu ra l a sp e cts o f th e ir n a tio n . A c c o rd ­
ingly, th ey h eld th a t it is la n d a n d its p o te n tia litie s th a t a re th e so u rc e o f all
ec o n o m ic v alu es a n d processes. T o th e p h y sio cra ts it a p p e a re d th a t lan d
ancTthe p ro d u c ts deriv ed fro m it p ro v id e th e o n ly so lid basis fo r all th e law s
an d re g u la tio n s o f e c o n o m ic system s. A ll c o n s u m p tio n a n d d is trib u tio n ,
th e y believed, d e p e n d u p o n th e p ro d u c tiv ity th a t th e lan d provides. P h y si­
o c ra c y clearly o v e re m p h a siz e s o n e o f th e b asic fe a tu re s o f th e ec o n o m ic
co m p lex , a n d th u s m in im izes th e a p p re c ia tio n o f th e m a n y o th e r fa cto rs in
ec o n o m ic system s. T h e y d id , o f co u rse, allo w f o r valu es in o th e r th in g s
in so far as th ey w ere c o u p le d w ith th e facilities necessary to d istrib u te th e
ag ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c e d eriv e d fro m th e c u ltiv a tio n o f th e lan d . In cid en tally

’ Petty, W„ quoted in Spiegel, H. W., The Growth o f Econom ic Thought, Englewood Cliffs, N. J„
Prentice-Hall, 1971. p. 122.
l0Hcckscher, E. F„ M ercantilism , (E. F. Soderlund. ed.. M. Shapiro, trs.). 2 vols., 2nd rev. cd„
London. Allen and Unwin, I9SS.
"Smith. A.. A n Inquiry into the Nature an d Causes o f the Wealth o f Nations, vol. 2, Everyman ed„
1937, p. 157.

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th e o v e re m p h a sis o f a g ric u ltu re a n d th e lan d led th e p h y sio c ra ts to a n

e x a g g e ra tio n o f th e im p o rta n c e o f p riv a te p ro p e rty in th e ir eco n o m ic
th eo ry .

5. Classical Experiential Economics

A n e n o rm o u s ly g reat im p ro v em en t in ec o n o m ic h isto ry is identified w ith
th e B ritish tra d itio n o f th e e x p e rien tialists L o ck e (1632-1704), B erkeley
(1685-1753), a n d H u m e (1711-1776). It is th e p rim a ry th in k in g o f th eir
p h ilo so p h ie s to em p h asize th e ex p e rien ce o f in d ividuals in developing
a ttitu d e s to w a rd th e w o rld a n d its d etailed h appenings. T h e basic views o f
th is tra d itio n stem fro m L o ck e’s w ay o f id eas. T h e u p s h o t o f su ch th in k in g
w as th e em erg en ce o f a ty p e o f u n iv ersal su b jectivity w hich w as to stan d
o p p o s e d to th e ra tio n a lism a n d in tu itio n ism o f th e C o n tin e n ta l p h ilos­
o p h e rs su ch as L eibniz (1646-1716) d o w n to K a n t (1724-1804).
C lassical ex p e rien tial ec o n o m ic s has b ee n m ain ly p ro p a g a te d by schol­
a rs o f th e E nglish e m p irical p h ilo so p h ic a l tra d itio n . T h e o u tsta n d in g
e c o n o m is t(X d a rn S m iT h js w idely acclaim ed as th e ce n tra l figure in th e
m o v em en t asT h e^IItT io ro f th e Wealth o f Nations, th o u g h he shares h o n o rs
w ith M a lth u s (1766-1834), J a m e s M ill (1773-1836), J o h n S tu a rt M ill
(1806-1873), a n d D avid R ic a rd o (1 7 7 2 -1823), a m o n g others. It is o n e o f the
fu n d a m e n ta l ten ets o f th e classical g ro u p th a t ec o n o m ic processes o f every
d esc rip tio n a re go v ern ed by av ailab le n a tu ra l laws.
A n o u ts ta n d in g tra it o f th e Wealth o f Nations is its em p h asis o f th e
in d iv id u a l a n d his c o n trib u tio n to th e w elfare o f th e en tire c o m m u n ity in
' w h ich he p a rtic ip a te s. It is in th is m o o d t h a t S m ith is so a n ta g o n is tic to
m e rc an tilism becau se o f its res t r a i n t s a n d re g u la tio n s.12 It is e stim ated th a t
S m ith d ev o tes a b o u t o n e fo u rth o f his b o o k to a relentless criticism o f the
co m m e rc ia l o r m erc an tile sy stem .13 E c o n o m ics is fo r S m ith a laissez faire,

A m o n g th e specific ideas o f th e Wealth of Nations is first a n d fo rem o st

th e e m p h a sis o f p erso n s. S o la b o r as th e so u rce o f w ealth is p ro m in en tly
fe a tu re d . C h a p te r o n e tre a ts o f th e im p o rta n c e o f th e divisio n o f la b o r
w hile th e th e m e o f th e w elfare o f p e rso n s is stressed th ro u g h o u t. N o r is the
m a tte r o f self-interest neglected in an y o f th e p ro p o sa ls o r descriptions.
P ro m in e n t a m o n g th e m em b ers o f th e classical ex p erien tial g ro u p is
D av id R ic a rd o . A lth o u g h he w as n o t a p ro fessio n al ac ad em ic, b u t ra th e r a

Smilh, A., th e Wealth o f Nations, vol. 2. Everyman cd . p. 157.

"Heckvcher. E. F.. Encyclopedia o f the Social Sciences. vol. 10, 1937.

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b u sin ess m a n w h o h a d a c c u m u la te d a la rg e fo r tu n e in sto c k b ro k in g as a

y o u n g m an , a n d w h o retired a t th e ag e o f 44 y ears, he b ecam e ex trem ely
in tere ste d in th eo rie s c o n c e rn in g ec o n o m ic events. H is ec o n o m ic c o n c lu ­
sio n s h e p u b lish ed in a v o lu m e en title d Principles o f Political Economy and
Taxation, in 1817. It is g en e rally c o n c e d e d th a t R ic a rd o w as ex tre m ely
th e o re tic a l a n d ab stra c tio n istic , a lth o u g h h e d re w u p o n his ex p erien ces as a
b u sin ess m a n a n d m e m b e r o f P a rlia m e n t. T h e a b s tra c tio n is tic ten d en cies
in R ic a rd o a re illu stra te d by his p o w e rfu l a tta c h m e n t to th e la b o r th e o ry o f
v alu e. B ecause h e stressed single fa cto rs h e h a d to face in su p e ra b le difficul­
ties a n d m a n y o b je c tio n s in a m u ltifa c to r e c o n o m y .14 H e , h o w ev er, nev er
d e p a rte d fro m th e b asic p rin cip les o f th e E n glish em p iristic sc h o o l o f
p h ilo so p h y .
R ic a rd o a tta in e d a n e x c e p tio n a l p o p u la rity a m o n g ec o n o m ists o f his
d a y a n d later. S till a n u m b e r o f his d o ctrin e s w ere singled o u t fo r criticism
a n d e m e n d a tio n s. A m o n g his critics w ere M a lth u s, J a m e s M ill, J o h n
S tu a r t M ill, M c C u llo c h (1789-1864),15 S e n io r (1790-1864),16 a n d m a n y
o th ers. B u t since it w as th e a b s tra c t principles th a t u n ited R ic a rd o a n d his
critics, th e la tte r c o u ld o n ly m o u n t serio u s criticism s a b o u t details.

6. Marginal Utility and Subjective Value

S o fa r in o u r sa m p lin g o f e c o n o m ic system s w e h av e o n ly to u c h e d o n
F re n c h p h y sio c ra tic e c o n o m ic s. B u t w h a t o u tw eig h s this single sc h o o l o n
th e c o n tin e n t a r e several system s ste m m in g fro m G e rm a n ic p h ilo so p h ic al
sources. W e tu r n n o w to th e p h ilo so p h y o f th e e m in e n t K a n t a n d his
C o p e rn ic a n re v o lu tio n , a c c o rd in g to w h ich m a n gives law s to n a tu re . T his
ra tio n a listic 'v ie w p o in t h a s p lay ed a g re at p a r t in K a n t’s th in k in g th o u g h it
is so m e w h a t b a la n c e d b y H u m e ’s influence. S o fa r as c o n c ern s th e e c o n o m ­
ics ste m m in g fro m th is id ealistic p h ilo so p h y , th e re is th e p ro m in e n t n o tio n
o f u tility as d ec id e d b y in d iv id u a ls, a n d in g en e ral th e sub jectiv ity o f valu e.
T h e influence o f th e K a n tia n p h ilo so p h y o n ec o n o m ics is well illu stra te d by
th e sy stem w h ich C a rl M en g e r (1840-1921) a n d his disciples B o h m -B aw e rk
(1851-1914) a n d v o n W ieser (1851-1926), w h o re p re se n t w h a t h as b een
called th e A u s tria n sch o o l, h av e c o n stru c te d .
M a rg in a l u tility th e o ry is a n excellent e x a m p le o f an a b stra c te d fa c to r
gen eralized as a b asic p rin cip le o f ec o n o m ic p h e n o m en a . T o select utility
14Cf. Spiegel, H. M., The G row th in Econom ic Thought, Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey, 1971, p.
336.
15McCulloch, J. R., The Principles o f Political Economy, Edinburgh, Tail, 1843.
16Senior, N. W., author of an Outline o f the Science o f Political E conom y , London, Allen and
Unwin, 1938.

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a n d to glorify it is n o t a n u n ex p ected o u tc o m e o f dealin g w ith eco n o m ic

m a tte rs, since utility is so m a rk e d a fe a tu re o f c o n su m p tio n , trad e , an d
o th e r types o f tra n sa c tio n s in th e h o m e a n d m a rk e tp la c e .17 A ccordingly, we
are n o t su rp rise d to n otice th a t th e b asic p h ilo so p h ical fo u n d a tio n o f the
co m p le te d m arg in a l u tility d o c trin e is a c o m b in a tio n o f B ritish u tilitaria n
th in k in g a n d the subjectivistic p h ilo so p h y o f C o n tin e n ta l th in k ers. W e
recall th a t utility d o ctrin e s w ere d ev e lo p e d in E n gland by S tanley Jev o n s
(1835-1882), w hile in fact cred it m u st be given to Je v o n s fo r th e earlier
fo rm u la tio n o f th e m arg in a l u tility th e o ry . In a letter to his b ro th e r
c o n c e rn in g his “T ru e T h e o ry o f E co n o m y " he writes.
One of ihe most important axioms is. that as the quantity of any commodity, for instance,
plain food, which a man has to consume, increases, so the utility or benefit derived from the
last portion used decreases in degree. The decrease of enjoyment between the beginning and
end of a meal may be taken as an example. And I assume that on an average, the ra tio o f
u tility is some continuous mathematical function of the quantity of commodity."'

M a rg in a l utility th e o ry g ain ed influence a n d w as cu ltiv ated by th e

A u stria n s, M enger, B o h m -B a w e rk , a n d v o n W ieser. O n th e w h o le the
m arg in a l u tility g ro u p a d o p ts th e p la tfo rm o f utility ra th e r th a n value
deriv ed fro m lab o r. It is a n o to rio u s p a r a d o x o f eco n o m ics th a t a discipline
d ev e lo p e d fro m such o b v io u s c o n c re te circ u m sta n ces as th e ingestion o f
fo o d , th e b arte rin g o f o b jects fo r o th e r objects, th e p rovision o f services,
sh o u ld g e n e ra te so m an y diverse a n d o fte n c o n tra d ic to ry co n stru c tio n s in
th e fo rm o f hypotheses, selection, a n d in te rp re ta tio n o f events. A clue to
this s itu a tio n m ay be fo u n d in J. B. S a y ’s c o m m en t in his Treatise art
Political Economy.
In political economy, as in natural philosophy, and in every other study, systems have
been formed before facts have been established; the place of the latter being supplied by
purely gratuitous assertions.1''

T h e A u stria n eco n o m ists m en tio n ed a b o v e indicated th eir ad h eren ce to

ratio n a listic p h ilo so p h y s u p p o rte d by C a th o lic fo u n d a tio n s by assu m in g
rad ical ab stra c tio n istic in te rp re ta tio n s o f ec o n o m ic events. M en g er a p ­
p ea rs to have ov erem p lo y ed th e role o f m o n e y in eco n o m ic situ atio n s while
he an d his follow ers B o h m -B aw erk a n d von W ieser sh arp ly a tta c k e d th e
n o tio n o f la b o r as th e p rim a ry basis o f value. V alue acco rd in g to A u strian
1 Kauder. I... in his of Murytnaf Ihtfin flivorv, Princeton. Princeton tJniv. Press, 1965,
carries lhe theory back lo Aristotle.
■' fjuotcd by Keynes, J. M.. in and Skvicfw\ in Hinyruf>h\. New York, Meridum Books.
I ‘>V, p 142
"Say. I II . A frp u u w o n Vohtuaf ho tu *m \; n r the Pnafuttnm , fhstrihuftnn. untl ( onxuntfnion
•d Wraithl( K Prinscp. trs |. Philadelphia, (iri^g and Mliot. IX.V*. p. xvii.

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th eo ry is n o t a n in h ere n t p ro p e rty o f g o o d s, b u t is im p u te d to th em o n the

basis o f subjective decisions a n d e v a lu a tio n o f satisfaction.
A n o u ts ta n d in g resu lt o f th e p re o c c u p a tio n o f e c o n o m ists w ith value
th e o ry is th e m a th e m a tic a l tre a tm e n t o f d a ta o n th e g ro u n d o f m easu rin g
values. F o llo w in g th e w o rk o f J e v o n s a n d th e A u strian s th ere is a long
reco rd o f q u a n tiz a tio n a tte m p ts d o w n to ec o n o m e trics w h ich is referred to
below .
/ '^ G r a n t i n g th a t th e M arg in a l U tility ec o n o m ic s like th e o th ers o n o u r list
j d e m o n stra te s ex ten siv e a b stra c tio n ism , th e re is still to be n o te d th a t it does
I n o t o m it a n eq u a lly o b je c tio n a b le p sy ch o lo g y . T h e en tire n o tio n o f subjec-
[ tive e v a lu a tio n h in ts a t so m e in tern a l p rin cip le b ased o n m in d -b o d y
- tra d itio n .________________

7. Neoclassical Economics
T h e n eoclassical ec o n o m ic s o f th e C a m b rid g e S ch o o l offers a n in fo rm ­
ing ex a m p le o f th e co n tin u ity o f th in k in g in th a t discipline. T h e an aly sis o f
th e w o rk o f A lfred M a rsh a ll (1824-1942) d e m o n stra te s th e m o d ificatio n o f
earlie r views to fo rm a new er system w h ich assu m es stability an d p o p u la r­
ity befo re it is fu rth e r re h ab ilitate d . M a rsh a ll’s trea tise The Principles of
Economics d o m in a te d th e ec o n o m ic s a tm o s p h e re o f E n glish-speaking
n a tio n s fro m a b o u t 1890 to th e 1930’s in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e ex p erien tial
eco n o m ic s o f A d a m S m ith , D a v id R ic a rd o , a n d J o h n S tu a rt M ill as based
o n th e asso c ia tio n istic p h ilo so p h y , b u t it th e n b ecam e re b o rn by reaffirm a­
tio n a n d e x te n sio n .20 A lth o u g h M arsh a ll, a n d th e m e m b e rs o f th e C a m ­
b rid g e sch o o l, reacted a g a in st th e a b s o lu te a n d universal fo rm o f th eo rizin g
o f th e ir pred ecessors, th ey d o n o t really d e p a rt fro m th o se q u estio n ab le
ch a rac te ristic s. W h a t M a rsh a ll aim s a t, h o w ever, is a g re a te r em p h asis o f
th e d e ta ils o f e c o n o m ic tra n s a c tio n s irisT re a so n a b le to tra c e b a c k this
a s p e c to T M a rs h a irs th eo ries to his m ath e m a tic a l b a c k g ro u n d an d training.
A n o th e r basis p e rh a p s fo r his e m p h a sis o f d etails a n d m a th e m a tic a l pres­
e n ta tio n is th a t his a m b ia n c e is th e scientific e n v iro n m e n t o f C a m b rid g e
U niversity. In fa v o r o f th e c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f C a m b rid g e eco n o m ics is
M arsh a ll’s close in tellectu al re la tio n w ith R ic a rd o . F o r ex am p le, he asserts
th a t v alu e is d e te rm in e d by th e eq u ilib riu m o f su p p ly an d d e m an d . A c co rd ­
ingly, his th eo ries a re ra th e r re m o te fro m specific circum stances. H is great
service to ec o n o m ic s is to be m easu red by his clear a n d definite statem en t o f
ec o n o m ic e v e n ts a n d th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f a definite system o f econom ics.
20Cf. Burtt, E. G., Jr., Social Perspectives in the History o f Economic Theory, New York, St.
Martin’s, 1972, pp. 201 f.

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W e h av e a lre a d y sug g ested th a t th e fo u n d a tio n o f his th in k in g w as m a th ­

em a tic a l a n d th a t u n d o u b te d ly h as b ee n a fa c to r in his clea r-c u t p re sen ta­
tio n o f his o w n view s a n d criticism o f th e view s w ith w h ich he, at least on
th e surface, o b jected to.

I ne la u n c h in g ot tn e e c o n e m e tn c sT n o v e m e n t in the 20th cen tu ry m ark s

th e m a tu r a tio n o f th e q u a n tita tiv e p h ilo s o p h y w h ich h as b een g ra d u ally
d e v e lo p e d sin ce th e e v o lu tio n o f science a n d scientific a ttitu d e s in th e 17‘h
c e n tu ry . F o llo w in g th e lead o f th e so -called n a tu ra l scientists, w riters o n
e c o n o m ic su b jects have th ro u g h o u t th e th re e cen tu ries m en tio n ed , realized
th e necessity o f in tro d u c in g n u m b e rs, a n d in g en e ral statistical m e th o d s, in
th e ir stu d ies o f su ch h u m a n ev en ts a s th e p ro d u c tio n a n d d is trib u tio n o f
g o o d s. It is in n o sense m islead in g to lo o k to th e th in k in g o f D escartes
(1596-1650) as th e p h ilo so p h e r w h o p ro p o se d m ath em atica l m eth o d s
w h ic h co u ld b e a p p lie d to all s o rts o f situ a tio n s. It m u st be recalled th a t
D e sc arte s w as so closely identified w ith th e in v e n tio n o f a n a ly tic g eo m e­
try , a n d so to him c a n be tra c e d th e efforts to p ro d u c e d ia g ra m s an d
e q u a tio n s fo r p u rp o se s o f th ro w in g light o n ec o n o m ic processes. M a th e ­
m atical ec o n o m ic s im m e d ia tely suggests th e nam es o f P etty , Q u esn ay ,
C o u rn o t, W alras, Jev o n s, K eynes, a n d m a n y others.
T h e th e o ry o f e c o n o m e trics o r th e m a th e m atica l asp ect o f ec o n o m ics
■jsj n o n f a th e o ry c o n c m u n g p re s e n ta tio n m e th o d ra th e r th a n th e d escrip ­
t i o n a n d inteT pretatiofT oftH e basic d a ta o f e c o n o m ic s. W h a t th e e c o n o m e ­
tric ia n s a sse rt is th a t p ro p o sitio n s o f e c o n o m ics sh o u ld be m o st p ro p erly
m a d e iTTmaTherfiatical term s. T he q u a n tific a tio n o f eco n o m ics n o t only
p ro v id e s g o o d m e th o d s o f h a n d lin g e c o n o m ic d a ta , b u t also aid s in
d esc rib in g a n d in te rp re tin g th e basic d a ta o f econom ics.
L ike o th e r th eo rie s in eco n o m ics th a t a re ab stra ctio n istic, eco n o m e tric
m e th o d o lo g y is a special fo rm o f a b stra c tio n ism . A fu n d a m e n ta l q u estio n
c o n c e rn in g m a th e m a tic a l ec o n o m ic s is h o w p ro d u c tiv e it is fo r th e u n d e r­
sta n d in g o f e c o n o m ic processes. T h e p ro p o sitio n s o f eco n o m ics surely
a c q u ire c e rta in d efinite q u alitie s su c h as precise access to fu n d a m e n ta l
re la tio n sh ip s, th o u g h o n th e o th e r h a n d , they ten d to tu rn th e ec o n o m ist
a w a y fro m th e a c tu a l b e h a v io r o f p ro d u c tio n , ex ch an g e, an d values.
It is in fo rm a tiv e to n o te h ere th e a ttitu d e o f M arsh a ll, him self a m a th e ­
m a tic ia n , c o n c e rn in g th e excessive e m p lo y m e n t o f m ath e m a tic s to th e
d e trim e n t o f econom ics.

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. . . I had a growing feeling in the later years of my work at the subject that a good
mathematical theorem dealing with economic hypotheses was very unlikely to be good
economics: and 1 went more and more on the rules —( I) Use mathematics as a shorthand
language, rather than as an engine of inquiry. (2) Keep to them till you have done. (3)
Translate into English. (4) Then illustrate by examples that are important in real life. (5)
Bum the mathematics. (6) If you can't succeed in (4) bum (3). This last I did often.21

Communistic Economics
O n e o f th e m o s t s trik in g re la tio n sh ip s b e tw e en ec o n o m ics a n d p h ilo s­
o p h y is th a t w h ich o b ta in s in c o m m u n istic e c o n o m ic s. In ste a d o f philo s­
o p h y a p p e a rin g as th e basis o f ec o n o m ic s, it a p p e a rs as id en tical w ith
e c o n o m ic s. T h e e x a m p le is th e M a rx ia n re v o lu tio n a ry c o m m u n is m in its
c o m b in a tio n w ith th e R o m a n tic p h ilo s o p h y o f H egel. If w e c e n te r o u r
o b se rv a tio n u p o n K a rl M a rx we c a n n o t o m it th e d irect co n n e c tio n o f this
re v o lu tio n a ry th in k e r w ith H e g elia n teach in g s. Be it recalled th a t K arl
M a rx g re w u p in telle ctu ally in th e d e n sity o f th e H eg elian p h ilo so p h ic a l
a tm o s p h e re . In his y o u th h e revealed his e n a m o r o f H egel’s th in k in g as
in d icated in this sta te m e n t th a t, ;i
The outstanding thing in Hegel’s P h 'a n o m en o lo g ie is that Hegel grasps the self-creation of
man as a process. .. ; and that he therefore grasps the nature o f l a b o u r and conceives the
object man . . . as the result of his own labour. 22 11

T h e re p u te d tra n s fo rm a tio n o f H eg elian th in k in g a n d th e co n v e rsio n o f 11

th e re lig io u s tra n s c e n d e n ta lis m o f H eg el in to p ro b le m s o f e c o n o m ic co n d i- t
tio n s a n d class conflicts b asically m irro rs H e g elian p h ilo s o p h y as fused
w ith e c o n o m ic s. A s a m a tte r o f fa c t. K a rl M a rx w as u n a b le to reject |1 f
H egelian p h ilo so p h y b ecau se h e co u ld n o t m o v e a w ay fro m th e p rev ailin g it i
s p iritistic id e a s, a lth o u g h th ere is a g a p b etw e en his p h ilo so p h ic a l a ttitu d e s „,
a n d his in tere sts in social re v o lu tio n . ||.
T h e sa lie n t fe a tu re o f H e g elia n p h ilo s o p h y is o f c o u rs e th e u n iv ersa lity
o f co n sc io u sn e ss a s co m p rise d in th e A b so lu te o r G o d . A n d fu rth e r th e re is
th e d ialec tic o f th e th ree stages: thesis, an tith esis, a n d synthesis w h ich is |>»
u su ally a ttr ib u te d to H egel th o u g h d en ie d by so m e w riters in fa v o r o f a
d ialectic o f q u a n tita tiv e c h a n g es e n d in g in a q u a lita tiv e ch a n g e.2*
O n th e b asis o f th e d ialec tic o f H egel, K a rl M a rx e x p a tia te d u p o n th e
co m p le te u p h e a v a l a n d re v o lu tio n in so cial system s. A lso h is n o tio n o f
class conflict re ferred b a c k to th e d ialec tic leading to th e A b so lu te. T h e

21Memorials o f Alfred Marshall (A. C. Pigou, ed.), London, MacMillan, 1925. p. 427.
**Quoted from Karl Marx, Selected Writings in Sociology and Social Philosophy (T. B. Botto-
more, and M. Rubel, eds.). New York, McGraw-Hill, 1964, p. 2.
a Spiegel, H. W., The Growth o f Economic Thought, p, 463.

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p rim a ry n o tio n o f M a rx ’s e c o n o m ic s is th e e c o n o m ic in te rp re ta tio n o f

histo ry . T h is fo rm u la m a rk s a w ro n g e m p h a s is o f th e e c o n o m ic ph ases o f
TTvmgand a su p p r e s s io n o f.th e .m a ny o th e r fa c to rs th a t c o n d itio n the lives
o T p e o p le. M a rx ism illu stra te s th e m o st e x tre m e a b stra c tio n ism a n d uni-
versalism o f a n y e c o n o m ic system .
C o m m u n is tic e c o n o m ic s is th e c o n v e rse o f C a p ita listic ec o n o m ic s o f
w h ich m a n y sy stem s a r e e x ta n t. T h e la tte r is p re su m e d to b e o f b enefit to a
select class o f p erso n s, C o m m u n istic th e o rie s o r system s ta k e n collectively
a re all c h a ra c te riz e d a s u to p ia n in th e sense o f im p ro v in g h u m a n social
ex isten c e. H ow ev er, m a n y o f th e specific th e o rie s sim u la te closely sugges­
tio n s a v a ila b le in th e o th e r ty p es o f th e o ry . In g en eral, it m ay b& 5aid_thai-
m o re th a n a n y o th e r th e o ry so cialistic ec o n o m ic s stresses special p erso n s,
th e ca p ita lis ts , th e o w n e rs o f th e m e a n s o f p ro d u c tion. It is th e ca p ita lists
w h o c o n tro i ec o n o m ic s itu a tio n s in clu d in g c o m m o d ity a n d la b o r values.
S o cialist o r c o m m u n is t ec o n o m ic s is a im e d a t th e c o rre c tio n ot tn e evils
c e n te rin g a r o u n d th e c o n tra s t b etw e en th e rich a n d th e p o o r a n d d estitu te .
C o m m u n is t w riters h o p e to c o n tro l e c o n o m ic processes in su ch a w ay as to
d e stro y th e p o w e r o f m asters w h o m istreat w o rk e rs. A lth o u g h all ec o n o m ic
sch o o ls a n d th eo rie s m u st ta k e in to a c c o u n t th a t th e y d eal w ith lim itatio n s
o f po litica l system s, u to p ia n ec o n o m ic s a tte m p ts to d o a w a y w ith th e tw o
level system o f m asters an d slaves, o f b o u rg e o is a n d p ro leta rian s.
In his Capital M a rx fa sh io n s his e n tire sy stem u p o n th e c o n d e m n a tio n
o f th e class system a n d class conflicts. H e p re sen ts vivid d esc rip tio n s o f
w h a t g o es o n in th e p ro d u c tiv e p ro c ess, th e e x p lo ita tio n o f c h ild re n as well
as th e ir p a re n ts . H e cites the p lig h t o f c h ild re n a s y o u n g as fo u r to six years
en g a g e d in w o rk in g f o r a p itta n ce. N o r d o e s he o m it to re c o u n t th e pitiful
sto ries o f w o rk e rs a n d th e ir fam ilies w h o a re u n em p lo y ed a n d th u s have
n o t th e m e a n s even o f a c q u irin g th e m e a g e r fo o d th ey n ee d , th e w hile
ca p ita lists a c c u m u la te th e ir w ealth .24
A g o o d e x a m p le o f so cialist e c o n o m ic s is e x h ib ite d by th e R u ssia n
re v o lu tio n a n d th e S o v iet U n io n . In ste a d o f b asin g th e o ry o n th e his­
to rica lly estab lish ed u p p e r a n d low er classes in clu d in g h e re d ita ry rulers,
so cialist e c o n o m ic s in te n d s to a c c o u n t o n ly fo r so ld iers a n d w o rk e rs. But
since th e d iffe ren t na m e s are a b s tra c tio ns, th e a c tu a l c o n d itio n s o b ta in in g
m th e _ S o v ie t O n io n a re v ery d iffe ren t in fact. A ll o b serv ed e c o n o m ic -
p rocesses a re c o n c re te an d specific a n d th e ir circ u m sta n ces d o n o t m a tc h
th e ab s tra c tio n s .
■ ' Marx. K.. Capital: A Critiqueo) Political hUtmomy.vcA. 1: The Process o f Capitalist Production

(h Engels. cd.. S. Moore and E. Aveling. trv). New York. International. 1967.

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W ith respect to th e d etails o f e c o n o m ic sy stem s C o m m u n istic th e o ry

fav o rs a n e x tre m e e m p h a sis o f th e p ro d u c tiv e p rocess. T h is is in line w ith
th e stress o n th e w o rk e r. T h r o u g h o u t th e w h o le system th ere seem s to be a
g reater fe a tu rin g o f w o rk e rs th a n in o th e r system s a n d the im pression
c a n n ot be a v o id ed th a t a lL -w ealih .a n d .all p ro cesses o f e x c h an g e ce n te r
a ro u n d p r o d u c tio n. F a c to rs o f d is trib u tio n it is im p lied d o n o t incline
to w a rd th e w o rk e rs b u t to w a rd th e m a ste rs, th e o w n e rs o f th e m achines
a n d o th e r p a ra p h e n a lia o f p ro d u c tio n . T h e p h ilo so p h ic al principle im plied
in th is view o f e c o n o m ic s in th e light o f th e fu sio n o f p h ilo so p h y an d
eco n o m ic s is in d icated b y th e fa m o u s sta te m e n t o f K a rl M a rx to th e effect
t h a t , --- -------------- -------— -------------------------------------------------------- —
the philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways; the point, however, is to
v change it.2526 v--------------—--------------- -------- ----------- -— ----------- —----------------- ---- -

C o n s o n a n t w ith th e c o m m e n t w e h av e p re v io u sly m a d e c o n c ern in g th e

c o n s ta n t re p e titio n o f d o c trin e s b y th e v a rio u s sch o o ls o f eco n o m ics, th e
C o m m u n istic e m p h a sis o n th e la b o r th e o ry o f v alu e is n o t th eir exclusive
d o ctrin e , it has b een held by o th e r ec o n o m ists. H o w ever, m o st o th e r
w riters h av e held th a t th e la b o r th e o ry o f v alu e is a featu re o f th e ir d o ctrin e s
b u t th e p ro m o te rs o f th e c o m m u n istic sy stem m a k e th a t p rin cip le the
essen tial basis o f th e w hole system .

10. Welfare Economics

W h a t a p p e a rs to be a u n iq u e system o f e c o n o m ic s goes by th e n a m e ju s t
in d icated . W h at m ark s it as u n iq u e is th e a tte m p t t o get d o w n to th e
p a rtic u la rs o f in d iv id u al ex isten ce a n d in d iv id u al e c o n o m ic a d ju stm e n ts to
j he c o n d itio n s o f p e c u n ia ry ex isten c e. W h ile in sisting u p o n the in ad eq u a cy
o f th e o rd in a ry system s, H o b so n (1858-1940)“ a n d P ig o u (1877-1959)27
w ith th e ir in tere sts in th e w elfare o f p eo p le see m to b e leaving th e d o m a in
o f a b s tra c t th e o ry to get close to th e needs o f p eo p le a n d to suggest m ean s
o f relieving th em .
A ra th e r sy m p ath e tic a ttitu d e to w a rd H o b s o n is d isplayed by M itchell.28
In his trea tise en title d , Types o f Economic Theory th is a u th o r suggests the

25Marx, K„ “Thesis on Feuerbach," in Marx, K., and Engels. K.. Feuerbach: Opposition o f the
Materialist and Idealist Outlooks, London. Lawrence and Wishart. 1973, p. 95.
26Hobson, J. A.. IFork and Wealth: A Human Valuation, London. Allcnand Unwin, rev. cd., 1933,
p. 34.
" Pigou. A. C., Wealth and Welfare, London, MacMillan, 1912.
a Mitchell, W. C„ Types o f Economic Theoryfrom Mercantilism to Institutionalism(J. Dorfman,
ed.), 2 vols.. New York. Kelly, vol. I, 1967, vol. 2, 1969.

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b asis fo r H o b s o n ’s heresies fro m th e c o n v e n tio n a l treatises o f econom ics.

H e says th a t H o b s o n w as n o t a c o n v e n tio n a l o r tech n ical-ceen o m ist b u t
ra th e r a jo u rn a lis t a n d sociologist. F o r th e m o st p a r t jH o b s o ru v a s n o t a
p ro fessio n al ec o n o m ist o ccu p y in g a c o n v e n tio n a l c h a ir in a university. F or.
e x a m p le . H o b s o n d id n o t accep t t he c o n v e n tio n a l view th at th rift is o f great
im p o rta n c F m th e e c o n om ic life o f in d iv id u a lsa n d g ro u p s. H e criticized the
" p ro cess o f o v ersav ing a n d u n d e r c o n s u m p tio n im t d eclared th a t th e ac cu m ­
u la tio n o f w ealth-is.oL nQ .gcea t a d v a n ta g e to n a tio n s an d the individuals
m a king u p th e p o p u la tio n o f th e n atio n .
T h e g re at significance o f w elfare eco n o m ics, o r t h e jie r e s ie s ^ o ^ lo b s c ^
is th e c o v e rt a ttitu d e th a t a th in k e r o r o b serv er o f eco n o m ic m atters
sh o u ld be free to shift p o stu la te s fro m estab lish ed system s a n d to p ro p o se
n ew a s s u m p tio n s a n d n ew g o als fo r e c o n o m ic theories. T h e w ritings o f
H o b so n suggest th a t ec o n o m ists o r e c o n o m ic th e o ry sho u ld d ra w m o re on
th e a c tu a l ev e n ts an d p rocesses o f p ro d u c tio n , ex ch an g e, a n d c o n su m p tio n
in ste a d o f o p e ra tin g o n th e a b s tru s e level o f th eo ry . If we ch a rac te rize such
w o rk s as e c o n o m ic s o f d istrib u tio n , p ro b lem s o f poverty, physiology o f
in d u stry , a n d o th ers o f H o b so n ’s w ritings we m u st still ta k e n o te th a t His
w ritin g s are a fte r all a b s tra c t as all th eo re tic al w ritings m u st be b u t we m ust
cre d it H o b s o n w ith a different kind o f em p h asis u p o n ab stractio n ism .
T h e re are different ra n g es o f c o n ta c L w ilh a c tu a l e c o n o m ic events, and
certaTnf^ T T o b s o rf'g e ts closer to a c tu a l o cc u rrin g events th a n d o such
ec o n o m ists as em p h asize m a th e m a tical c a lc u latio n s. H ere it is a p p ro p ria te
to refer to a p assag e fro rrT H o b so n ’s w o rk en titled , Work and Wealth. H e
says.
Our aim will be to set out, as well as we can, reliable rules f or examining the productive and
consumptive history of the various sorts of concrete marketable goods, so as to discover the
human elements of cost and utility contained in each, and by a computation of these
positives and negatives to reach some estimate of the aggregate human value contained in
the several sons of commodities which form the concrete income of the nation and this
income as a whole.M

A s M itchell p o in ts o u t30 th is q u o ta tio n sim u lates B en th am ’s talk in

term s o f pleasures a n d p ain s ex cep t th a t H o b so n speaks a b o u t costs an d
utilities. A n o th e r sim ilarity is th a t B en th am used th e term ‘felicific’ calculus
w hile H o b s o n sp eak s o f c o m p u ta tio n . A s M itchell says, B en th am never
really calcu lated ; a n d H o b s o n never c o m p u te s. N evertheless w e c a n n o t
s u b tra c t fro m th e w elfare e c o n o m ic s th e in te n tio n to get d o w n to specific
Hobson. J. A.. Work anti Wealth, p. 34.
u,Milchcll, W. C . TvfH's o f Economic Theory from Mercantilism to Institutionalism, p. 496.

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e c o n o m ic ac tiv ities, even th o u g h w e th in k o f th e c h a n g e a s b e in g m erely

on e o f d e g ree r a th e r th a n k in d .
A lth o u g h it is e v id e n t th a t ec o n o m ists cu sto m arily o n ly p resen t v ary in g
view s c o n c e rn in g e c o n o m ic events, sin ce th e y all s ta rt fro m ev e n ts, th e ir
o rig m a u ty to discovery. T h u s th e eco ­
nom ics o f W e lfare fo rm u la te d by P ig o u v aries so m ew h a t fro m th a t o f
H o b s o n o r in d eed fro m th e classical view s o f P e tty , A d a m S m ith , R ic a rd o ,
a n d J . S. M ill. A ll o f th ese p re d ece sso rs o f P ig o u w ere c o n c e rn e d w ith
p ro b le m s o f th e n a tio n a l in c o m e o r n a tio n a l d ividend.
I t m a y safety b e sa id th a t fo r a ll e c o n o m ists in terested in w elfare th e re is a
definite re fe re n c e to e th ica l circ u m sta n ces. P ig o u eq u a te s w elfare w ith
g o o d a n d fo llo w s M o o re in asse rtin g th a t th e te rm c a n n o t be defined. B ut
these p ro p o sitio n s a b o u t w elfare c a n be laid d o w n :
a. W e lfare in clu d es states o f co n sc io u sn e ss o n ly an d n o t m a te ria l th in g s
o r c o n d itio n s.
b. W elfare c a n b e b ro u g h t u n d e r th e ca te g o ry o f g re a te r a n d less.
c. E c o n o m ic W elfare is o n e p a r t o f w elfare in general.31 i
P ig o u ’s special c o n trib u tio n is to em p h a siz e th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een
p riv a te in c o m e a n d th e g en e ral g ro u p d iv id en d . S u c h s tu d y p artially o p en s
th e d o o r to c o n c re te e c o n o m ic events. T o q u e s tio n w h e th e r o r n o t th e p
w elfare o f in d iv id u a ls alw a y s co in cid es w ith th e g en eral w elfare sug g ests g
th e stu d y o f specific d e ta ils o f p ro d u c tio n a n d d is trib u tio n o f g o o d s a n d
services. 0
B u t P ig o u re m a in s a co n v e n tio n a l ec o n o m ist. O n th e o n e h a n d h e p
reg ard s ec o n o m ic s as th e s tu d y o f co n sc io u sn ess, th a t is, n o n e x is te n t „
entities, b u t m u s t re g iste r his c o n tra d ic tio n w h e n he ta lk s o f q u a n tity o r
m e a su re m e n t. A t th a t p o in t th e c rite rio n h as to b e m o n ey , a tan g i ble fa c to r
in th e p ro c e ss o f e x c h a n g e , tra d e , o r in cre ase o r d ecrease o f w elfare o r *
g o o d . T h u s th e re is m u c h c o n fu sio n o f th in g s a n d te rm s a n d n o d im in u tio n
o f ab stra c tio n ism . ,

1I. Institutional Economics

In s titu tio n a l ec o n o m ic s is p rim a rily a system th a t h a s h a d its orig in a n d
p ro p a g a tio n in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d it m a y b e ch a rac te rized as a n a tte m p t
to a b o lish m a n y o f th e e c o n o m ic sy stem s b ase d o n th e e m p h asis o f price in
all e c o n o m ic tra n s a c tio n s . G e n erally sp e a k in g , in stitu tio n al eco n o m ics
b e a rs c o n sid e ra b le sim ila rity to C o m m u n istic eco n o m ics, b u t w ith d eep

31Pigou, A. C., Wealth a n d Welfare, p. 3.

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 H U M A N E V E NT S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T ]

ro o ts in th e C a p italistic cu ltu re . A cco rd in g ly , in stitu tio n al eco n o m ics le

a n ta g o n ism to w ard to tal p o litical system s, especially political uprisi
a n d re v o lu tio n s in o rd e r to a c c o m p lish p ec u n iary im p ro v e m e n ts
ec o n o m ic w elfare for the m asses o f p o p u la tio n s. N evertheless institutic
eco n o m ic s is c h a ra c te riz e d by a n e m p h a sis o n w elfare. M u ch m o re t
C o m m u n is tic system s, in stitu tio n a l ec o n o m ic s is en titled to th e appelai
o f w elfare econom ics.
F ro m th e p h ilo so p h ic al s ta n d p o in t in stitu tio n a l eco n o m ics has gre
o u t o f a very d iffe ren t k in d o f p h ilo so p h y th a n is th e case w ith o
ec o n o m ic system s. In stitu tio n al ec o n o m ic s is w 'ithout d o u b t influence!

p ra g m a tic p h ilo s o p h y has been th e e x tre m e desire o f thinkers~tcTm

aw ay f r o f r u r a d itio n a h n a a p h y s ic a l systerffSTtHCn as th o se oi H e g e ir
'o th e F s y s te m s o T th e E u ro p e a n t radTuFn?”AT5o ve alfFp rag m af Tsm'ma";
J I d escrih ed as a n a tte m n U o d e n a y ffro m th F o n to lo g ie s ahdT nT sfem dlo
o f tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h ical system s.
A p o p u la r n o tio n o f p ra g m a tic p h ilo so p h y is to d e p a rt fro m globs
b lo ck universes in o rd e r to a p p r o a c h c lo ser to a c tu a l experience:
p a rtic u la r p erso n s. R ec o rd e d in th e lite ra tu re o f p ra g m a tic p h ilo so p l
co n sid e ra b le d iscu ssio n o f th e n a tu re o f T ru th a n d Existence. F o r exam
it is alleged by p ra g m a tists th a t c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h e rs h o ld l
generalized a n d a b s tra c t tr u th w h ich really h a s n o c o u n te r p a rt in ac
sit uatio n s. In stea d th e p ra g m a tists w a n t to keep tru th in th e a c tu a l worl
w hich p ro p o sitio n s c a n refer to a c tu a l things a n d events.
S im ila r c o m m e n ts ca n be m a d e a b o u t th e p ra g m a tic n o tio n o f o n to h
P ra g m a tis ts d isd a in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f re ality as so m e th in g larg er
m o re im p o rta n t th a n th e activities o f th e w o rk s h o p a n d b usiness organ
tio n . T h is m ean s th a t th ey w o u ld like to a b o lish a b so lu te s a n d per
nances su ch as K an t’s th in g s in them selves.
A s a p ro m in e n t m e m b e r a n d even in s titu to r o f in stitu tio n al eco n o n
V eblen h as urged a n u m b e r o f basic m o d ificatio n s in e c o n o m ic th eo ry ,
fu n d a m e n ta l criticism is th a t ec o n o m ic s h as in d u lg ed excessively in
superficial a b stra c tio n ism o f classification in stead o f an a ly z in g th e ac
life processes o f people. E co n o m ics he w ished to tu rn in to a n interdisc
n ary c o m p a n io n s h ip w ith a n th ro p o lo g y a n d sociology. In g en eral he
ap p a lle d at th e m is in te rp re ta tio n o f p e rso n s as m oved m erely by th e di
fo r p leasu re a n d fo r th e av o id a n c e o f p ain. H e w rote,
T he hedonistic conception of m an is that o f a lightning calculator o f pleasures and p
who oscillates like a hom ogeneous globule o f desire o f happiness under the impul

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 P H I L O S O P H Y AN D E C O N O M I C S

stimuli that shift him about the area, but leave him intact. He has neither antecedent nor
consequent. He is an isolated, definitive human datum, in stable equilibrium except for the
buffets of the impinging forces that displace him in one direction oranother. Self-imposed in
elemental space, he spins symmetrically about his own spiritual axis until the parallelogram
of forces bears down upon him, whereupon he follows the line of the resultant. When the
force of the impact is spent, he comes to rest, a self-contained globule of desire as before.
Spiritually, the hedonistic man is not a prime mover. He is not the seat of a process of living,
except in the sense that he is subject to a series of permutations enforced upon him by
circumstances external and alien to him.,:

In his v a rio u s w o rk s V eb len m o u n ts p o w e rfu l a tta c k s o n th e m o res an d

c u sto m s o f th e estab lish ed social system s a s view ed b y co n v e n tio n a l eco n ­
om ists. H e d iffe ren tiated betw een o w n e rs o f b u sin ess en terp rises a n d th e
m ean s o f p ro d u c tio n a n d th e w o rk e rs, a n d stressed th e differences betw een
th e fu n c tio n s o f engineers a n d th a t o f salesm en o r m erc h an ts.

12. The Keynesian Revolution

T h e p h ilo so p h y o f e c o n o m ic s in th e 20(h c e n tu ry a p p e a re d to u n d e rg o a
ra d ic a l re v o lu tio n th ro u g h th e w o rk a n d in fluence o f J. M . K eynes w h o
p ro p o s e d w h a t seem ed lik e ra d ic a l d o c trin a l ch a n g es. T h e se c h a n g es fo­
cused u p o n m o n e ta ry th e o ry , g o v e rn m e n t in te rv e n tio n an d g o v ern m e n t
e x p e n d itu re , ta x a tio n , p u b lic policy, e m p lo y m en t, a n d in te rn a tio n a l tra d e
a n d finance. T h e su rp rise a n d ac cla im o f th e K e y n esian rev o lu tio n to g e th e r
w ith K eynes’ ac k n o w le d g e m e n t o f m a n y fo re ru n n e rs finally m a d e th e w o rk
o f K eynes o n e o f th e m a n y ty p es o f a ttitu d e s th a t reflected th e events
o b serv ed at v a rio u s tim e s a n d by d iv erg in g an aly ses. It a p p e a rs, th en , th a t
th e K ey n esian re v o lu tio n w as aufond a n item in th e e v o lu tio n o f e c o n o m ic
d o c trin e , a n d n o t a c o m p le te a n d c o m p re h e n siv e d e p a rtu re fro m e x ta n t
e c o n o m ic th eo rie s. A s K lein says, “ K eynes w as alw a y s a classical e c o n o ­
m ist."33 U n lik e th e M a rx ia n re v o lu tio n K eynes alw a y s re m a in ed w ith in th e
cap italistic fram ew o rk .
W h e n w e in q u ire in to th e p h ilo so p h ic a l b a c k g ro u n d o f K eynes w e ru n
d irec tly in to th e an a ly tic a l th in k in g o f R ussell, M o o re , W h iteh e ad , an d
o th e r C a m b rid g e p h ilo s o p h e rs w h o believed th a t p h ilo so p h y z in g w as
red u cib le to th e a b stra c tio n istic p ro cesses o f logic a n d m ath em atics. In­
so fa r a s K eynes e x h ib ite d th e influence o f his p h ilo so p h ic al train in g , he
p ro d u c e d a n in tu itiv e th e o ry o f P ro b a b ility .34 K eynes’ p h ilo so p h y w as

Veblen. T.. “Why is Economics not an Evolutionary Science?" in The Place o f Science in Modern
Civilisation and Other Essays, New York, Viking. 1942, pp. 73 f.
*>Klein, L. R.. The Keynesian Revolution, New York. MacMillan. 1947, p. I.
u Keynes. J. M„ A Treatise on Probability. London, MacMillan, 1921.

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 HU MA N ’ E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I

d ecid ed ly a b s tra c tio n a l. F o r h im p ro b a b ility h as only to d o w ith p ro p

tio n s an d th eir re la tio n . A p ro b a b ility re latio n is sym bolized a/h - i
w h ich h sym bolizes a set o f p ro p o s itio n s a n d a a set o f co n c lu d in g p ro p
tio n s "th e n , if a k n o w le d g e o f h ju stifies a ra tio n a l belief in a o f d eg ree a
say th a t th ere is a p ro b a b ility -re la tio n o f d eg ree a b etw een a a n d / j .”35 N
th a t a ra tio n a l b elief is in v o lv ed in th e co n c lu sio n , K eynes defini
ex c lu d e s th e te rm ev e n t fro m his d e sc rip tio n o f th e p ro b a b ility re la tio n
fa r we m ay re g ard K eynes’ p h ilo s o p h y as in tu itiv e as he relates it to
ra tio n a lis m o f L eib n iz th o u g h h e d o e s assert th a t he c o n tin u e s in
em pirical succession o f L o ck e, B erkeley, H u m e, Mill, a n d S idgw ick.
T h ro u g h o u t his e c o n o m ic s c a re e r K eynes reflects his intu itiv e an d
p iric m ix tu re o f ideas. T h e in tu itiv e fa c to r is d isplayed in his fre e d o r
differ fro m his p re d ece sso rs a n d co m p eers. T h e E m pirical fa c to r is sh<
in his w ritin g s c o n c e rn in g th e specific e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s ex istin g ir
o w n g o v ern m e n t a n d g en eral in te rn a tio n a l relations.
A s th is w o rk is n e ith e r a h is to ry o f ec o n o m ic s n o r a h isto ry o f ec o n c
a n a ly sis it is bey o n d its s c o p e to re ta il th e p a rtic u la rs o f K eynes’ o p in
a n d c h a n g es o f o p in io n . In th e a c c o m p a n y in g table, I in dicate so m e ol
c o n tra s ts betw een w h a t K eynes calls th e classical views a n d his o w n ir
G e n eral T h e o ry volum e. T h e follow ing a u th o rs d escrib e his spe
d o c trin e s critically o r sy m p ath etically : K lein,36 S piegel,37 S c h u m p e t
H a rro d ,30 B u m ,40 H a rris,41 a n d D illard .42

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ECONOMICS

S in ce e c o n o m ic s is p rim a rily c o n c e rn e d w ith th e a d a p ta tio n s o f per
to th e ir e n v iro n in g c irc u m sta n c e as self a n d societal m ain ten an c e,
inevita ble th a t p sy ch o lo g y s h o u ld p lay a n im m ense role in ec o n o m ic th
a n d p ractice. B ut a s we h av e seen e c o n o m ic al science is as b ad ly h am p
b y fau lty p sy ch o lo g ical view s as by in a d e q u a te p h ilo so p h y . It is n o
o rd e r, th e n , to e x a m in e th e p sy ch o lo g ical p ro b lem s th a t are o f a d v a r
a n d d isa d v a n ta g e fo r th e p h ilo so p h y o f econom ics.
" Keynes, J. M.. ihul.. p. 4.
'' Klein. I.. R.. Op Cil.
"Spiegel. H. W.. Op Cil.
"Schumpeter. J. A.. History of Ectuumuc Analysis. New York. Oxford Unis'. Press. 1954
wHarrod, R. F„ The Life o f John Maynard Keynes, New York, Harcourt. Brace, 1951.
Burn. E . .1., Sinull Perspective in the History o f Economic Theory. New York, S t . Martin’s
1972.
11 Harris. S.
E .. the Sew Economics. New York. Knopf, 1947.
Dillard. I)., The Economics o f John Mavnard Scenes: The Theory of a Monetary Ec<.
*-
New York. Prenticc-llall. I94X.

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T a b l e 3. K e y n e s ia n H e r e s ie s

C l a ssic a l D o c t r in e K eynes V a r ia t io n 43
Laissez faire government controls
free play of economic forces
Parsimonious Savings Free spending
Excessiveness of
Capital
Opposition to inequalities of Wealth Favors inequalities and rejects absti­
nence of the wealthy

Favor high interest rates as induce­ Scale of investment promoted by low

ment to save rate in full employment

International trade a desperate expe­ Should be a willing and unimpeded

dient to maintain employment at exchange of goods and services in
home condition of mutual advantage

Vested interests dangerous for good Ideas, not vested interests dangerous
or evil

Unemployment cured by reduction in Unemployment overcome by increase

wage rates of effective demand

Interest a reward for saving Interest a premium for surrendering

Liquidity Preference

Pleasure pain psychology Psychology of expectations and

motivations

Favor Gold Standard Opposed to Gold Standard

Thrift an Economic Virtue Thrift not economically advantageous

4>Mainly from Keynes, J. M., General Theory o f Employment, /merest and Money, New York,
Harcourt, Brace, 1936.

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Firet and fo r e m ost ic the_gnpstio n o f a n a d e q u a te a ttitu d e to w a rd

psycho lo g ical c o m p o n e n ts in ec o n o m ic a l th in k ing. S u rely it is a h a rrr
a ttitu d e to a p p r o a c h e c o n o m ic a l s itu a tio n s w ith in a d e q u a te view s a b
th e n a tu re o f h u m a n o rg a n ism s. F o r th e e c o n o m ic th eo rist p sy c h o lo g
o b v io u sly in d isp en sab le. P e rh a p s ev en w o rse th a n s tu d y in g ccononr
w ith o u t th e benefit o f p sy ch o lo g y is to e m p lo y a n in a d e q u a te p sy ch o lo
as fo r e x a m p le tra d itio n a l subjectivistic o r m en talistic system s.
A s M itchell has p o in te d o u t44 th e re h av e b een th ree v ary in g views
e c o n o m ists to w a rd p sy ch o lo g y . ( I) E x p la n a tio n s in term s o f p leasu re-p
prin cip les (B en th am , R ic a rd o , Je v o n s, J . S. M ill, etc.), (2) th e ex clu sio r
psychology-in-favQ L _oL price.( 1. F isch er, a n d H . J . D a v e n p o rt), a n d
b a sin g value p rinciples en tirely o n v o litio n al psychology IF. A . Fetter;
H o w h a rm fu l it is to fo llo w tra d itio n a l view s o f p sychology is a p p a r
w h en we e x a m in e th e a s s e rtio n s o f classical e c o n o m ists w h o d e a lt w
p leasu re-p a in o r gen eral h e d o n ic principles. It is clear th a t a psycholoj
co n c e rn e d w ith in ex isten t in te rn a l su b jectiv e pro cesses c a n b e o f n o ben
in su ch co m p le x s itu a tio n s as m o d e m living p resents. W h a t v alue
ju d g m e n ts a n d ev a lu a tio n s b ased o n a h e d o n ic calculus?
A g lan ce o v er th e su ccessio n o f p sy ch o lo g ical views held by ec o n o m
reveals a n u m b e r o f fa lla cio u s a ttitu d e s su ch as th e n o tio n o f intuit
facu lties a n d instincts. T o p e rso n s a re a ttrib u te d p ro p en sities to ex ch ai
o r b a r te r g o o d s a n d services, to be aggressive, o r to seek p ro fits a n d gene
a d v a n ta g e s in d ealin g w ith o th e r p erso n s. T h e n th ere is th e p o p u la r viev
th e irk so m en ess o f la b o r a n d th e c o n tra ry in stin ct o f w o rk m a n sh ip . A g
it is n o t su rp risin g to find th e a ttitu d e a m o n g e c o n o m ists th a t th ere e:
m e n ta l p o w e rs th a t a lo n e re g a rd le ss o f o th e r fa c to rs c a n ach iev e a n efl
live, if n o t a n affluent e c o n o m ic system . A ll su c h view s im p ly a n o b liv io
ness c o n c e rn in g th e m a n y fa c to rs th a t c o n trib u te to th e ex isten ce
co m p le x ec o n o m ic events.
A n o th e r very c o m m o n v iew p o in t a m o n g e c o n o m ists is th a t all
difficulties o f th e e c o n o m ic realm a re o w in g to th e unspecified faults
h u m a n n a tu re . S o m e e c o n o m is ts a re c o n v in ce d th a t m e m b e rs o f gi’
ec o n o m ic g ro u p s c ith e r a re u n a b le to m a k e p ro v isio n fo r all th e peopli
th e c o m m u n ity o r else th e lead ers th ro u g h in co m p eten c e o r c rim in a
b eco m e efficient a g e n ts fo r th e p e rp e tu a tio n o f e c o n o m ic in eq u alities z
e c o n o m ic h ard sh ip s. H ere a c o m p e te n t p sy ch o lo g ist c a n be relied u p o n

44 Mitchell. W C V I he Prospects of Kconomics," in Tugwcll, R. G., The Trend o f tuononiics. *

York, Knopf. 1924. p. 16.

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sugg estio n s, n o t necessarily a b o u t e c o n o m ic p rin cip les, b u t a b o u t g en eral

intelligence a n d c o m p ete n cy fo r m o d ificatio n o r change.
H u m a n beings a re n o t b y n a tu re u n ab le to achieve a p ro p e r o rg a n iz a tio n
o f ec o n o m ic system s o r o f im p ro v in g th e p ro d u c tio n o f p ro d u c e o r m a n u ­
fa c tu re d g o o d s in sufficient q u a n titie s to s u p p o rt a n e n tire p o p u la tio n . A ll
n ecessary p sy ch o lo g ical cap acities c a n b e d ev e lo p e d by in d iv id u als w hile
p erfo rm in g a d ju s tm e n ts to th e s itu a tio n s in w h ich th ey find them selves.
A ssu m in g th e v aria b le e v o lu tio n o f o rg a n ism s in th e ir p h ilo g en etic a n d
o n to g e n e tic histories, th e in eq u alities o f p eo p le a re o w in g to accid en ts o f
biolo g ical a n d c u ltu ra l d iffe ren tiatio n o f in d iv id u al d ev elo p m en t.
S u c h high p ea k s o f d e v e lo p m e n t h av e b ee n reach ed by even th e earliest
g ro u p s o f th e h u m a n species in th e d o m a in s o f a r t a n d tech n o lo g y th a t we
m u st c o n c lu d e th a t it is o n ly specificities o f d e v e lo p m e n t th a t b rin g a b o u t
th e d ifferen ces b etw e en th o se w h o deserv e m o re a n d th o se w h o hav e m o re
th a n th ey deserve.
CRITICAL OVERVIEW OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF ECONOMICS
A s w e c o n c lu d e o u r b rie f su rv e y o f e c o n o m ic a ttitu d e s w h e th e r in a
p a rtic u la r c o u n try o r locality, o r in a w id er p ersp ectiv e o f c o m m u n itie s o r
n a tio n s, we c a n n o t avoid th e p a r a d o x m e n tio n e d earlier, th a t th e eco n o m ic
d o m a in so essentially th e c o n c re te p a rtic u la rity o f h u m a n ex isten ce a n d
su rv iv al sh o u ld b e overlaid w ith u n iv ersal a n d a b so lu te h y p o th eses a n d
th eo rie s. T h e o rie s a n d m o d e ls a r e c o n s tru c te d a s th o u g h th e c o n s ta n t
ch an g es o f e c o n o m ic p ra c tic e a n d p ro cess d id n o t occur.
G r a n te d th a t a s o lu tio n to th e p a r a d o x is d e sira b le , it is sug g ested th a t a
rem e d y is to b e fo u n d in th e a d a p ta tio n o f a m o re scientific p h ilo so p h y an d
p sy c h o lo g y . B e tter a ttitu d e s in ec o n o m ic s a s w ell a s in o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts
o f c u ltu re c a n readily elim in a te th e p a ra d o x . F o r o n e th in g , th e d o m a in o f
ec o n o m ic s c a n b e freed fro m a b so lu te s a n d a b s tra c tio n s by c o n sid erin g
th a t th e d esc rip tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s o f e c o n o m ic events sh o u ld be
o rg a n iz e d w ith a d e a r view o f th e ch a n g e s th a t o c c u r in th e lives o f
individ u als a n d co m m u n itie s becau se o f in creases o f p o p u la tio n s, ad v an ces
in te c h n o lo g y , m o d ificatio n s in so cial p a tte rn s, a n d in te rc o m m u n ity
relatio n s.
A s w e h av e in d icated , th ro u g h o u t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f ec o n o m ic th e o ­
ries, w riters a d o p t a n a b stra c tio n a l p ro c e d u re in th e ir d esc rip tio n s a n d
in te rp re ta tio n s . A n excellent sam p le is th e tre a tm e n t th a t ec o n o m ists hav e
a c c o rd e d to th e co n c ep t o f value. A n in fo rm in g illu stra tio n is p ro v id ed by
A yres (1891-1972) w h o is a d e v o te e o f p ro g re s s in e c o n o m ic th e o ry a n d a

225
 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I

p ro m in e n t a d v o c a te o f scientific m e th o d in econom ics; w h o asse rts

v alu e is th e to ta lity o f e c o n o m ic s , “ec o n o m ic s is n o th in g if it is n o t a sci
o f value.” T h e crite rio n o f v alu e , h e asserts, is th e c o n tin u a tio n o f thi
p ro cess— k eeping th e m ach in e s ru n n in g .45
W h a t seem s to be m issin g in Ayres* in te rp re ta tio n is th e e n o rm o u s
re m a rkaB le'specificity o f s itu a tio n s inwhichvalue a n d th e v alu ab le p'
n a r t- A c tu a llv th e re is n o e n tity o r q u a lity s u c h as a b s tra c t a n d g en era
value. The c ru d e sL th in g s.an d ^o b iec ts m a y h av e value in p a rtic u la r s
tio n s o r th ey m a y b e v a lu a b le fo r ce rtain .p e rso n s or.partic.uJaLCQmnmi
a n d n o t o th ers, a s A yres h im se lf suggests.
T h e H isto ry o f E c o n o m ic s p o in ts to a series o f in tervals ea c h repre
in g a d ifferen t ty p e o f reflectio n a n d sp e c u la tio n a b o u t p ro d u c tio n , coi
sion, th e buy in g a n d selling o f g o o d s, a n d so on. T h e fo llow ing set
lfi suggests th e n a tu re o f this su ccessio n since th e 17»h cen tu ry .
All p erso n s a n d th e ir b e h a v io r a re confined a n d influenced, ir
fo rm e d , b y th e c u ltu ra l in s titu tio n s th a t s u rro u n d th em . T h o se institu
in clu d e th e c u rre n t d o c trin e s o f p h ilo so p h y a n d p sy chology. It is a nr
o f h isto rical in ev itab ility th a t th e o rie s o f eco n o m ics sh o u ld b e shap«
Ifjjj c u rre n t m ista k en view s c o n c e rn in g h u m a n n a tu re as w ell as b y th e kir
c o n d itio n s o f w a r a n d p ea ce th a t th e th e o rist has to c o n te n d w ith.
I01 A p ro m in e n t p o in t o f e v a lu a tio n o f th e v ario u s sy stem s in c lu d e d :
,p> h isto ry o f e c o n o m ic th e o rie s is th e lack o f a g re e d -u p o n fin d in g
. c o m p licated a re th e d a ta a s e c o n o m ic events, th a t it is easy, w h e n sui
^ ries are a tte m p te d , to select a n d em p h asiz e so m e on e o r m o re o f th e
10 asp e cts o f th e co m p le x a s key d a ta . B ut w h a t is o f g re a te r im p o rta n c e
i«r p a rtic u la r choice o f salien t fe atu res. S o m e stress th e g o o d s tre a te d ,
I'u th e reactio n s o f p e rso n s in v o lv ed , a n d so on.
T h o se w h o cleave to a n a tu ra lis tic p h ilo so p h y a n d psychology^
fr o m th e o b se rv a tio n o f tB e sim ila ritie s b etw een the d o ctrin e s o f hist
1*' a n d c u rre n t e c o n o m ists. T h a t is th e trib u te th a t ec o n o m ists p a y t o ;
e c o n o m ic events. A sa m p lin g o f th e a d a p ta tio n o f la te r w riters o f the
o f ea rlie r ones su b sta n tia te s th e s h a rin g o f view s w h e n ev en ts fo rce v
to d o so. S trik in g e x a m p le s a re K eynes g o in g b a c k to C a n tillo n <
1734)46 a n d to Q u e sn a y (1694-1774) f o r view s on saving.47 A g a in , K
w h o is d isd a in fu l o f w h a t h e calls th e classical ec o n o m ic s still fl
*5Ayres. C. E., The Theory o f Economic Progress, Chapel Hill. Univ. o f North Carolir
1944. ch. 10.
“ Schumpeter, J. A.. Ten Great Economists, From Marx to Keynes, New York, Oxfot
p. 276.
» Ibid., p. 282.

226
 P HILOSOPHY AND ECONOMICS

Mitchell (1874-1945). Commons (1862-1945)

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

C h a rt 2. Ec o n o m ic O p in io n s I7™-19, h C enturies

T o p ic P ro po n en t B asis

Adam Smith u iility of an object, or purchasing power

Malthus purchasing power
Ricardo Cost of production including labor and profits
Value Jevons utility, scarcity
McCulloch Real value: quantity of labor required for production
Relative value: purchasing capacity
Mengcr Imputation, Zurechnung, no inherent quality

Adam Smith accumulated land or labor

Malthus necessary, useful, or agreeable material objects
Ricardo increased revenue or diminished consumption
Lauderdale all that man desires
Wealth Slorch material products with exchangeable value
Say natural wealth
social wealth: objects of exchange
Torrens articles of utility produced voluntarily
McCulloch material products with exchangeable value

Adam Smith basis of value; productive and nonproductive labor

Ricardo determining factor in value of commodities
l^tbor Storch Paction des facultes humaines dirig£e vers un bOt utile
Say not sole source of value
Jevons Opposed to labor theory of value

Adam Smith Fixed capital: machinery, shops, improvements of land, skil

Circulating capital: money, provisions, unfinished
manufacturing matter
Malthus possessions employed for profit
Ricardo wealth employed in production
un fonds de richesses destine a la consomption improductive
Capital Storch
Say machinery, materials
Torrens objects labored upon destined to acquire other objects of
utility
McCulloch portion of produce supporting human existence or
production
Mill produced object used as means of further production

228
 P H I L O S O P H Y AND E C O N O MI C S

T o p ic P r o po n en t Basis

Adam Smith payment to use land

Malthus excess of price above wages and profits
Ricardo payment to use land
Storch le prix qu'on paye pour 1‘usage d'un fonds de terre
Say le profit resultant du service productif dc la terre
Rent
Torrens produce given for use of land
McCulloch produce given for use of land
Sismondi
* la pandela recolieannuelledu sol qui revientau proprietaire
aptes qu'il a acquitte les frais qui Font fait naitre
Mill difference between most and least productive portion of
capital

Adam Smith price of labor

Malthus remuneration of the laborer
Ricardo laborer's portion of produce
Storch le prix du travail
Wages Say Ic prix dc Fachat d'un service productif industriel
Torrens wealth received by laborer
McCulloch laborers compensation
Sismondi Ic prix du travail
Mill price of laborer’s share

a
Adam Smith revenue derived from stock
Malthus differences between advances and value of produced object
Ricardo Capitalist's portion
Storch circulating: remuneration for use of capital and trouble

Profit Say la portion de la valeur produitc, retiree par le captaliste

Torrens surplus after cost of production
McCulloch excess produced over expenditures
Sismondi la valeur dont Fouvragc acheve surpasse des avances qui Font
fait faire
Mill Portion remaining after rent and wages

229
 HUMAN EVENTS IN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVI

pro fitab le to re h a b ilita te M a lth u s c o n c e rn in g u n d erem p lo y m e n t equili

b riu m a n d general glu t, w hile also re ferrin g sy m p ath etically to th e m ercan
tilists as possessors o f elem e n ts o f scientific tru th .48 O th e r ex a m p le s o
a n tic ip a tio n s a re G allian i’s (1728-1787) d istin g u ish in g value in use fro r
value in ex ch an g e;49 M a lth u s suggests th e need fo r using th e calculus;5
M en g e r’s co -d isco v ery o f th e m a rg in a l p rin cip le a n d the subjective th e o r
o f values;51 G o ssen an tic ip a te d th e u tility th e o ry o f Jev o n s a n d Walras.-*
A lso, it is in d icated th a t A d a m S m ith to u c h e d u p o n S ay’s law .53 A g ain , it i
re p o rte d th a t J . B. C la rk d isco v ered th e subjective th e o ry o f value a n d th
m arg in a l u tility th e o ry .54 T h e n o f co u rse th ere is th e e n c o u ra g e m e n t c
B ernoulli (1700-1782) th e m a th e m a tic ia n to sh o w th e m ath em atica l w ay c
presen tin g d a ta a n d th eo ries o f econom ics.
A n a tte m p t to su m m a riz e th e h isto ry o f ec o n o m ic p h ilo so p h y reachc
th e p ro p e r co n clu sio n th a t ec o n o m ic s a d u m b ra te s a n ev o lu tio n ary proces:
W ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h u m a n societies in clu d in g p o p u la tio n sizes, a n
d is trib u tio n in v ario u s g e o g ra p h ic lo c a tio n s, th ere ev e n tu a te d a n ap p recit
tio n o f h u m a n in d iv id u a l a n d g ro u p ev e n ts c u lm in atin g in a n econom i
discipline. A u th en tic p ro g ress m a y be d iscern ed in th e o b serv atio n s a n d th
th in k in g o f ec o n o m ists in th e c o u rse o f th e e v o lu tio n o f th e discipline. St
c h a rts o f eco n o m ic o p in io n s.
P rog ress in eco n o m ics p arallels closely th e th re a d o f pro g ress in person;
freed o m o f th o u g h t a n d a c tio n in m o d e m society.55 K eeping close to th
p rin cip le o f specificity w e see a lo n g w ith th e tu m u lt, d iso rg a n iz a tio n , an
o m n ip re se n t violence so m e pro g ressiv e elem en ts in g o v ern m en t, religioi
ed u c a tio n , a n d o th e r so cietal c irc u m sta n ces. S o in ec o n o m ic ev olutic
th ere is discern ib le so m e p ro g re ss in th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f ec o n o m ic pri
cesses. In in d u strial c o m m u n itie s ec o n o m ists ta k e ac c o u n t o f th e m o v
m en ts aw ay fro m th e w ealth o f n a tio n s a n d m an ag ers to th e w elfare i
in d iv id u a l w o rk e rs a n d th e ir u n io n s. C h ild re n a re sen t to sch o o ls n<
factories, a n d w o m en a re m o re a n d m o re re g ard e d as p erso n s a n d n<
chattels.
4" Keynes. J. M„ The General Theory o f Em ploym ent, Interest a n d M oney. New York, Harcoi
Brace. 1936, p. 395.
“ Spiegel. Op. Cit., p. 204.
* Ibid., p. 205.
>' Ibid., p. 530.
” Ibid., p. 512.
" Ib id ., p. 254.
54Bunt, E. J., Jr., Social Perspectives in the H istory o f Economic Theory, New York, St. Marti
Press, 1972, p. 199.
” Cf. Bury, J. B., and Blackham, H. J., A History o f Freedom o f Thought, London, Oxford Ur
Press, 1952.

230
 P H I L O S O P H Y A ND E C O N O M I C S

B ut it is in escap ab le th a t e c o n o m ic d o c trin e s a re still in a n im m a tu re

stage. W e h av e b ee n c o n s ta n tly p o in tin g o u t w h a t a p p e a r as th e im p ed i­
m e n ts to a re a s o n a b le o n w a rd m o tio n a n d a d im in u tio n o f re p etitio n s an d
reg ressio n s. T h e y are th e p ro lo n g a tio n o f tra n sc e n d e n ta l p h ilo so p h ic al
a ttitu d e s a n d th e cleav in g to fa lla cio u s p sy ch o lo g ical principles in terrelated
w ith unscientific p h ilo so p h y .
T h e re v o lu tio n a ry c o m p le x io n o f ec o n o m ic s w hich V eblen fostered
m irro re d th e a c tu a l e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s w h ic h p rev ailed p rim arily in the
U .S .A . A t a n y ra te th e re c o g n itio n o f w h a t w as g o in g o n in th a t g re at
d o m a in o f a g ric u ltu ra l, in d u stria l, a n d c o m m e rc ia l events forced the
p re o c c u p a tio n w ith business d etails ra th e r th a n w ith the a b stra ctio n istic
sub jects o f w ealth , lab o r, rent, a n d sim ilar su bjects.
R e p re se n tin g th e new in s titu tio n a l view a p p e a r th e n am es o f M itchell
(1874-1948), C o m m o n s (1862-1945), A yres (1891-1972), a n d a n u m b e r o f
o th e rs w h o c o n trib u te d to T u g w e ll’s The Trend o f Economics?* M itchell
b ec am e a b s o rb e d in p ro b le m s o f b u sin ess o r tra d e cycles th o u g h he w orked
a t o th e r p ro b le m s to o .37 C o m m o n s m a d e h im self m a s te r o f la b o r e c o n o m ­
ics w ith a d d itio n a l in tere sts in th e legal fo u n d a tio n s o f c a p ita lism .311 A yres
specialized in th e g en e ral th eo rie s o f e c o n o m ic s a n d th e re la tio n s betw een
eco n o m ic s a n d ethics.

The Trend of Emm units (R. C. Tugwell. cd.). New York. Knopf. 1024
'' Mitchell, W. C.. thinness Ci t ies: Vie Problem and its Seitinn. New York. National Bureau of
Economic Research. 1127.
'"Commons. .1. R., InslilulionalEconomies, its/’lacein Political Ecomnnv, New York. MacMillan.
19.14.

231
 C H A P T E R 18
PHILOSOPHY OF ART AND AESTHETICS

PA RLO U S C O N D IT IO N S O F A ESTH ETICS

N o d e p a rtm e n t o f p h ilo so p h y s ta n d s in su ch need o f clarificatio n ai

p ro p e r u n d e rsta n d in g as th e d o m a in o f th e a rts an d aesthetics.
In the whole area of philosophic studies there is probably no other topic which is marked
so much unclarity and so little unanimity as is exhibited by the subject of esthetic theor

In p a r t th is is tru e since d u rin g th e p eren n ial in terest in su ch m a tte rs the

has resu lted a g ra n d a m a lg a m a tio n o f facts, p a rtia l tru th s, a n d utl
m isin terp retatio n s. T h e p h ilo so p h ic a l literatu re o n a r t a n d aesthetics
im m en se a n d th e w riters w h o d e v o te tim e to th e fo rm al stu d ies o f a r t ai
aesthetics h av e p ro d u c e d in n u m e ra b le d o ctrin e s all based o n tran scen d e
g en eraliza tio n s, a s w ell as fa lla cio u s view s o f psychology. It is in o rd e r th
to an a ly z e a n d fo rm u la te th e field o f a r t a n d aesthetics w ith stric t reg ard
th e things a n d events av a ila b le in th o s e asp ects o f h u m a n living.
D e sp ite th e fact th a t in n u m e ra b le p e rs o n s n e ith e r ap p re c ia te n o r val
b e a u ty o r a rt, a n d w h en they d o they p u t su c h things a t th e b o tto m o f t
list o f values, th e aesth etic a sp e cts o f h u m a n c u ltu re m u st b e regarded a:
p ro m in e n t p h ase o f in tellectu al interest. T h e re cen t slogan th a t a r t is go<
in v estm e n t do es n o t c o n c eal th e ex isten ce o r in tere st in a e sth e tic objec
w h eth e r o f n a tu re o r o f h u m a n contrivance.

A R T T H R O U G H TH E AGES

A n th ro p o lo g ists a n d p re h isto ric arch ae o lo g ists have lo n g b e e n aw j

th a t p rim itiv e p eo p le o f even tw en ty th o u s a n d years ago, w hile c o n te n d i
w ith th e m o st m eag er living co n d itio n s, p ro d u c e d in caves an d ro c k shelti
w o rk s o f a r t o f th e highest s ta n d a rd s. A s m o re a n d m o re aesth etic d isc o v
ies a re m a d e , it b eco m es in e sca p ab le th a t h o m o sap ien s is n o t o n ly h o r
fa b er, b u t a lso a n a p p re c ia to r o f b e a u ty a n d perfection. F u rth e rm o
a n th ro p o lo g is ts re p o rt h o w th e dw ellers in th e sim plest social grou
d e c o ra te th em selv es a n d th e ir h u m b le p o ssessio ns w ith co lo rs, figures, a
w ith v ario u s designs bey o n d u tility o r necessity.

1Lewis, C. I.. A n Analysis o f Knowledge and Valuation, LaSalle, Illinois, Open Court, 1947, p. 4.

232
 ART AN D A E S T H E T I C S

P ro p e rly to a p p re c ia te th e n a tu re o f A rt a n d A esthetics o n e m u st be alert

to th e c o n tin u ity a n d v ariab ility in th e e v o lu tio n a n d progress o f th e sources
o f a e s th e tic life a n d lo re th ro u g h th e h is to ry o f civilization. It is fa ta l to
o v e rlo o k the d ev e lo p m e n t o f a r t by th e S u m e rian s, A ssyrians, E gyptians,
H ittites, G reek s, R o m a n s, C hinese, a n d o th e r g ro u p s. T h o se a re th e
v e rita b le so u rc es o f th e c u ltu re o f to d a y . F u rth e rm o re , th e view is in escap ­
able th a t th e m o st m o d e m an d c u rre n t aesth etic disciplines have g ro w n a n d
evolved fro m th e a c tu a l w o rk a n d p ro d u c ts o f o n e o r o f m an y creative
individuals. T h a t is a c o n d itio n o f origin a n d survival o f all the intellectual
in s titu tio n s o f ev ery e x istin g c u ltu ra l system . T h ro u g h o u t th e records o f
histo ry we ob serv e th e practice o f th e m an y types o f art: m usic, painting,
scu lp tu re, a n d so on.

EVOLUTION OF AESTHETICS
I
A lo n g w ith th e gen eral e v o lu tio n o f p h ilo so p h ical c o n te m p la tio n th ere
d ev e lo p e d in th e h isto ry o f p h ilo so p h y n u m e ro u s c o n stru c tio n s a b o u t a r t
o f all types. T h eo rie s a b o u n d co n cern in g taste, rh eto ric, m usical co m p o si- ,!
tion, p a in tin g a n d scu lp tu re, a n d th e n a tu re o f b eau ty in general.
a. Informal Aesthetics. T h e p h ilo so p h ic al in terest in A esthetics devel-
o p ed o f c o u rse pah passu w ith th eo rie s p ro p o u n d e d by sch o lars in terested ^
in th e v a rio u s a r t d e p a rtm e n ts, fo r ex a m p le, lite rary critics, p a in ters, p>
scu lp to rs, co m p o se rs, a n d so on. B ut w ith th e increase o f know ledge a b o u t
a r t p ractices a n d th e m u ltip licatio n o f ex p e rtn ess concerning th e reactions
to th e p ro d u c ts o f v ario u s types o f artists, th ere developed a definite ?
p ro fessio n al ae sth e tic discipline.^A esthetics th e n becam e technical w ith th e »
p a rtic ip a tio n o f th e reso u rces o f p h ilo so p h ers, psychologists, sociologists, t.
a n d o th e r in tellectu al w o rk ers. In g eneral th e scope o f aesthetics b ecam e
b ro a d e r a n d m o re fo rm a l.^ *
b. Modern Formal Aesthetics. T h e origin o f aesthetics a s a technical
discipline is c o n v e n tio n a lly traced b ac k to th e w o rk o f A lex a n d er G o ttlie b a
B a u m g a rte n (1714-1762), a disciple o f J o h a n n C h ristia n W olff (1679-
1754), w h o so u g h t a basis fo r in q u iries in to th e realm o f sense p ercep tio n
su c h as logic m ad e av a ila b le fo r ra tio n a l k n o w ledge.2 B ecause B au m g arte n
w as re a re d in th e R atio n alistic tra d itio n o f Leibniz an d W olff, he could
only th in k in term s o f th e ab stru se a n d ab stra c t in stitu tio n s o f the C o n tin e n -

1A gigantic paradox overshadows the origin of aesthetics as a formal discipline. The effective
originator of the term “aesthetics’' and erstwhile student of an and beauty was less concerned with the
origination of a special department of philosophical scholarship, than the advancement of the
rationalistic philosophy of his immediate intellectual forebcarers.

233

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 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V

ta l E u ro p e o f th e 18th c e n tu ry . A e sth e tic th e o ry w as a t h o m e w ith si

categ o ries a s o rd e r, p erfe c tio n , u n ity , a n d ce rtain ty . T h e e n tire L eib r
W o lff p h ilo s o p h y w as b ase d o n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t in th e so u l in h e re
series o f facu lties so m e o f w h ich , th e petites perceptions, w ere a m o n g
sim plest a n d low est, w hile th e in tellectu al fa c u lty w as th e highest an d
m o st cap ab le a n d effective.
A link in th e c h a in o f facu lties is im a g in a tio n , w hich is co n fu sed sensi
It is th a t m id d le ru n g a b o v e s im p le sen sin g w h ich re p resen ts th e area
b eau ty . B eau ty fo r L eib n iz a n d f o r B a u m g a rte n is th e perfectibility
p h e n o m e n a l ap p e ara n ces. F r o m th e sta n d p o in t o f m o d e m ph ilo so p h y .'
p sy ch o lo g y , th e en tire ra tio n a lis tic sy stem is h a r d ly a n y th in g b u t a m as
IH l- ti

m y th s fo rm u la te d o n th e m o d e l o f th e th eo lo g ical soul. It is im possibl-

b rin g su ch c o n stru c tio n s in to th e a r e a o f a e sth e tics as it sh o u ld ex ist toe
H o w e v er b izarre a p p e a rs th e aesth etics o f a B au m g arte n , th e nam<
p ro p o se d fo r th e d iscip lin e th a t tre a ts o f th e b e a u tifu l in n a tu re a n d in
to o k ro o t w ith m o d ificatio n s. A s in so m a n y o th e r in tellectu al situ atio r
discipline h as d ev elo p ed w ith little re sem b la n ce to th e ea rlier p h ase o
existence. S o aesth etics to d a y m ay b e re g ard e d as e x p lo rin g p ro b lem
a r t a n d b ea u ty b ey o n d its ea rly d e v e lo p m e n t fro m in terest in v a r
cogn itiv e faculties. W h a t a p p e a rs a s a g ia n t n e x t step in th e dev elo p m ei
aesth etics m ay be ta k e n to b e K a n t’s d ev e lo p m e n t o f tran scen d e
aesthetics.
By th e tim e o f K a n t (1724-1804), aesth etics h a d b eco m e so m ew h a t n
e la b o ra te a n d sy stem atic, th o u g h n o t w ith o u t am biguities. W hile K anl
w as im p riso n ed in th e R a tio n a listic tra d itio n , he h ad a lso c o m e unde:
influence o f th e B ritish E m p iristic tr a d itio n a n d co u ld get s o m e w h a t cl
to ae sth e tic th in g s a n d n o t re m a in co m p le te ly tied to th e so u l’s intuit:
K a n t en larg ed th e n u m b e r o f p sy ch ic facu lties a d d in g to th e fa c u lti
co g n itio n a n d will, also th e fa cu lty o f feeling. T h u s he w as en a b le d to
a c c o u n t o f th e p leasu re fa c to rs (h e d o n is tic entities) w h ich th e Bi
E m p iristic w riters in tro d u c e d in to th e ir reflections c o n c ern in g th e beai
a n d th e taste fo rm o f a p p re c ia tio n o f a r t objects.
A s a lin k in th e c h a in o f a e s th e tic sy stem s K a n t p ro p o s e d a n e m p
u p o n f o u r m o m e n ts o r d e te rm in a n ts o f th e b eau tifu l. T h ese a re 1) disi
ested n ess w hich is in d icated in th e ju d g m e n t, “th a t is b ea u tifu l v
pleases w ith o u t in te re st,” 2) u n iv ersa lity , w h ich is re p resen te d b;
asse rtio n , “th a t is b e a u tifu l w h ich is th e su b ject o f u n iv ersal pleasup
p u rp osive fo rm as re p resen te d in th e sta te m e n t, “th a t is b eau tifu l v
pleases w ith o u t c o n c e p ts.” H e re th e fo c u s is o n the o b jects w h ic h ca

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th e ju d g m e n t o f b ea u ty . It is fo rm n o t c o n te n t w h ich is im p o rta n t in the

ad m ire d objects. A n d finally th e re is 4 ) . necessity. L ike th e m o m en t o f
u n iv ersality , necessity p resu m es a c o n se n su s o f all p erso n s w ith respect to
th e q u a lity o f objects.
N o tw ith sta n d in g all th e e rro rs K a n t h a s co m m itte d o r is accused o f
co m m ittin g in his p h ilo so p h y o f ae sth e tic s, s tu d e n ts o f th e history o f
aesth etics a s well as th e h isto ria n s o f g en e ral p h ilo so p h y c a n n o t be in e rro r
in p lacin g K a n t in th e very c e n te r o f th e m o d e rn philo so p h ical trad itio n .
N o t o n ly did his sy stem atic treatises b rin g to g e th e r in o n e u n ity m o st o f the
e x ta n t so lu tio n s o f p h ilo so p h ic al p ro b le m s o f th e en tire tra d itio n , b u t they
also p ro v id e d excellent a rc h ite c to n ic s tru c tu re to th e to tality o f doctrines.
A b o v e a ll p e rh a p s his fa m e is a ssu re d b y his v alian t a tte m p ts to h arm o n ize
th e o p p o se d sec ta rian view s a m o n g them selves, b u t also to b rin g into
c o n ta c t th e findings o f th e b u rg e o n in g science o f his d ay . A lth o u g h K an t tt
clu n g to the triu n e p eak s o f m etaphysics: G o d , F ree d o m , a n d Im m o rtality ,
h e d id en v isag e th e ta sk o f p h ilo so p h y to d e p a rt th eo retically fro m the
tra d itio n a l th eo lo g ical beliefs by se ttin g u p a d u a lity o f R e a so n a n d P ra c ­
tice. S y m b o lica lly K a n tia n p h ilo so p h y is a n a m a lg a m a tio n o f th e A Prior­
ity a n d th e / I S IF of th e spiritistic tra d itio n . |
W rite rs o n th e p h ilo so p h y o f aesth etics a fte r K a n t a re u n a b le to proceed
w ith o u t d irec t reference to so m e p h ase o f his p h ilo so p h y e ith e r by accep t- P*
an c e o r by m o d ificatio n . But it is to be n o te d th a t a sid e fro m th e use o f the
term “science” n o n e o f th e successors ofJK an t really to o k ad v a n ta g e o f his
h in ts to deal w ith aesthetics o n th e basis o f p erso n s interactin g w ith the ^
b ea u tifu l in n a tu re a n d in art] W h e th e r o r n o t K a n t is held responsible fo r a *»'
m odified a e sth e tic discipline, it m u st be p o in ted o u t th a t aesth etic th in k in g jf*<
becam e en larg ed afte r his tim e to a c c o m m o d a te su ch facto rs as feeling, >
u n d e rs ta n d in g , ju d g m e n t, taste, p leasu re, as well as in tu itio n . T h e en tire
subject o f aesthetics, how ever, w as allow ed to re m a in in th e u p p e r regions
o f th e ethereal.
W h a te v e r th e m erits o f th e K a n tia n c u ltiv atio n o f aesthetics his succes­
so rs d id n o t fail to criticize his view s in w h o le o r p a rt. A specific ex a m p le is
H egel’s o b jectio n to K a n t’s d u a lism o f fo rm a n d m a tte r in aesthetics, as
well as th e se p a ra tio n o f re aso n fro m sense. H egel (1770-1831) espouses a
unified a b so lu te, a religious ra th e r th a n a scientific type o f m etaphysics.
M a n y o th e r less to talistic criticism s h av e b een p ro p o se d by th e p h ilo so p h i­
cal su ccesso rs o f K an t. O f especial n o te are th e ae sth e tic views o f H e rb a rt
(1776-1841) w h o w ith his realistic b en t d istin g u ish ed betw een aesthetics as
co n c ern e d w ith p u re b ea u ty as o v e r ag a in st a rt. H e rb a rt has b een credited

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as b rin g in g aesth etics s o m e w h a t clo se r to a c tu a l th in g s th o u g h he re p re ­

sen ts n o d e p a rtu re fro m th e m e ta p h y sic s o f a b stra c tio n ism , verbiage,
artificiality, a n d purely im a g in a ry n o tio n s o f a b so lu tistic a n d tra n sc e n d e n ­
tal p h ilo so p h y . It is tru e th a t th ro u g h his fo llo w ers, especially Z im m e rm a n
(1814-1898), aesth etics b ecam e a d efinite fo rm a l discipline.

ISSU ES IN A R T A N D A ESTH ETICS

B ecause o f th e w ide p re v alen ce a n d v astn ess o f the aesth etic d o m ain ,

p h ilo so p h e rs a n d o th e r sc h o la rs h a v e fo rm u la te d a large n u m b e r o f issue*
c o n c e rn in g th e essential n a tu re o f ae sth e tic s an d th e things a n d ev e n ts ir
th is field. A sid e fro m p ro b le m s a b o u t th e general n a tu re o f b eau ty , ques-
l i o ns a re raised a b o u t criteria fo r th e a rts a n d ,a e sth e tic qualities.
a. Intrinsicality of Art and Aesthetic Quality. A rt an d ae sth e tic quality
a re freq u e n tly ch a ra c te riz e d by a e s th e tic ia n s a s in trinsic. B eau ty fo r ex a m
p ie is w h a t it is a n d it is n o t v a lu e d f o r a n y o th e r fa c to r o r fe atu re. Fo:
e x a m p le , a rtis tic w o rk a n d its p ro d u c ts a r e d iffe ren tiated fro m all thing:
useful a n d p ra ctical. W h ile w e m a y c o u n t a s a m e rit th e a tte m p t to sugges
th e specificity o f b e a u ty a n d a e s th e tic q u a lity , th is is n o t to c o n d o n e th*
p rim a ry fallacy o f o v e rlo o k in g th a t b e a u tifu l th in g s m ay o b v io u sly tx
useful, w hereas objects th a t a r e p rim a rily useful m ay also p a rta k e o f th<
q u alitie s o f bea u ty . T o ta k e c o n c re te situ a tio n s in to a c c o u n t d e m o n stra te
th e ad v isab ility o f c o n sid e rin g th e circ u m sta n c es in w h ic h a rt a n d it
p ro d u c tio n fu n c tio n in th e lives o f artists. It is m isleading to leave o u t an
reference to d ec o rativ e a r t a n d its m a n y uses.
b. The Principle o f Aesthetic Experience in Art. A n o u ts ta n d in g ex am
pie o f th e e m p lo y m e n t o f fa lla c io u s p sy ch o lo g y b y co n v e n tio n a l philos
o p h e rs in terested in a e sth e tic ev e n ts is th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a specif
p rin cip le called ae sth e tic e x p e rien ce . M a n y w riters o n aesthetics asse rt tha
th e resp o n se to ae sth e tic o b jects involves a special kind o f psychic stat
u su a lly o f so m e affective q u a lity ca lle d ffa ) e m o tio n o r'fe e lin g ,? (b ) a
a tte n tio n process,34 o r (c) in te n tio n , a n d n u m e ro u s o thers. E q u ally qualifie
w rite rs d e n y th e e x isten c e o f a n y special tra its o f feeling o r e m o tio n i
a e sth e tic s itu a tio n s, b u t insist th a t a n o th e r ty p e o f psychic p rin cip le opei
ales. T h e follow ing p a ra g ra p h s m e n tio n so m e o f th e m ore p ro m in e n t viev
th a t fill th e pages o f aesth etic lite ratu re .

3 Dewey, J., A rt as Experience , New York, Minton Balch, 1934; and Prall, D. W., Aesthei
Judgm ent , New York, Crowell, 1929.
4Vivas, E.,MA Definition of the Aesthetic Experience,*' Journal o f Philosophy , 1937, 34,628-63
. fr*
236
/'i>"%
 ART AND A E S T H E T I C S

c. Psychic Distance. A s B u llo u g h 5 d escrib es th is prin cip le, th e fa rth e r

; o n e is re m o v e d fro m a d a n g e ro u s fog a t sea the m o re on e c a n en jo y the
scene, ju s t as a m o u n ta in clim b er c a n relish th e ex p erien ce th e m o re he
t o s s 's

d isreg a rd s the la b o r a n d th e d an g e r. S o th e se p a ra tio n o f objects fro m one's

ow n self finds its basis in th e v a rio u s fo rm s o f a r t a n d prov id es a crite rio n o f ^
the beautiful.
d. Empathy. A p o p u la r c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f a m e n tal p rinciple in aes­
thetics has b een n a m e d e m p a th y , a tra n s la tio n o f th e G e rm a n w ord
EinfU hlung th a t T h e o d o r L ipps used fo r th e psychic state. T h e p rim ary
n o tio n a b o u t this p rin cip le is th a t o n e e x p eriences c e rta in feelings a b o u t
o b jects, as fo r e x a m p le th e risin g u p o f a rc h itectu ra l co lu m n s o r th e
b e n d in g o f b u ild in g s o n e sees. A m o n g the v a ria tio n s in th e a p p lic a tio n o f
e m p a th y a re in d ic a tio n s o f in tro je c tio n s o f th e m ind in to all so rts o f
aesth e tic objects. S a n ta y a n a 's in tere stin g d efin ition o f b ea u ty is a p a rtic u la r
version o f e m p a th y . “ B eau ty is p leasu re re g ard e d as th e q u a lity o f a thing.*'*’
H o w e v er g re at th e d etailed differences b etw een th e v ario u s versions o f
the aesth etic principles n o n e o f th e sp o n so rs rejects th e w ro n g psychological
p rin cip le o f psychic sta te s. T h e to p ic o f a e sth e tic ex p e rien ce is o f co u rse
localized in th e g en eral d o m a in o f d u a listic p sy chology. T h e en tire d e b a te
co n c e rn in g th e e x isten c e o r n o n e x iste n c e o f special types o f ex p e rien ce in
ae sth e tic al s itu a tio n s rests u p o n a m y th ical view o f experience. It is a s­
sum ed th a t ex p e rien ce is so m e s o rt o f subjective m entalistic process.7 All
th e versio n s c o n tra s t w ith a n a tu ra listic ex p lic a tio n o f experience.
It is ev id en t th a t th e d e b a te a b o u t a e sth e tic experiences c o n c ern s the
in te ra c tio n o f p e rso n s w ith objects. T h is is a definite so rt o f in terb e h av io ral
event w h ich c a n n o t b e a d e q u a te ly tre a te d w ith o u t th e cen tral fa cto rs o f
b e h a v io r o f p e rso n s as a lso th e b e h a v io r o f th e stim u lu s object in th e
b e h a v io ra l field. T h e ev en t consists o f J o h n S m ith lo o k in g a t D a V inci’s
p o rtra it o f M o n a Lisa.
N o w o f co u rse every ty p e o f in te rb e h a v io r is un iq u e w ith ch aracteristics
o f its o w n . T o in te rb e h a v e w ith to o ls, m achines, an im als, o r scu lp tu re o r
p a in tin g s is to en g a g e in sp ecialized fo rm s o f a c tio n , ea ch w ith a different
d e sc rip tio n a n d analy sis. O n e ev en t is to o l-u sin g o r c raftsm an sh ip , a n o th e r
is en jo y in g , a d m irin g , o r e v a lu a tin g a p ain tin g , statu e, o r o th e r b eautiful
s Bullough, E.. “Psychical Distance as a Factor in Art and an Aesthetic Principle,” British Journal
o f Psychology. 1912.5. 87-98.
f Santayana. G.. The Sense o f Beauty. Being Outlines o f Aesthetic Theory, New York. Scribner’s.
18%.
1A most elaborate chapter bearing on the problem of aesthetic experience is a variable in Kovach. K
J., Philosophy o f Beauty. Norman. Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1974, ch. 12.

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

object. T h u s th e u n iq u en ess o f th e ae sth e tic experience is o n ly th e u n iq u e ­

ness o f a n y b e h a v io r ev en t a s c o m p a re d w ith a n y o th er. In all cases
ex p e rien ce is o n ly a n a m e o r s y n o n y m f o r th e co n ta c ts o f o rg a n ism s with
things, events, co n d itio n s, a n d so on.
e. Art as Illusion. A e sth e tic ia n s a n d especially a r t h isto ria n s se a rc h foi
th e so lu tio n o f th e rid d le o f style a n d its changes. W ollheim * p u ts th e m atte:
w ell w h en he asks,
. . . Why has representative art a history? Why did Duccio and Rubens. Van Eyck am
Monel, Uccello and Watteau, all of whom, it must be granted, were interested in depictin;
the visible world, depict it in such different, such bewilderingly different, ways . . . ?

A s th e h isto ria n s o b serv e th e m a n y p ro fo u n d v aria tio n s in th e wa;

o b jects are d e p icte d in d ifferen t tim es o r in c o n te m p o ra ry sch o o ls, the;
b a sk in th e aid a n d c o m fo rt th e y receive fro m a p erverted style o f psychol
ogy. T h ey ac cep t th e p rem ise th a t a r t is a th in g o f th e m ind th o u g h scientifi
p sy ch o lo g y has n o p la c e fo r s u c h a p e rv ersio n o f th e a c tu a l activ ity o
p ain te rs, scu lp to rs, o r d ra u g h tsm e n .
T o ob serv e th a t th e p a in tin g o f a C h in ese lan d scap e varies rad ically fro r
a D u tc h , F re n c h , o r E n g lish o n e is in d eed th e b eg in n in g o f aesth eti
w isd o m . B u t sh o u ld su c h v a ria b ility b e re d u ced to p ro b le m s o f im p ro p e
re p re s e n ta tio n ? T o d o so is ta n ta m o u n t to v ictim izatio n by th e c ru d e st a n
m o st deceiving p h ilo so p h y . It is to m isin te rp ret th e d a ta a n d in te rp re ta tio
o f perceiving, th in k in g , a n d o th e r fo rm s o f o rie n ta tio n o f o rg a n ism s t
th e ir e n v iro n in g w orlds. A rt as Illusion is an o u tg ro w th o f a spiritist:
psychology.
M ista k es, falsifications, e rro rs, a n d m isin te rp re ta tio n s a re fo rm s o f it
te ra c tio n o f p erso n s a n d th in g s.9 W h a t le n d s s u p p o rt to th e view o f a rt j
illu sio n is th e o b v io u s fact th a t o rg a n ism s a n d p erso n s differ in the
perceiving responses to the sa m e o r sim ila r objects.
O n e o f th e m o st p ersiste n t u p h o ld e rs o f th e view th a t a rt is illusio
p u b lish ed a larg e w o rk e x p o u n d in g th is a ttitu d e .10 In this w o rk th e a u th t
h a s m u ste re d a list o f te stim o n ia ls fro m p ro fessio n al p sy ch o lo g ists an
p h ilo so p h e rs w h o believe th a t a c ts o f p erceiving co n sist o f a m in d projec
in g q u alitie s in to th e n e u tra l so u rc es o f stim u la tio n by energy. T1
m em b ers listed d o n o t d is c rim in a te a g a in s t B erkeley an d his follow ers.

*Wollheim, R., “Art and Illusion," in Aesthetics in the Modern World (H. Osborne, ed.), Ne
York, Wcybrighi and Talley, 1968, pp. 235-36.
«Cf.ch.8.
10Gombrich, E. H ..Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology o f Pictorial Representation, Ne
York, Pantheon, 1960.

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psy ch o lo g y b ased on su ch fo u n d a tio n s c a n o n ly be g o ssam er s u p p o rt fo r

th e illusion d o ctrin e.
W h a t th e illusion n o tio n im plies is th a t th ere a re n o th in g s o r th eir
p ro p e rtie s b u t th a t stim u lu s ob jects a re c o m p lete creatio n s o f im ag in ary
m inds. F ro m the aesth etic sta n d p o in t W o llh eim 11 has severely an d p ro p ­
erly c o n d e m n e d th e illusion n o tio n . B ut th e tran scen d en tal psychology
em p lo y ed by th e illusionists requires m o re radical exorcism .
A s in d icated ab o v e , G o m b ric h as a n illu sio nist has so u g h t o u t a n u m b e r
o f spiritistic p sychologists w ho indeed fu rn ish h im w ith ghosts, a n d spoo k s,
b efo re th ey them selves d isco v er th e ir erro rs. In the m ean tim e h e bases his
e n tire b o o k o n th e th em e th a t all a r t in its v a rio u s fo rm s is illusory. A n
in terestin g c o n tra d ic tio n in his view s is to m ak e use o f the a m b ig u o u s
d u c k -ra b b it figure a n d o th e rs to p ro v e th e n o n ex isten ce o f objects in the
perceiving interaction.
A v a ria n t o f th e illusion d o c trin e d irectly fro m spiritistic ph ilo so p h y is
the v ersio n o f A le x a n d e r12 w ho trea ts o f th e “object o f a rt.” Briefly he
asserts th a t th ere is a g re at difference betw een w hat a n artist p u ts u p o n a
p a in tin g a n d w h a t th e b e h o ld e r sees th ere. A rt th e n fo r him is illusion. T h e
significance o f a b eau tifu l object is su p p lied , a t least in p art, fro m the a rtist’s
m ind.
Z iff13 fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f ra tio n a l aesthetics has com pletely d em o l­
ished th e spiritistic d o c trin e o f tw o o b jects, one o f w hich th e canvas
co n ta in s a n d th e o th er, w h a t th e ob serv er sees, alo n g w ith th e discrepancies
betw een th em . Scientific p h ilo so p h ers a n d p sychologists g o even fa rth er
a n d u n c o v e r th e d elu sio n in the illu sio n d o c trin e . T h ey are ap p a lle d by the
d isto rtio n s im p o sed u p o n the o b v io u s lessons o f d aily ex perience, by
re d u cin g a rtists to in ex isten t m in d s w ith p o w ers to p ro d u c e w o rk s o f a rt
o u t o f b ru sh stro k es a n d a variety o f pigm ents.
It is basically a m ystery h ow a p h ilo so p h e r ca n o v e rlo o k th e co m p lex
aesth e tic situ atio n s, th o se involving th e tech n iq u e o f p ro d u c in g all sorts o f
objects w hich o th e rs in teract w ith by w ay o f perceiving p aintings, m usic, o r
o th e r a r t objects, ju d g in g a n d ev alu atin g th e m , a n d in m a n y o th e r ways. A s
Z iff p u ts th e m a tte r, w h en so m eo n e sees d e p th p o rtra y ed o n a canvas no
on e is deceived in believing they can w alk th ro u g h th e ca n v as.14
F ro m a scientific sta n d p o in t th e term “ illusion” describes in teractio n s
» Op. Cil.. pp. 235-263.
11Alexander, S„ Philosophical and Literary Pieces. London. Macmillan. 1939. p. 259.
llZilT. P., “An and the ‘Object of Art'.- in Aesthetics and Language (W. Elton, ed ). Oxford,
Blackwell. 1967. ch. II.
'"Ziff. Ibid., p. 174.

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w ith th in g s c o n tra rily to th e ir a c tu a l q u alities an d p ro p erties. T here

a m b ig u o u s figures a n d o th e r o b jects a n d th ey serve to am p lify th e u
in d iv id u alistic m a n n e r o f in te ra c tin g w ith things. T h ere a re alw ays corn
c o n d itio n s th a t a c c o u n t fo r th e specificities o f perceiving as well as all o
V i< psychological events. Scientific p sy ch o lo gy can in principle analyze
p a rtic u la r circu m stan ces fo r u su a l a n d u n u su al behavior. A m o n g :
-“W c irc u m sta n ces m ay b e n u m b e re d th e a p p ro a c h to things w ith so m e pre
"l.Vi/- p o sitio n , th e influence o f p re v io u s ex p eriences, an d o f co u rse, th e prin
c o n d itio n m ay be so m e u su a l o r u n u s u a l p ro p e rty o f the things them se
a n d a lso th e settin g o r a u s p ic e o f th e in teractio n , (jt is a p ity th a t
illusionist do es n o t ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e ro u n d q u a rte r-d o lla r w h ich is
as elliptical fro m ce rtain angles o f v is io n .^
f. Absoluteness and Abstractionism. It is o n e o f the task s o f sciei
p h ilo so p h y a n d p sy ch o lo g y to c o rre c t th e e rro r o f co n v en tio n al a e s tb
r
o f c u ltiv atin g a b so lu te s a n d a b stra c tio n s. T h e literatu re o f th eo re
aesth etics h as ru n m u c h m o re o n th e track s o f w ords a n d sentences i
It u p o n th e basis o f d esc rib in g a n d in te rp re tin g the actu al b e h a v io r o f ci
ing a n d a p p re c ia tin g p a in tin g s, scu lp tu res, o r the beau tifu l in nat
Scientific p h ilo so p h y an d p sy c h o lo g y s tan d firm in th e d e m a n d to
m o re w ith events th a n w ith fo rm u la e . T h is d ev elo p m en t o f the an aly s
o b jects a n d b e h a v io ra l fields r a th e r th a n h isto rical th eo ries is o f co
fa cilitate d by th e e v o lu tio n o f m o re a d e q u a te ideas o f th e n a tu r
n
re actio n s as well as a new er a p p re c ia tio n o f th e tex tu res, fo rm s, a n d gei
P* s tru c tu re o f things a n d events.
It is o n ly th e re so rt to m etap h y sics o f th e w o rst so rt to use th e v
“ b e a u ty ” as a basis f o r seek in g so m e sp iritu al q u ality fo r ae sth e tic the
T h is is exem plified in th e s ta te m e n ts o f C a rritt15 co n cern in g th e gre
At difficulty o f aesth etics b ey o n d th a t o f logic a n d religion. A s a spirit
p h ilo s o p h e r he says, “ W e a re in v estig ating aesth etic experience, not
Bn n a tu re o f th in g s." A esth etic lite ra tu re is replete w ith alte rn a te a b s tra c t
like in tu itio n , visio n , fan cy , c o n te m p la tio n , im ag in atio n , e m o tio n , a n
on.
)ir T h e verbalistic p h ilo so p h e rs, fo r ex a m p le R y le,16 to u c h o n th e absi
tio n istic erro rs in ae sth e tic s in m a k in g th e w o rd “feeling” so p ro m in e
'i
fe a tu re . H e in d icates th a t th e re a re j n a n y usages o f th e term s o th a t
im p ro p e r to c o n n e c t feeling o r e m o tio n w ith aesth etic situ atio n s,
en c o u ra g in g to ob serv e th e critical a ttitu d e to w a rd ab so lu tism a n d absi
’’Canitt, E. F„ The Theory o f Beauty, 601 ed., London, Methuen, 1962, p. 3.
“ Ryle, G., “Feelings,"in Aesthetics a n d Language (W. Elton, ed.), Oxford, Blackwell, 1967,

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tio n ism , h o w ev er, it m u s t be n o te d th a t a b asic re q u ire m e n t is th e p ositive

in v estig atio n o f g en u in e a e sth e tic in te rb e h a v io r w ith effective an aly ses o f
th e a c tu a l c o m p o n e n t fa c to rs p a rtic ip a tin g in su ch in terb eh av io rs.
g. Expressionism in Aesthetics. T h a t c o n v e n tio n a l aesth etics sta n d s
o u ts id e th e ra n g e o f c o n c re te e v e n ts is s tro n g ly d e m o n s tra te d by th e
ex p re ssio n ism so p ro m in e n tly fo rm u la te d a n d d efen d ed by th e Ita lia n
ae sth e tic ia n C ro c e .17 E x p re ssio n ism carries th e full significance o f spiritistic
p h ilo so p h y . T h e b e a u tifu l a c c o rd in g to C ro c e is en tire ly subjectivistic an d
eg o c en tric. In effect e x p re ssio n ism d o e s aw ay w ith th e ob jects w h ich
d isp lay th e b e a u ty o r o th e r ae sth e tic q u a lity b y re d u cin g th em to psychic
ex p ressio n s. “T h e b e a u tifu l is n o t a p h y sical (n a tu ra l) fact, it d o es n o t
b elo n g to th in g s, b u t to th e ac tiv ity o f m a n , to sp iritu a l energy.” 18 P ro p e rly
to a p p re c ia te th is w a y w ard view is to c o n n e c t it w ith th e e n tire g ra n d
tra d itio n o f p o s t K a n tia n R o m a n tic p h ilo so p h y . A s is well k n o w n , C ro c e is
a fa irly d ire c t d e s c e n d e n t o f H egel, th a t m e a n s he c a n p la y fa st a n d loose
w ith th e b e h a v io r o f in d iv id u a ls a n d th e o b je c ts w ith w h ic h th e y in tera ct,
b o th in a e sth e tic a n d n o n a e sth e tic fields. T h e essen tial an tiscientific n a tu re
o f C ro ce’s p h ilo so p h y a n d p sy ch o lo g y is w ell in d icated b y his c o m m e n t
th a t “even the re p re se n ta tio n s th a t we h av e fo rg o tte n p ersist so m e h o w in
o u r sp irit, fo r w ith o u t th is w e c o u ld n o t e x p la in a c q u ire d h a b its a n d
cap acities.”19
H o w so e v er fallacio u s a n d d e g e n e ra te th e H eg el-C ro ce p h ilo so p h y a n d
p sy ch o lo g y m a y b e it still h a s g e n e ra te d a n a e sth e tic tra d itio n . F o r e x a m ­
ple, C a rr itt20 a n d C o llin g w o o d a re ex p ressio n ists. E specially th e la tte r h as
p lay ed a p ro m in e n t p a r t in a e sth e tic circles. A s w e w o u ld ex p ect h is b o o k 21
is so m e w h a t m o d e rn iz e d to th e effect o f sp ecifying th a t a r t expresses
e m o tio n . H o w o b v io u s it is th a t C o llin g w o o d k n o w s little o f scientific
p h ilo so p h y o r psychology.
In c o n n e c tio n w ith his criticism o f C o llin g w o o d , D ick ie su m m arize s th e
p rim a ry a s s u m p tio n s o f his a r g u m e n t in th e n e a t series o f th e follow ing five
points.
1. A r t h a s s o m e th in g to d o w ith e m o tio n .
2. A rt m u s t e ith e r ev o k e e m o tio n o r e x p re ss e m o tio n : th ere a re o nly tw o
possibilities.
17Croce, B„ Aesthetic: as Science o f Expression an d General Linguistic (D. Ainslie, trs.), 2nd ed.,
London, Macmillan, 1922.
>*Croce, Ibid., p. 97.
19Croce, Ibid., p. 96.
“ Carritt, E. F„ Op. Cfi., ch. 12.
11Collingwood, R. C., The Principles o f A rt, New York, Oxford Univ. Press, 1958.

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3. A rt is n o t craft.
— '■* 4. A rt c a n n o t a ro u se e m o tio n b ecau se if it did it w o u ld be craft.
5. A rt is th e e x p re ssio n o f em o tio n .
T h is s u m m a ry in d icates h o w ra d ic ally C ollingw ood av o id s a n y an;
b ased o n actu al o b se rv a tio n s o f ae sth e tic events.23
h. Indeftnabilii v of Aesthetic Data. W h at h as fo r ce n tu ries blocke
^ p ro g ress o f aesth etic p h ilo so p h y h a s b een th e effect o f th e tw o philos<
'i cal d o g m a s so o ften m e n tio n ed in this w o rk (a) ab so lu tism an d abstrac
'• ism . p lu s (b ) soul p sy chology. It is th ese d o g m a s w h ich interfere w
^ p ro p e r a ttitu d e to w a rd s defin itio n . C o n seq u en tly aesth etic lite rati
N rep lete w ith th e a sse rtio n th a t b ea u ty , su b lim ity, an d o th e r qualities ca
s be defined.
D e fin itio n in aesthetics, as in every o th e r in tellectual field, is act
( ^ d e s c r i p t i o n . Influenced by th e fallacio u s p h ilosophy o f essentiality, ae
tician s th in k o f d efin itio n as a series o f v erb al item s s tru n g toge
H ow ever, fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f a n atu ra listic p h ilo so p h y , defir
co n sists o f c o n stru c tin g a d e sc rip tio n o f som e object o r event. W hih
ty p e o f d esc rip tio n m ay so m e tim e s be rep resen ted by a v erb al co m pie?
n o valid d efin itio n th a t d o e s n o t k eep clo se to so m e th in g o r ev en t tl
v being described.
P ro p e rly to u n d e rsta n d th e n a tu re o f b e a u ty we m ay need to resc
c o m p a ris o n s o f th in g s o n e o f w hich is b e a u tifu l th e o th e r n o t, o r wre
h av e to reso rt to a scale o f m o re o r less beautiful. W h en w e con-
b e a u tifu l w ith n o n b e a u tifu l th in g s a n d e v e n ts we hav e no pro b le
d evising scales fo r d iffe ren tiatin g betw een th e p resen ce o r absent
q u alities o r p ro p erties o r to in d icate th e v ariatio n s betw een things o
basis o f c e rtain criteria. F o r n o n ae sth e tic o b jects criteria m ay consi
w eight, s h a d e , ta ste q u ality , lastin g n ess, rate o f increase, o r d eterio ra
S im ila r features, c o n d itio n s, a n d re la tio n s c a n be fo u n d fo r beai
things.
i. Aesthetic Reality. B ecause th e p h ilo so p h y o f aesth etics is su b jt
th e g en e ral o n to lo g y a n d ep iste m o lo g y o f its devotees, ae sth e tic the
a r e fo rm u la te d o n th e b asis o f th e re ality assu m p tio n s held by th e sp
p h ilo so p h e r. T h u s, th e q u e stio n is raised w h eth er aesth etic objects
e v e n ts ac tu a lly exist, a n d if th e y d o , in w h at w ay. A n ex cellen t illustn
o f th is issue is in d icated in H u m e ’s essay en titled , T h e S ta n d a rd o f 1
H e w rites, 2

22Dickie, G„ Aesthetic*: an Introduction, Indianapolis. Bobbs Merrill, 1971. p, 88.

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(^Beauty is no quality in things themselves: it exists merely in the mind which contemplates
them: and each mind perceives a different beauty] One person may even perceive deformity,
where another is sensible of beauty; and every individual ought to acquiesce in his own
sentiment, without pretending to regulate those of others. To seek the real beauty, or real
deformity, is as fruitless an inquiry, as to pretend to ascertain the real sweet or real bitter.
According to the dispositions of the organs, the same object may be both sweet and bitter,
and the proverb has justly determined it to be fruitless to dispute concerning tastes. It is very
natural, and even quite necessary, to extend this axiom to mental, as well as bodily taste: and
thus common sense, which is so often at variance with philosophy, especially with the
sceptical kind, is found, in one instance at least, to agree in pronouncing the same decision.'1

S in c e scientific p h ilo so p h y is c o n c e rn e d exclusively w ith th e a c tu a l

ac tiv ities o f p e rso n s in c o n ta c t w ith th e m a te ria ls o f a rt a n d a finished
p ro d u c t o r th e o b s e rv a tio n a n d a d m ira tio n o f n a tu ra l b e a u ty o r su b lim ity ,
it d o es n o t re q u ire o r in d u lg e in su c h issues as w h at is o r is n o t reality. I n th e
a c c o m p a n y in g ta b le a e sth e tic situ a tio n s a r e in d icated in term s o f th e
in te rb e h a v io r o f p erso n s w ith a e sth e tic o r n o n a e sth e tic objects.

T a b l e 5. A e s t h e t ic S it u a t io n s

Type or Style of Art Processes Involved Products

Fine or Sophisticated Constructive or Appreciative Artistic Objects
Arts Acts
Interactions with Beautiful
Things
Crude or Primitive Art Exercise of Skill Imitations of
Art
Nonart Amorphous Things Misnamed Things

j. Aesthetic Enjoyment. A th in g o f b e a u ty is a jo y forever. T h is is a

p o e t’s w a y o f re fe rrin g to th e v ery p o p u la r n o tio n th a t b e a u ty is so m e th in g
th a t pleases. T h is view is u n d o u b te d ly b a se d u p o n th e g eneral idea th a t
w h a t is n o t b ea u tifu l do es n o t fu rn ish th e b e h o ld e r a n y p leasure. M o reo v er,
it is a lso su g g ested th a t u g ly th in g s o r u g lin ess in g en e ral c a n o n ly call o u t a
feeling o f d isp leasu re . N o w o b v io u sly th ese view s in th e ir v a rio u s fo rm u la ­
tio n s in d ic a te th e e x tre m e subjectivity o f ae sthetics. T h e s u b stru c tu re o f
su ch view s co n sists o f eg o cen tric d u alistic p sy ch o lo g y , w hich is fu rth e r
b ase d o n so m e s o r t o f sp iritistic view o f p sy ch o lo g ica l b e h a v io r a n d so
c o m p le te ly c o u n te r to th e n a tu ra lis tic field v iew o f p sy ch o lo g y . T h e re is n o
d o u b t th a t a t least so m e b ea u tifu l th in g s p ro v id e p leasu re to th e observ er,

“ Hume, D., “The Standard of Taste,” in Essays. London. Routledge. n.d., pp. 167-68.

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b u t p le asu rab le re a c tio n s c o rre la te w ith m a n y different kinds o f stii

objects. Y a c h tsm e n m ay get m u ch m o re pleasure fro m lo o k in g at
b o a t th a n w hile c o n te m p la tin g a p a in tin g o f C ezan n e o r B ottice
fish erm a n m ay be m o re g re a tly pleased w hile h an d lin g his new ro d 01
th a n being in visual c o n ta c t w ith so m e g reat w ork o f art.
A side fro m v io latin g th e p rin cip le o f ra tio n a l an d n a tu ra l science
ce n tric sp iritism is o u t o f th e ra n g e o f a c tu a l h ap p en in g s, in whic
b eh a v io r event, w h e th e r a e sth e tic o r n o n aesthetic, includes a re;
p erso n w h o is in d irec t o r in d irec t c o n ta c t w ith actu al objects c o m p o
p a rtic u la r so rts o f fo rm a n d co n ten t.

POLARITIES IN ARTISTIC AND AESTHETIC SITUATIONS

a. Aesthetic Qualities in Nature and in Art. M an y w riters o n aesl
lim it them selves to w o rk s o f a r t in d isreg a rd o f aesth etic qualil
n atu re .34 O th e r w riters, how ever, a re ju st as certain th a t th e ae;
qualities in a rt a re sim ply a reflection o f th e beautiful an d o th e r val
n atu re . A n o u ts ta n d in g d ev o tee o f th e b e a u ty o f the entire m aterial
w as M ich elan g elo w h o n o t only a d o re d n a tu ra l things but studied
scientifically. A s his p o etic w o rk s show , despite his religion an d neopl
philo so p h y , he th o u g h t th a t only by im ag in atio n ca n a n a rtist attai
b ea u ty ab o v e th a t o f n a tu re . T h e p a ra d o x ic a l n atu ra lism o f M ichel;
is revealed in his view th a t o n ly th e h u m a n figure is divinely b eau
O th e r ae sth e tic ia n s also d e c la re th a t th e h u m a n form is the m ost be;
thing, n ex t o f c o u rse to th a t o f G o d .36 T h is e x a lta tio n o f the h u m a i
m ay be a n ex a g g e ra tio n o r a p erso n al w him , still it im plies th e qua
b ea u ty as it exists in o b jects o f n a tu re . N ot all ad h e re n ts to the view
glory o f the h u m a n fo rm a re influenced by th e divine co m p ariso n .37
is also a p ro m in e n t a ttitu d e th a t w h e n a w o rk o f a r t ex h ib its ae
qualities th e a rtis t h as a tte m p te d to p u t in to his w ork som e q u ality l
has previously observed in n a tu re .
F ro m th e sta n d p o in t o f scientific p h ilo so p h y it is certain th a t th e \
o n aesthetics w h o a tte m p t to localize th e b eau tiful exclusively in art
ex clu sio n o f n a tu re a re g ro ssly in e rro r. T h e y surely o v erlo o k tf

!* Hepburn. R. W.. "Aesthetic Appreciation in Nature," in Aesthetics in the Modem W

Osborne, cdt. New York. Weybright and Talley. 1968.
" Cf Blunt. A., Artistic Theory in half. I4SO-IAOO. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966. ch.
* Winckelmann. J. J„ Geschichie tier Konst des AItertums (W. Seff, ed.). Weimar. Bbhfe
p. 130.
J: Parker, D. H„ The Principles o f Aesthetics. New York, Silver, Burdett. 1920, p. 282.

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q u a lity o f b e a u ty , h o w so ev e r it is d esc rib ed o r ex p lain e d , m ay in h ere in all

k inds o f objects. It m ay well be tru e th a t c o n te m p o ra ry w ritings on
aesthetics a tte n d alm o st exclusively to the a rts a n d very rarely to n a tu ra l
b eau ty , b u t th is o n ly in d icates a m y o p ic c o n d itio n . A esthetics is som etim es
defined as p h ilo so p h y o f a r t o r th e p h ilo so p h y o f criticism , b u t this is no
s tro n g e r evidence th a n th a t m u c h q u o te d a n th o lo g ies o f aesthetics c o n ta in
no stu d y o f n a tu ra l b ea u ty . F ew ae sth e tic ia n s m ay b e seriously concerned

/M
w ith n a tu re b ecau se th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f science has resulted in a lack o f ,
in terest in n a tu ra l th in g s ex cep t th o se th a t have to be in tera cted w ith by s
m ean s o f m icro sco p es a n d telescopes. H o w ever, th o se w h o ag ree th a t •
b e a u ty is a q u a lity o f th in g s c a n n o t b e so in to le ra n t as to d ep riv e n a t u r a l :
things o f aesth etic qu alities an d values.
b. Objective versus Nonobjective Art. A recen t w id esp read m o v em en t
in th e a e sth e tic w orld co n sists o f th e p ro d u c tio n o f p ain tin g s an d scu lp ­
tu re s w h ich a re n o t re p resen ta tiv e o r fig u rative. A rtists refrain fro m p a in t­
ing scenes o r o b jects su ch as still lifes, o r lan d scap es an d seascapes, a n d so
on. T h e p a in tin g s p ro d u c e d co n sist m ain ly o f lines, p a tte rn s, c o lo r c o m b i­
A ,
n atio n s, a n d d istrib u tio n s o f v a rio u s so rts. C ertain ly th e galleries w hich
fi it* specialize in n o n o b jectiv e o r n o n fig u rativ e a r t d isplay different k inds o f
r /
l' t artistic objects fro m th e o ld e r type o f objective art. T h eo retically , how ever,
th e re is n o b asic difference in th e p sy ch o lo g ical p rocesses o f th e a rtists an d
th e ir w o rk . It sh o u ld be recalled th a t p sy ch o lo g ically sp eak in g in each case
a p e rso n called a n a rtis t p ro d u c e s a n o b ject, a p ictu re o f a definite so rt. N o
psy ch o lo g ist cou ld s u p p o rt th e view th a t th e re is n o object o n th e canvas,
b u t o f co u rse, th e re is o r m ay be a g re a t difference b etw een figurative an d
n o n fig u ra tiv e p ro d u c tio n s . In b o th cases th e w o rk p ro d u c e d m a y o r m ay
n o t be b ea u tifu l. If n o t, th e p ro d u c tio n m a y still fall w ith in the range o f
aesthetics.
In c o n n e c tio n w ith th e p ro b le m o f n o n o b jectiv e o r n o n fig u rativ e a r t it is
essential to av o id th e fallacio u s view th a t th e sim ple m a n ip u la tio n o f a rt
m ateria ls, ca n v ases, b ru sh e s, p ig m en ts, m a rb le , chisels, an d so o n , o r the
exercise o f n im b le c ra ftsm a n sh ip m u st ipso facto be a r t o r artistic. T h e
o b jects p ro d u c e d m ay be very useful a n d im p o rta n t to the m a k e r o r o th e r
p e rso n , b u t in th e in tere st o f p recisio n th e differences in th e ran g e o f
aesth etic things m u st be realized a n d a p p reciated .
c. Seeing versus Knowing. A n in tere stin g fo rm o f pseu d o p sy ch o lo g y is
ex h ib ite d b y th o se stu d e n ts o f aesth etics w h o jo in in th e d e b a te as to
w h e th e r n o n o b jectiv e o r n o n fig u ra tiv e p a in tin g is o r is n o t a rt. S u ch
w riters p ro p o s e th e view th a t n o n o b jectiv e p a in tin g as o p p o sed to figura-

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 H U M A N E VE NT S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T

live p a in tin g c a n be a c c o u n te d fo r o n th e basis th a t the fo rm e r i:

p ro d u c t o f p u re ly sen so ry fa cu ltie s w h ile figurative p ain tin g involves i
lectual processes.
N o w n o su ch o p p o s itio n is p o ssib le fro m the sta n d p o in t o f scie
psy ch o lo g y . W h e th e r perceiv in g o r k n o w in g a c tio n is p erfo rm ed '
alw a y s is in te ra c tio n b etw een in teg ra l o rg a n ism s o r p erso n s a n d th e tl
to w hich such p e rso n s in te ra c t. T h ese n am es “seeing” a n d “ k n o w in g ”
refer to co m p lex activities o f in d iv id u a ls so th a t seeing involves k n o \
1a n d k n o w in g , o f co u rse, basically o rig in ates in perceiving, th a t is, co n
w ith o b jects directly o r by m ean s o f su b stitu te o r au x iliary stim u lati
T h e o p p o sitio n betw een seeing a n d k n o w in g is based on a confusec
irra tio n a l n o tio n o f senses v ersu s th in k in g o r know ing. T h e o rig in o:
d iffe re n tia tio n o f ac tiv ities rests o n th e fact th a t o rg an ism s a re disst
in to special o rg a n s so th a t th e a c tio n s o f th e eyes, ears, nose, a n d hand
s e p a ra te d o u t fro m th e to ta l o rg a n ism w hich ac tu a lly is alw ay s a unit)
a c ts as a unity. T h is p o in t d o es n o t efface the fact th a t ac tio n s p erfo rm t
tk ' in d iv id u a ls are p a tte rn e d so th a t o n e m a y tru ly say th at th ey are p rim a
visual, a u d ito ry , o r ta c tu a l re actio n .
d. Invention and Imitation. T h e lite ra tu re o f aesthetics featu
If p ro m in e n t o p p o sitio n b etw een (a) th e p ro d u c tio n o f a n o rig in al ol
b ' th a t is, a p ain tin g , a m u sical c o m p o s itio n , o r a piece o f sc u lp tu re , an
th e im itatio n o r d ep ictio n o f a n object in n atu re.
n *
P ro b a b ly the o n ly m erit o f th is o p p o sitio n is th a t it do es suggest,
P ' lo n g distan ce, th a t o b jects exist w h ich are reacted to by the artist,
n * th ere is a t least a fa in t re a liz a tio n th a t aesth etics does co n cern itself
c o n c rete situ a tio n s, an d n o t ju s t e m p ty ab stra ctio n s. H ow ever, th o se
H1
m ak e use o f this d istin c tio n d o so w ith in the fra m e w o rk o f a n u n sati
» to r y n o tio n o f psy ch o lo g y a n d th e w ay a rtis ts o p erate. F o r th e m psy-
o g y c o n c e rn s a m in d o p e ra tin g w ith different faculties. O n e they
»> * m im etic o r m a tc h in g fa cu lty as in c o p y in g so m e ex tern al object o r c<
tio n .(T h e o th e r m en tal fa cu lty is in te rn a l in tu itio n by w hich som ething
c o u ld be created in d e p e n d e n tly o f a n y a lre a d y ex isting m ateria l. C o r
tio n a l w riters o n ae sth e tic s b y p ass en tire ly the ac tu a l processes o p e ra ti
u th e a p p re c ia tio n o r cre a tio n o f ae sth e tic objects^)
1
RANGE OF AESTHETIC QUALITIES
A esthetics b o th as an in fo rm a l a n d fo rm al discipline ce n te red p riir
o n b e a u ty a n d th e b ea u tifu l as subject m atter, a circu m stan ce th a t be<
m odified a b o u t th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry w h en su b lim ity becam e v ery pr

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 ART A N D A E S T H E T I C S

n en t as a n ae sth e tic q u ality . It w as n o t su rp ris in g th en th a t aesth e tic ia n s

also b e c a m e involved in th e q u a lity o f ugliness a s th e n eg a tio n o f b ea u ty
a lth o u g h m a n y ae sth e tic ia n s o b jecte d t o a l l o ti n g a place fo r u gliness in the
a e sth e tic field. O u t o f th e c o n te n tio n s th u s g en e rated the net result w as the
re a liz a tio n th a t aesth etics w as a discipline d e v o te d to th e in v estig atio n o f a
ra n g e o f q u a lity v ary in g f r o m l h e s u p e rio r to th e in ferio r a n d th e relative
o p p o site s. D o u b tle ss ae sth e tic b e a u ty to p s the list w ith su b lim ity as m o re
lim ited in p ro v en ien ce an d q u a n tity . T h e fo llo w ing p a ra g ra p h s are devoted
to a sim p le c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f th e m o st p ro m in e n t aesth etic q ualities in the
a e sth e tic range.
a. Beauty. D esp ite th e fact th a t b e a u ty is th e m o st p ro fu se a n d best
k n o w n o f th e ae sth e tic q u alitie s, th e re is h a rd ly an y co n sen su s as to its
ex iste n c e , n a tu re , a n d d e sc rip tio n . A t fa u lt o f c o u rse is th e a d h e re n c e to
som e fo rm o f m etaphysical ab stra ctio n ism . A s we shall n o te in th e follow ing
sectio n , c o n c e p tio n s o f b e a u ty v ary tre m e n d o u sly an d in fact th e term s
“b e a u ty ” a n d “b e a u tifu l” a re a p p lie d to all s o rts o f th in g s a n d in all s o rts o f
m an n ers.
T h e n o tio n is w id esp read th a t b e a u ty is in d efin ab le. A n d so it is if o n e is
d ea lin g w ith a b s tra c tio n a l w o rd s w hich o b v io u sly d o n o t a rtic u la te w ith
a c tu a l a e sth e tic situ atio n s. W h a t is re q u ired is osten siv e definition; the
o b se rv a tio n a n d d e sc rip tio n o f o b jects a n d c o n d itio n s. F o r on e thing,
b e a u ty is n o t a m y stic essence o r so m e th in g in th e m in d o r psychic
experien ce.
L ik e all ex istin g a n d o c c u rrin g th in g s a n d events, b e a u ty is a relative
p ro p e rty o r q u a lity o f th in g s. F lo w ers, a n im als, sto n es, o r h o u se s are m o re
o r less b e a u tifu l in the low est o r h ighest d eg ree to a zero p o in t in th e scale.
T h e re is n o a b s o lu te o r P la to n ic q u ality , o n ly ex cellence in fo rm , fu n c tio n ,
9 a n d a p p e a ra n c e , fittin g n ess a n d h a rm o n y w ith o th e r featu res a n d c irc u m ­
stan ce s in a r t o r n a tu re ; n o t e x c lu d e d is a stim u latin g cap acity fo r th e
p leasu re a n d a d m ira tio n o f th e observer.
b. Sublimity. T h e q u a lity o f su b lim ity is g en erally av a ila b le in th e
im m e n sity a n d m agnificence o f h ig h m o u n ta in s, th e v astness o f o cean s,
a n d sim ila r o b jects o f n a tu re . A n y o n e sy m p a th e tic to m o d e m objective
p sy ch o lo g y c a n n o t to le ra te su ch a view as K a n t’s eg o cen tric subjectivity,
a n d p ro jectiv e faculties o f m in d o r so u l, w h ich is rep resen ted in his
c o m m e n t.
Sublimity, therefore, does not reside in anything of nature, but only in our mind, in so far
as we can become conscious that we are superior to nature without us.M
3 Kant, I., Critique o f Judgm ent (J. H. Bernard, trs.), London, Macmillan, 1931. p. 129.

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 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I

A ll th is h a rd ly a p p e a rs a d e q u a te in view o f th e m assive a n d overw he

ing A lp in e m o u n ta in s o r o th e r g ra n d a n d e n o rm o u s objects o f n a tu r
in te ra c tio n a l stim u li fo r a e sth e tic ju d g m e n t.
c. The Grotesque and Ugly. N o ae sth e tic ia n can fail to ta k e acco u n
th e g ro tesq u e a n d ugly in a r t o r n a tu re , p e rh a p s b ecau se su ch d a ta
in esca p ab le, so m u c h m o d e rn a r t is likely to be g ro tesq u e an d u g ly ,.
a lso becau se th e c o n tra s t w ith th e b e a u tifu l is so striking. C o n sid e r s
d is to rte d , g ro te sq u e , an d ugly p a in tin g s a n d statu es as th o se p ro d u cec
P icasso , C h ag all, a n d S a lv a d o r D ali, a n d m an y o th e r sch o o ls.29
ex a m p le s o f ugly a rc h ite c tu re B eard sley 20 offers several V icto rian G o
m o n stro citie s as C a n o n c h c t, th e S p ra g u e h ouse at N a rra g a n n se tt, an d
C a rs o n h o u se a t E u re k a , C a lifo rn ia . H e a d d s also th e S o v iet-b u ilt Pal
o f S cience a n d C u ltu re in W a rs a w a n d q u o tes L ouis M u m fo rd c o n c e rt
th e lib rary o f th e U niversity o f P en n sy lv an ia.
No one ever did more to turn ugliness into a positive principle during the Br
Decades.31
A n im p o rta n t c o n s id e ra tio n h e re is to n o te th a t a n u gly o b ject o f
ta k e n as a w h o le m ay be e x tre m e ly ugly, b u t d etails as an aly zed m ay
m o st b ea u tifu l. T h e a e s th e tic q u a lity m ay in h ere in th e c o lo r, foi
p atte rn in g , h a rm o n y o f item s, a n d so on.
* d . Literary Aesthetics. L o y a lty to aesth etic things a n d events p ro m
. th e disco v ery o f a e sth e tic q u a lity in th e literary asp ects o f art. Y et i
difficult if n o t im p o ssib le to set u p definite crite ria fo r b e a u ty in liter,
p ro d u c ts. T h is difficulty is o f c o u rs e m itig ate d in th e case o f p o e try a
* m o d era tely m odified in p ro se w o rk s. In b o th cases th e re is av ailab le
* q u ality o f excellence a n d su p e rio rity as th e basis o f aesth etic qu ality .
A n im p o rta n t c o n s id e ra tio n h ere is th a t p o e try m ay be p ro p e rly cal
v erb al m usic.22 T h e re is m elo d y , m eter, rh y m e, a n d rh y th m . L ike m usi
c o m p o sitio n s th ere m a y be fittin g s tru c tu re an d o rd erly p attern in g . Ct
t sid e r th e lan g u ag e o f S h a k e s p e a re , G o e th e , an d o th ers. O n a m o re m o d
scale high aesth etic q u a lity is a lso p re sen t in v ario u s literary productic
w h e th e r plays, d e p ic tio n s o f trag ic o r co m ic scen ario s, o r even pi;
discourses on n eu tral subjects.
e. Grace and Elegance. A s a final e x a m p le o f excellence an d su perioi

NCf. Winkler. W„ Psychologie der Modernen Kunst. Tubingen, Alma Mater. 1949.
Beardsley. M. C., Aesthetics: Problems in the Philosophy o f Criticism, New York. Harco
Brace, 1958, p. 384.
" Beardsley. Ibid., p. 546.
Schoen. M.. Art amt Beauty, New York. Macmillan. 1932, p. 109.

248
 ART AND A E S T H E T I C S

in a e s th e tic o b jects we m e n tio n g ra ce a n d eleg an ce w h e rev er w e find it in

o b jects, fo r e x a m p le , th e gazelle, o th e r a n im a ls , a n d so m e p erso n s, as well
as in m o v e m e n ts su ch as ru n n in g , d a n c in g , especially in th e a c tio n s o f
ballet g ro u p s.

"BEAUTY”: U N IV E R SA L A P PL IQ U E

T h ro u g h o u t th e h isto ry o f ae sth etics th e te rm “b ea u ty ” has b een a

p rim a ry item o f a useful v o c a b u la ry . B u t it a lso b ecam e a term o f p o p u la r
in tere st a n d u sage. A c co rd in g ly , th e re a re tw o v ery d ifferen t e m p lo y m en ts
o f th e term . O n o n e h a n d th e te rm “b e a u tifu l” b ecam e a key item in the
v o ca b u la ry o f aesth etics w ith re feren ce m a in ly to a r t objects, w hile o n th e
o th e r, th e te rm b ec am e s y n o n o m o u s w ith th e w o rd s “perfectib ility ,”
“co m p leten e ss," “d esirab ility ," “e x p e rtn e ss,” a n d m a n y others. T o be alert
to th is a p p ro v e d o f d u a lity o f referen ce is o f benefit to stu d e n ts o f a e sth e t­
ics. H e n c e th e fo llo w in g ex a m p le s fro m th e large co llectio n o f n o n a e sth e tic
em p lo y m e n ts o f th e n o u n s an d ad jectiv es “ b e a u ty ” a n d th e “ b ea u tifu l.” •

A. The beauty o f things and events

th e b ea u tifu l fa te o f scientific research 33
b eau tifu l s tu d y 34 4
b eau tifu l re su lts35 #
m a th e m a tic s . . . possesses . . . su p re m e b e a u ty 36
b ea u tifu l co m p lex o f logical re la tio n s37
b ea u tifu lly a c u te ‘Fragm ent*38 t
b e a u tifu l a n d extensive th eo ries o f p u re m a th e m a tic s39 <f
. . . law s o f p la n e ta ry m o tio n a re . . . b e a u tifu l40
b ea u tifu l ex p ressio n s41

MReichenbach, H.. Atom and Cosmos: the World o f Modern Physics (E. S . Allen, trs.). New >
York, Braziller, 1957, p. 103.
“ Sigerot, H. E., A History o f Medicine. VoL II, Early Greek. Hindu, and Persian Medicine, New
York, Oxford Univ. Press, 1961, p. 100
15Thomson, Sir W„ and Tail, P. G., Elements o f Natural Philosophy, pi. 1, Oxford. Clarendon
Press, 1873.
* Russell, B„ Mysticism and Logic, and Other Essays, London, Allen and Unwin, 1950, p. 60.
” Hardy, G. H., “The Theory of Numbers." Science, 1922, 56. p. 405.
MVossler, K., The Spirit o f Language in Civilisation (O. Oeser, irs.). New York. Harcourt. Brace.
1932, p. 56 n.
wMoore, C. N .,“Mathematics and Science,"Science. 1935, 81, 28.
"Sullivan, J. W. N., The Limitations o f Science, Mentor ed., 1950, 13.
41 Courant, R„ and Robbins, H., What is Mathematics? A n Elementary Approach to Ideas and
Methods, London, Oxford Univ. Press, 1941, p. 300.

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H U M A N E V ENT S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I

beautiful experiments42
beautiful idea43
beautiful theory44
beautiful simplicity of animal economy45

B. The Beauty o f Processes

beauty and logical consistency of these methods46
beautiful way these could be explained47
beautiful manner48
beautifully enlightens our observations49
beautiful demonstrations50
beautiful discovery'51
beautiful conclusion52
beautifully simple explanation53

AESTHETIC BEAUTY IDENTIFIED AND DEFINED

Granting the difference between the aesthetic and nonaesthetic usaj
“beauty” the question arises as to the identity and definition of the aest
properties or qualities of the beautiful. There are m any definitio
beauty and the beautiful as indicated by Kovach's54 assemblage i
recent volume entitled. The Philosophy o f Beauty. So variable ar
definitions as to reach the zero point that the aesthetic is independt

*'■Rutherford. E.,“The Theory of Atomic Structure “ in Background to Mintern Science (Ne

and Pagel. eds.). New York, Macmillan, 1940, p. 69.
4>Faraday, M.. Experimental Researches in Electricity, 3 vols., London, Taylor and 1
1839-1855. vol. 1 p. 248; also
Jourdain. Philip E. B., The Nature o f Mathematics. London. Jack, 1919. p. 75.
44 Eve. A. S. Rutherford, Being the Ufe and letters o f the Right Honorable Lord Rathert
A/., New York, Macmillan, 1939, p. 219.
4! Bell. Ci. J.. in Charles Bell, Expression: Its Anatomy and Philosophy, New York, Well:
pref.
4, Bohr. N.. Atomic Theory and the Description o f Nature. Cambridge, Cambridge Univ
19.34, p. 14.
4" Darwin, C. G.. “Logic and Probability in Physics." Pintosoph i o f Science. 19.39, 6. 55.
44Jevons. M. S.. The Principles o f Science. London. Macmillan. 1924. p. 764.
4'1liadamard. J.. An Essay on the Psychology o f Invention in the Mathematical Field. Ne'
Dover. 1954.
VlCohen, M R .. Reason and Nature: An Essay on the Meaning o f Scientific Method. Ne*
Harcourt. Brace. 1931, p. 202.
" Wertheimer. M„ Productive Thinking, New York. Harper. 1945, p. 115.
Davis, H. T., Philosophy amt Modern Science, 2nd ed., Bloomington, Principia, 1953.
"Taylor. L. W„ Physics. The Pioneer Science, New York, Houghton Mifflin, 1941. p. 81
u Kovach. F. J . Philosophy o f Beauty. Norman. Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1974.

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 ART A N D A E S T H E T I C S

b e a u ty b u t signifies only w h at c raftsm en p ro d u ce. D u casse asserts “th a t a rt ^

c a n n o t possibly be defined in term s o f b ea u ty .”55
T h e significance o f th e n e g a tio n o f b e a u ty as a n im p o rta n t a n d p ro m i­
nen t p h a s e o f aesth e tic s is th e a n a rc h y a n d in ch o ate n ess th a t is in tro d u c e d
in th e ae sth e tic sp h ere. E m p h asis is placed o n co n stru c tio n s n o m a tte r h o w
b iz a rre o r in ep t. S o -called a rtis ts a re filling a r t galleries a n d p u blic sp aces
w ith pieces o f m etal, pipes, ro d s, g ears, ra ilro a d tra c k s, a n d so o n , all stu c k
to g e th e r in v a rio u s w ays b y m ean s o f w elding o p e ra tio n s. It is c laim e d J h a t,
p e rso n s w h o m a k e s u c h th in g s_ are a rtis ts because o f th e ir c reatio n s,
. a lth o u g h it is d ifficult to trac e in th eir w o rk o r p ro d u c ts a n y b e a u ty o r o th e r
a esth etic q u ality . B u t even w ith respect to th e m o re c o n v e n tio n a b le w o rk s
o f a r t, th e v a ria tio n s o n th e th em e o f b e a u ty d isp la y m o st re m a rk a b le
differences as th e follow ing d isp lay o f d efin itions d em o n strate s.
T h o m a s M u n ro . “B eau ty is m an y d iffe ren t things, n o t yet well u n d e r­
sto o d , to w h ich th e n a m e “ b eau ty " h as b ee n ap p lied .”56
J. J . W in c k e lm a n n a n d A. R . M engs. “ L a bellezza e T opposito della
b ru te z z a .” 57 A n eg ativ e in d ic a tio n th a t it is ea sier to say w h a t b ea u ty is n o t
th a n w h a t it is.
H a ro ld O sb o rn e . “ B eau ty itself is sim p ly th e ex ten sio n o f th a t prin cip le
o f em e rg e n t p e rc e p tu a l co n fig u ratio n im m ed iately ap p reh en sib le by
unreflective i n t u it i o n .. ,58
H o ra tio G re en o u g h . “ I define b e a u ty as th e p ro m ise o f fu n c tio n ."59
V an M e te r A m es. “ B eau ty is v alu e c o n te m p la te d .”60
W illia m D a v id R o ss, “ b e a u ty is n o t a fo rm o f in trin sic value, b u t o n ly
th e p o w e r in a n o b ject o f e v o k in g s o m e th in g th a t h a s value, th e esthetic
e x p e rie n c e .. . .”61
S. A le x a n d e r. “ B eau ty is the ex p re ssio n n o t o f a n y a n d every feeling b u t
specifically o f th e esth etic feeling.”62

» Ducasse. C. J.. The Philosophy o f Art, New York, Dial Press, 1929, p. 16.
* Munro, T., Toward Science in Aesthetics, Indianapolis, Bobbsand Mercill. 1956. p. 265.
•’Winckelmann, J. J., Geschiehte tier Kunst des Alteriums, 2nd ed., Leipzig. Dtlrr. 1882, p. 105; also
Bell.C. Expressionism: Its Anatomy and Philosophy, New York, Wells, 1873, p. 23; and Mengs. A. R„
Ubcr Schonheit undguten geschmack in der Malerei, Zurich, Orell el at. 1774, cited by Kovach. Op.
cit., p. 143.
••Osborne, H„ Theory o f Beauty. London, Koutlcdge and Kegan Paul, 1952. p. 122.
’’ Greenough, H„ in Form and Function (H. A. Small, ed.). Univ. of California. 1947, p. 71, 79.
“ Ames, Van M., Introduction to Beauty, New York. Harper, 1931, pp. 5, 17 1. 205.
61 Ross, W. D„ The Right and the Good. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1930. pp. 70. 127.
MAlexander, S., Beauty and Other forms o f Value. London, Macmillan, 1933. p. 132.

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 H U M A N E V ENT S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T

Michelangelo. “ Beauty is the reflection of the divine in the ma

world."63
Richard Payne Knight. “The word beauty is a general term of appi
tion. . . applied indiscriminately to almost every thing that is plet
either to the sense, the imagination, or the understanding.. . "M
G. E. Moore. “It appears probable that the beautiful should be de
as that of which the admiring contemplation is good in itself.”65
C. Wolff. “True beauty arises from perfection. Apparent beauty
apparent perfection."66

PARAESTHETIC BEHAVIOR
The large range of aesthetic qualities and the great variations i
concepts of beauty suggest the corresponding acts of creation and ap
ation of aesthetic objects. It is in order now to consider variatio
reactions and to differentiate between central aesthetic behavior:
* peripheral activities in aesthetic situations. We examine a few specimc
paraesthetic responses of persons.
a. Aesthetic Tastes. As a feature of aesthetic situations tastes are
esting and important. F or example, a gallery may be hung with the
* specimens of paintings yet some individuals may pass them by wi
interest or appreciation. Such persons lack aesthetic taste for a
particular types of art. Again tastes may be high or low, good oi
though not absent all together. In general, individuals vary frot
* standpoint of particular standards. Aesthetic standards are of c
9- cultural in character and they mark off the backgrounds or experien
different persons.
* Now the question arises as to the basis for the variations of indi'
behavior in given aesthetic situations with respect to the same or simi
i objects. A common tendency exists to assume that aesthetic last-
somehow inborn. But this is obviously a confused and false notion.

'‘'Michelangelo. Irom a sonnet to lomnwsso Cavalicri. 1436-12:‘Nowhere does God. inh

reveal himsell to me more clearly than in some lovely human form, which I love solely becau
mirrored image of Himself.- In Blunt. A.. Artistic Theory in hair. MStl-IMKI. Oxford, t'l.
I’ress. 1962. p. 69. n. 2., Cf. also p. 62.
,J Knight. R. I’.. An Analytical Inquiry mm tlic t'rimiptes <>/ Taste. 4"’ ed.. London, Pa
White. IWW. p 9
“ Moore, ti F , 1‘rineifua t.ihtia. Cambridge. Harvard liniv. Press. 1962. p. 201.
MW o lff. t\ . / ’>!( Imlnyta Emptrna. Hildcshcim. (irorg Olm s. I96X reprint of l.eip/ig. I*
546

252
 ART AND A E S T H E T I C S

in th e 18,h c e n tu ry in d icated th a t p ro p e r tastes d ep e n d ed u p o n p ro p e r

teach in g . H e w rote,
. . . for my part. 1am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly
to the method of investigation is incomparably the best; since, not content with serving up a /
few barren and lifeless truths, it leads to the stock on which they grew; it tends to set the \f
reader himself in the track of invention, and to direct him into those paths in which the
author has made his own discoveries, if he should be so happyas to have madeany that are
valuable.67

b. Aesthetic Preferences. A m o n g th e p e rip h e ra l responses in aesthetic

situ a tio n s in d iv id u a l p references a ssu m e a p ro m in e n t p o sitio n . O f tw o
p erso n s eq u ally ale rt to th e specificities o f a e sth e tic o b jects a n d aesth etic
circ u m sta n c e s, eq u a l, to o , as e x p e rts in m a tte rs o f a rt, o n e m ay p re fe r
ce rta in k in d s o f a r t p ro d u c tio n s , say , c e rta in styles o f p ain tin g s, m u sical
c o m p o sitio n s, a n d so o n. N o q u e s tio n n eed b e raised as to w h e th e r th ese
preferen ces im p ly s u p e rio r o r in fe rio r re a c tio n s o r objects. W e m ay be su re
th a t th e y a re d isp lay in g in d iv id u al differences b u ilt o n th e ir respective
in te rb e h a v io ra l histories.
C lo sely related to p re fe re n tia l b e h a v io r a n d p a rtia lly to its base a re th e
resp o n se s o f lik in g a n d d islik in g p a rtic u la r w o rk s b ecause o f so m e c o m p o ­
nen t asp e c t o f th e integral object o r stylistic tre a tm e n t.iO b je c tio n m ay be
m ad e to su b ject, type o f re p re s e n ta tio n , c o lo r, te x tu re , o r o rig in ality o f
conception.~ |
c. Aesthetic Judgment and Evaluation. A e sth etician s as well as laym en
in a r t a n d a e sth e tic s d isp la y a ra n g e o f ju d g m e n ts a n d e v a lu a tio n s o f
aesth e tic o b jects b o th in n a tu re a n d in a rt. H e re ag a in is revealed the results
o f in d iv id u a l differences in in te rb e h a v io ra l h isto ry in p erso n al an d social
am b ia n c e . B ecause o f th e differences in b a c k g ro u n d a n d tra in in g aesth etic­
ians will b e m o re o r less e x p e rt, th e y will h av e m o re o r less w ide experience,
a n d in g en eral so m e a re m o re c a p a b le th a n o th e rs in ju d g in g a n d ev a lu a tin g
aesth e tic objects. W ith in recen t tim e s, tb e e n tire p ro b le m o f ju d g in g a n d
e v a lu a tin g o b jects o f a r t h as b ee n c o m p lic a te d by th e in tro d u c tio n o f
ec o n o m ic fa cto rs in to e v a lu a to ry situ a tio n s. It m ig h t be said th a t the
p ro c ess o f j u d g i n g a n d e v a lu a tin g w o rk s o f a rt . h as been, p o llu te d , by
ec o n o m ic facto rs. It is to th e cre d it o f a e sth e tic ia n s a n d a rt ju d g es w h o
c o n tro l e c o n o m ic fa cto rs so th a t they c a n c o n c e n tra te on th e specific
fa cto rs o f w o rk s o f art.

6’ Burke, E.,"On Sublime and Beautiful," in The Works o f the Right Honourable Edmund Burke.
vol. I, Oxford, Oxford Univ. Press, 1920, p, 67.

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INTERBEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY IN AESTHETICS

S in ce th ro u g h o u t this c h a p te r we have em p h asized th e need fo r su
psychological fo u n d a tio n s f o r a re aso n ab le aesthetical discipline, it is I
to en larg e so m e w h a t u p o n th e n a tu re o f scientific p sy chology ai
b e a rin g u p o n a e sth e tic issues.jScientific psychology w ith its assim ilat
th e c u ltu ra l asp ects o f m o d e rn a n th ro p o lo g ic a l w isdom has m u ch tc
aestheticsTjThis e n la rg e m e n t o f th e h o riz o n a n d sco p e o f psycholog
resulted in a n increased a p p re c ia tio n o f the n atu re o f m a n a n d his ■
o p m e n t o f c u ltu ra l ch aracteristics. Im plied o f course is a m o re soj
ca te d aw aren e ss o f b e a u ty an d th e o th e r aesthetic qualities a n d >
trea ted in the h isto ry o f a r t a n d g en eral aesthetics.
It is o f g re at a d v a n ta g e to the u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e place o f psych
a n d c u ltu ra l a n th ro p o lo g y in th e field o f aesthetics to observe th a t ps;
ogy h as b eco m e m o re a n d m o re a definite science in stead o f dealinj
su ch a b stra c tio n s as so u l, m in d , consciousness, a n d o th er supern.
entities. P sy ch o lo g y h as tu rn e d to w a rd a field th e o ry in w hich th e ii
ta n c e o f psych o lo g ical ev e n ts is in d icated by the recip ro cal b eh av
th in g s a n d o rg a n ism s in m u tu a l in terb e h av io r. O bjective psych
sta n d s e m a n c ip a te d fro m w h at a re in p rinciple u n o b serv ab le entit
processes, tra d itio n a l soul, self, m in d , sensations, a n d psychic facul
As in d icated by th e d ia g ra m in Fig. 12, th e ac tio n o f a n organi
>< reciprocal in tera ctio n w ith a stim u lu s object m ay be d escribed :
, p rim a ry fa cto rs o f a b e h a v io ra l u n it. T h ese are aid ed b y a m ed iu m , s
light fo r visual, o r a ir fo r a u d ito r y b eh a v io r. T h en th ere are m a n y s
*' fa cto rs th a t co n trib u te to th e d etailed q u a lity o f the in teractio n and
results fro m it.

ANALYSIS OF AESTHETIC FIELDS

B etter to u n d e rsta n d th e p sy ch o lo g y o f aesthetic ev en ts, it is advist
an aly ze th e fa cto rs th a t m a k e u p a e sth e tic fields. S in ce aesth etic fiel
specific types o f g en eral p sy ch o lo g ical fields, th e o u tc o m e o f articu
aesthetics w ith scientific p sychology is th a t aesthetics can become
m ore scientific th a n has h e re to fo re b een th e case. P ro p o sitio n s in aes'
can n o w claim to be scientific in a legitim ate sense o f th at term j^W
no w th in k o f aesth etics as a n effective stu d y o f n a tu ra l an d c u lti
artificial objects to th e en d o f d eterm in in g th e relative q u alities o f thin,
th u s achieve valid,id eas o f b e a u ty a n d its n atu re, as well as solve pro
relative to th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f a rtis tic o r aesthetic ju d g m e n ts cone

254
 ,i
Ti m e
ART
A N D
A E S T H E T I C S

Fig. 12. Behavior Segment as Unit of Interbehavior

RB= Reactional Biography: RF = Response Functions;
SE = Stimulus Evolution; SF= Stimulus Function

I,
.1
»
*■<
 H U M A N E V EN T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I

th e ap p re c ia tio n o f a e sth e tic o b jects a n d s itu a tio n s lln th e follow ing a

m en ts a re e n u m e ra te d so m e p a rtic u la rs co n c e rn in g th e interbehavi.
facto rs in aesth etic situ atio n s.

A. The Artist
W h e th e r the ae sth e tic situ a tio n c e n te rs a b o u t aesth etic objects o f nal
o r art, it m u st o b v io u sly in clu d e a n in te ra c tin g a rtist o r view er, th e form
c reato r, a n d th e la tte r a n ob serv er. In th e case o f a rt p ro d u c tio n it is o f g:
im p o rta n c e to specify th e tra its a n d activities o f th e w o rk e r, th a t is,
d ev elo p m e n t o f aesth etic cap acities a n d in tere sts essential fo r p ain t
poetizin g , m usical c o m p o sin g , a n d so o n . C learly, one o f the o u tsta n c
ch a rac te ristic s o f a n a rtis t is th e u n iq u en ess o f his o r h e r d ev elo p m en
■JN vtMvf’S

b eco m e a n o rig in a to r a n d n o t sim ply a p ro d u c e r o f objects categorized

p ain tin g , scu lp tu re, o r m usical c o m p o sitio n .
A n in tere stin g fe atu re o f ae sth e tic s itu a tio n s co n cern s th e individi
w h o ca n tech n ically re p ro d u c e even g re a t w o rk s o f a r t b u t w h o cou ld
orig in ally p ro d u c e su c h w o rk s. T h is false aesth eticism co v ers th e realn
fa k ery w hich includes th e c o m m e rc e in forgeries such as indulged in
M eegeren , th e fo rg e r o f V erm eer p ain tin g s, a n d D o ssen a w h o speciali
in fake scu lp tu res. O f th e m a n y m em b ers o f th is fra te rn ity w h o m anul
tu re false a rt objects fo r m u seu m s a n d arch ae o lo g ical displays, n o n e sho
\ o n acco u n t o f th e ir lack o f o rig in ality be n u m b ered as artists.68
1. Cultural Background. O f g re a t effectiveness in th e d e te rm in a tio i
th e n a tu re a n d p ro p e rtie s o f ae sth e tic s itu a tio n s are th e specific culti
c o n d itio n s u n d e r w hich a rtis ts w o rk . C u ltu ra l co n d itio n s co n stitu te
global civilization o f h u m a n o rg a n ism s th a t influences all th e ir developm
a n d living b ey o n d th e ir p u re ly b io lo g ical sta tu s. T h en th ere a re locali:
a n d p articu larized cu ltu ra l c irc u m sta n ces th a t influence th e w o rk o f ir
v iduals an d g ro u p s to p ro d u c e the varieties o f a r t objects w h e th e r painti
d raw in g , sculpting, p o etry , arc h ite c tu re , p erso n al d ec o ratio n , a n d so c
2. Personal Evolution. A n a tu ra listic an a ly sis o f aesthetic situ ati
reveals th e specific le arn in g a n d tra in in g o f a rtists an d n o n artists. I
th ro u g h these processes th a t in d iv id u a ls ac q u ire th e ir tastes, skills, cap;
ties an d aesth etic ju d g m e n ts. It is le a rn in g a n d tra in in g w hich results in
differences betw een a u th e n tic artists a n d p seu d o artists.
A n im p o rta n t q u e stio n arise s h ere as to th e v a ria n t qualification*
a rtists a n d a r t w o rk . S o m e a r t m ay m erely m an ife st th e teac h in g s o f a n
“ Arnau, F.. The A n o f the Faker: Three Thousand Tears o f Deception (J. M. Brownjohn. I
Boston. Little, Brown. London. Cape, 1961.

256
 ART AND A E S T H E T I C S

sch o o l w ith o u t excellence o r o rig in a lity , e x c e p t f o r ch o ice o f subject. T h e

e n tire tu te la g e m ay be co n fin ed to te c h n iq u e s w ith o u t e n h a n cin g th e
ae sth e tic cap acities o f th e stu d e n t. W e m u st, ho w ever, g u a rd a g a in st illicit
n o tio n s o f in n a te pow ers. M o o d s o r o th e r feelings g reatly affect aesth etic
situ a tio n s. T h is is tru e also to th e hygienic c o n d itio n o f p erso n s in ae sth e tic
situatio n s.
3. Hygienic Factors. H ygienic s itu a tio n s in clu d e h ealth , fatigue, a n x ­
ieties, w orries, a n d o th e r affective circ u m sta n ces. S u c h circu m stan ces are r'
them selves influenced b y so cio ec o n o m ic ev e n ts a n d co n d itio n s. E co n o m ic c/S
«. ' f ‘ i'
c o n d itio n s a s well as c o n fo rm ity o r d issen t in social a n d p olitical circu m - /
stances m ay hav e eith er g o o d o r evil influences o n ae sth e tic p ro d u c tio n . It is
im p o ssib le to u n d e re stim a te th e influence o f life co n d itio n s o n aesth etic
b e h a v io r w h e th e r p ro d u c tiv e o r a p p reciativ e. S ocial, eco n o m ic, o r p olitical
c irc u m sta n c e s w h ich influence a e sth e tic b e h a v io r m ay c o rre sp o n d to ty p es
o f c u ltu ra l c o n d itio n s as fo r ex a m p le , eras o f sacred versus secu lar a rt.

B. The Appreciator or Observer

M o s t o f w h a t w e h av e in d ic a te d a b o u t th e a rtis t ap p lies eq u ally well to
th e a p p re c ia to r o r ju d g e o f th e w o rk s c reated b y th e a rtist o r his im itato rs.
T h e a p p r e c ia to r, o f c o u rse m a y b e a n a r tis t to o , a n d n o t j u s t a d a u b e r o r
a m a te u r. A cco rd in g ly , th e p rim a ry c o n d itio n s re g u la tin g th e b eh a v io r o f
th e o b se rv e r p o in t to p ro b le m s o f b a c k g ro u n d a n d artistic d ev elo p m en t.
M a n y o f th e sim ilarities o r d issim ilarities b etw e en th e a rtis t a n d th e o b ­
serv er d e p e n d u p o n th e ir in te rb e h a v io ra l h isto ries. A n o th e r set o f fa cto rs
influ en cin g o b serv ers in th e ir e v a lu a tio n s a n d ju d g m e n ts is th e well k n o w n
fact th a t ev ery a r t o b ject a s well a s every o th e r k ind o f o b ject is differently
in te ra c te d w ith by d ifferen t p e rso n s o n th e basis o f th e p re su p p o sitio n s
w h ich th e y develop. T his fa c to r m u st be lo o k e d to w h en th e g lo b al q u estio n
arise s as to w h e th e r a c e rta in w o rk is o r is n o t a n item o f a rt. V isitors to a rt
galleries if th ey are o f W estern E u ro p e a n c u ltu re m ay tu rn aw ay co m pletely
fro m th e a rt o f th e O rie n ta l cu ltu re s su c h as In d ia , C h in a, a n d J a p a n . S u ch
differences in ju d g m e n t a n d e v a lu a tio n m a y also affect th e re a c tio n s to
o b jects o f different styles in th e sam e cu ltu re . T h u s th e subjects, tech n iq u es,
a n d styles in p ain tin g s o r sc u lp tu re m ay be h ighly o r low ly ev alu ated .
W h e th e r we a r e c o n sid e rin g a n a r tis t o r m e re ly a n a p p re c ia to r o f a r t, th e
in te rb e h a v io r w ith given o b jects w ill o f c o u rs e b e d ifferen t if th ere is o r is
n o t a n e m p h asis u p o n o r a p reju d ice ag a in st sacred subjects.
Scientific p h ilo so p h y o f ae sth e tic s w a rn s a g a in s t th e ev a lu a tio n o r even
d e sc rip tio n o f o b serv ers o r critics o n th e b asis o f p referred ab stra c tio n s

257
 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I

w h e th e r o r n o t d ra w n fro m a c tu a l situ a tio n s . E x am p les o f th e disregai

th is w a rn in g a re th e p ro m o tio n o f th eo rie s a b o u t fo rm in a r t as agi
o th e r fa c to rs in c lu d in g c o n te n t. A n e x a g g e ra te d version o f this ab stract
ism is exem plified b y th e ex p ressiv e o r significant fo rm o f su ch w rite
C live Bell,*9 R o g e r F ry ,70 a n d m a n y o th ers.

C. The Interbehavioral Object

In all a e sth e tic in te rb e h a v io rs th e o b je c t in terb e h av ed w ith m u.1
re g ard e d as o f e q u a l im p o rta n c e w ith th e w o rk o f th e a rtist o r o b serv er
th is e m p h asis o n th e in te rre la tio n s h ip o f th e item s in p sy chological s
tio n s w hich allow s f o r th e n a tu ra lis tic in te rp re ta tio n o f ae sth e tic evei
Be it o b serv ed t h a t th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o r tra its o f ae sth e tic o b jects
e x ist in co m p le te in d e p e n d e n c e o f a n y a r tis t o r b e h o ld e r o f a r t obj
O b v io u sly th is is th e c a se w h e n th e in te rb e h a v io r c o n c ern s o bjec
n a tu re . It is a c o m m o n m isin te rp re ta tio n o f aesthetic situ atio n s whei
fa c t o f c re a tin g o b je c ts s u c h a s p a in tin g s, sc u lp tu re, m usical c o m p o sit
in d icates a n exclusive d e p e n d e n c e o f th e o b ject p ro d u c e d o n th e ere
a b ility o f th e a rtist. C e rta in ly it is th e ca se th a t finished ae sth e tic object
p ro d u c ts o f artists, b u t b a se d o n th e tra its o r c h aracteristics o f th e m at(
u sed , as w ell as th e o b ject in its v a rio u s stag es o f co m p letio n . L ig h t i:
o n this p o in t w h en o n e c o n sid e rs t h a t p rim itiv e artists w ere dep en d ei
n a tu ra l m ateria ls s u c h as o c h re , m a n g a n e se , fa t, a n d b lo o d in o rd e r to
th e w h erew ith al to re p re se n t a n a n im a l, o r a g ro u p in a h u n tin g scei
A s to finished p ro d u c ts a n an a ly sis b rin g s to light th e re p re s e n ta tl
ideas o r c o n c e p tio n s b o th in trin sic a n d ex trin sic to aesth etic thing!
te c h n iq u e s o r m e a n s u se d , a n d th e m a te ria ls em p lo y ed , as w ell as su
d ep icte d , also th e d esig n a n d c o m p o s itio n , th e c o lo r a n d tex tu re
p a tte rn in g o f so u n d o r sig h t, a n d finally th e o rig in ality o f the w h o le
A b o v e all a n y an a ly sis o f a n a e sth e tic o b ject m u st n o t b e co n fu sed
re a c tio n s to it b y a n o n lo o k e r o r critic w h o m ay reg ard it as d u ll o r ti
su p e rb , m ajestic, o r stately .

D. Setting or Auspice
A s we have see n in o u r d iscu ssio n o f a r t as illusion, th e v a ria tia
a e sth e tic styles o v e r p e rio d s o f tim e c a n b e a c co u n ted fo r o n th e b a
c h a n g e s in th e e n v iro n s o r a u sp ic e s u n d e r w h ich a r t w o rk s a re createi

“ Bell, C., A rt, London, Chatto-Windus, 1916.

’OFry, R., Vision an d Design, New York, Brentano, 1925.

258
 ART AND A E S T H E T I C S

o u tstan d in g , w ell-know n, ex am p le is the religious influence u p o n painting

in th e Ita lia n prim itive p eriod. B ut this is only o n e o u t o f m an y types of
v aria tio n in th e auspices o f p ain ters, scu lp to rs, com posers, and so on.
E very o ne will be im m ed iately rem in d ed o f th e influence o f the general
cu ltu re o f a n a tio n o r o th e r social co m m u n ity . E ven elem entary aesthetic-
ians a re ex p e rts in locating th e p rovenience o f C hinese o r In d ia n a rt as
over ag ain st W estern E u ro p e a n a r t o r local g eo graphic o r an th ro p o lo g ic
pro d u ctio n s. It m u st b e n o ted th a t th e fa cto r o f setting is a necessary feature
o f a n aesthetic field.

RECAPITULATION

A n e x p e d ie n t w ay to sum u p th e p rim a ry featu res o f a natu ralistic

tre a tm e n t o f th e aesth etic d o m a in is to review som e salient problem s
in cu rred w hile surveying th e aesth etic field. T h e follow ing exam ples serve
to m irro r th e co n ten t o f th e p resen t ch ap ter.
1. The Orientation Problem. T h e h u m an istic disciplines o f a n th ro p o l­
ogy a n d arch ae o lo g y u n ite in th e o b se rv a tio n th a t h u m a n o rganism s, even
th o se o f early e v o lu tio n ary periods, h ave cu ltiv ated a rts of v ario u s sorts.
T h u s p h ilo so p h ers discovered a read y field a b o u t w hich to d ev elo p atti­
tu d es o f a n aesth etic variety. A s th e h isto ry o f aesthetics d em o n strates,
stu d e n ts o f aesthetics sh ap e d th e ir a ttitu d e s in c o n fo rm ity w ith th eir philo ­
sophical beliefs; som e keeping close to o b serv ations, while o th ers clung to
the tra d itio n s fram in g th eir speculative horizons. It is the m ark o f the
p resen t c h a p te r to p ay ex trem ely critical re gard to co nven tio n al theories
~wH IF tre a tin g aesthetic th ings a n d e v en tsex clu si veiy as ex istin g an d occur-
' ring entities.
2. The Problem of Axioms. Since aesth etic a ttitu d es an d d o ctrin es are
fo rm u la te d by p h ilo so p h ers a n d artists o f different b ack g ro u n d s u n d er
v ary in g c o n d itio n s, it is vitally im p o rta n t to be a lert to th e ax io m s o r the
basic assu m p tio n s th a t lead to th e ir descriptive a n d e x p la n a to ry p ro p o si­
tions. M o st ph ilo so p h ical ju d g m en ts an d ev alu atio n s are definitely derived
fro m theological o r religious sources. T hey have to d o w ith invisible and
intan g ib le things a n d processes available only by m eans o f w ords and
sentences. In th e p resen t c h a p te r it is easily seen th at there is a th o ro u g h
a n d co m p lete d e p a rtu re fro m th e o n to lo g ies a n d epistem ologies o f tra d i­
tio n a l p h ilo so p h ical history. T h e positive stress is th en u p o n concrete
situatio n s p ertaining to b o th things o f n atu re a n d o f art.
3. The Specificity Problem. E schew ing all ab solutes an d abstractio n s,

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 H U M A N E V E NT S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I '

th e stu d y o f aesthetics b ea rs h eav ily o n specificities co n cern in g th e dat<

th e p h ilo so p h y o f aesth etics. Q u e stio n s arise co n cern in g th e precise
p rim a ry d a tu m o f aesth etics, w h e th e r b e a u ty is a n object o r the p ro pert;
objects, w h eth er it exists mrerum natura, a n d h o w it fu n c tio n s in n a tu n
a r t. In th e im m en se co llec tio n s o f a e sth e tic literatu re th ere a p p e a r
m a n y d iv erg en ces o f v iew p o in t. W h a t a re th e b ases fo r th e confusii
T h ro u g h o u t this c h a p te r we h ave c o n tra s te d th e m eth o d s o f m etaphysi
as o v er a g a in st th e n a tu ra listic tre a tm e n t o f aesthetics a n d have clung
th e la tte r persistently. A s to th e p rim a ry d a tu m o f aesthetics, th e analysi:
th e w o rk o f cra ftp e rso n s, h isto ria n s o f a rt, a n d th e ju d g m e n t o f a rt
in dicates th a t th e th eo re tic al a n d p ra c tic a l n u cleus o f m o st aesth etic sit
tio n s is b eau ty .
»yr A ssu m in g th a t th e b e a u tifu l c o n stitu te s o n e o f th e b asic a e sth e tic ca
g o ries we face th e p ro b le m o f th e specific c o m p o n e n ts o f b ea u tifu l th ir
w h e th e r in n a tu re o r in th e atelier. I t m a y be said th a t th e b ea u tifu l is
m a in c rite rio n fo r th e p ain tin g s, d ra w in g s, m u sical c o m p o sitio n s, d an ci
a n d o th e r p ro d u c ts o f a e sth e tic b e h a v io r. C rea tiv e su b stitu tio n s berefl
b e a u ty m ay b e u seful, successful, a n d a p p la u d e d , b u t th ey fall o u tsid e
ra n g e o f aesthetics.
4. The Psychological Problem. A s we h ave insisted th ro u g h o u t t
c h a p te r a n d b o o k , w e m u st n o t o n ly reject fa u lty p h ilo so p h y , b u t a
)# fa u lty p sy ch o lo g y . In g en eral th is signifies a c o m p lete rejection o f tra
tio n a l p sy ch o lo g y w h ich cu ltiv a te d n o tio n s o f m ystical processes a
p ro p e rtie s o f a n in ex isten t m in d . A s w e h av e p o in ted o u t in th e sectio r
th is c h a p te r, called “In te rb e h a v io ra l P sy ch o lo g y in A esthetics,” th e psyd
i*1 logical tre a tm e n t o f a e sth e tic th in g s m u st be in term s o f specific conci
in te ra c tio n s o f p erso n s called a rtists o r ap p re ciato rs. A n a tu ra listic p
ch o lo g y eschew s all q u e stio n s as to th e ex isten ce o f th e ae sth e tic d ate
w h e th e r w e th in k o f th e q u alitie s o r p ro p e rtie s o f o b jects o r th e form
i* w h ich o rg an ism s in te ra c t w ith th e a c tu a l objects fo rm in g a u th e n tic featu
o f aesth etic in terb e h av io r.
Illu strativ e o f th e view s rejected b y n a tu ra listic p sychology is th e di
trin e o f H u m e a n d o th e r E m p iricists th a t th e q u alities o f o b jects, 5
e x a m p le b e a u ty , d o n o t re sid e in th e o b je c ts in tera cted w ith, b u t i
exclu siv ely c o n ta in e d in so m e s o rt o f p ro c ess in th e m in d . In so m e o f t
o th e r item s o f this re c a p itu la tio n w e sh all re fer to p ro p o sitio n s w h ich i
b ase d o n spiritistic d o c trin e s n o t ce n te red o n a n y ac tu a l event.
5. The A bstraction Problem. A e sth e tic lite ra tu re suggests th e exister
o f tw o fo rm s o f ex p o sitio n , o n e a b s tra c tio n istic an d th e o th e r concn

26 0
 ART AND AESTHETI CS

d escrip tiv e. N a tu ra listic p h ilo so p h y o f aesth e tics insists th a t we d eal w ith

ae sth e tic situ a tio n s a n d n o t v e rb a l o r sy m b o lic a b stra c tio n s. F o r ex am p le,
b e a u ty , su b lim ity , a n d o th e r a e sth e tic categ o ries a re reg ard ed as p ro p erties
o f things. T h e p ro b lem o f ae sth etics is sim ila r to th a t o f physics w hen it w as
necessary to d istin g u ish b etw een m ass a n d a c tio n as ev en ts in stead o f
forces o r p o w ers influencing things.
F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f n a tu ra listic ae sth etics th e ac tu a l p ro p e rtie s o r
q u alitie s in d icated in n u m e ro u s d e sc rip tio n s a re b u ilt u p o n th e b asis o f
o b se rv a tio n s o f a c tu a l events. A cco rd in g ly , it is possible to build up a list o f
p ro p e rtie s w h ich in c o m b in a tio n in specific o b jects g o to m a k e u p th e
ae sth e tic ob jects. W e m ig h t m e n tio n u n ity , p ro p o rtio n , sy m m etry , design,
co lo r, a m o n g m an y o th ers.
6. The Subjective-Objective Problem. A fallacious psych o lo g y allow s
th e c o n s tru c tio n o f d o ctrin es in w hich ae sth e tic su b jects a re reduced to
subjective processes w hile o th e rs em p h a siz e e x te rn a l s itu a tio n s jF ro m th e
s ta n d p o in t o f n a tu ra listic p sy ch o lo g y b o th o f th e types o f d o c m n e s ju s t
m en tio n ed m a y be in terp re ted as stressing e ith e r th e o rg an ism o r subject in
th e in te ra c tio n a l s itu a tio n o r th e stim u lu s o b je c t^ T h e re is n o o th e r w ay
a c c o rd in g to th e v iew p o in t o f th is w o rk th a n to tre a t th e in tera ctin g
o rg a n ism o r p erso n as a definite b io lo g ical, psychological, a n d a n th ro p o ­
logical b ein g an d th e o bject in te ra c te d w ith ae sthetically as a n in o rg a n ic or
o rg a n ic o bject ex istin g in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e p a rtic u la r ae sth e tic in tera c­
tio n , b u t as w e have n o ticed in a n ac tu a l a e sth e tic in te rb e h a v io r th ere is a
recip ro cal a n d m u tu a l a c tio n b etw e en th e tw o phases o f a n in terb e h av io r,
th e stim u lu s a n d response o f th e b e h a v io ral field.
7. The Unity - Plurality Problem. N o p h ilo so p h y o f aesthetics can avo id
th e u n ity id ea w hich is g e n e ra te d by ta m p e rin g w ith a b stra c tio n s, o r th e
p lu ra lity id ea as th e a c c u m u la tio n o f m u ltifa rio u s view s co n c e rn in g aes­
th etic situ a tio n s. N ow since b o th o f th e se categories a re in tim ately inte­
g ra te d w ith th e a b stra c tio n s o f tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y , th ey a re set aside
co m p letely a n d are fo u n d u n n ecessary w h en d ealin g w ith co n crete facts o f
in d iv id u a ls w hile c reatin g p ain tin g s, pieces o f scu lp tu re, m usical c o m p o s­
ing, d an c in g , a n d o th e r ae sth e tic practices such as p ro d u c in g decorative
objects.
8. The Linguistic Problem. A t v a rio u s p o in ts in this c h a p te r we m en ­
tio n e d th e large place th a t linguistic m a tte rs o cc u p y in aesth etic situ atio n s.
In g en e ral, o f co u rse, a b s tra c tio n s fro m ex istin g events, a n d beliefs a b o u t
n o n e x istin g things, c a n only be s u p p o rte d by w o rd s an d sym bols. Intellec-

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tu a l a ttitu d e s c a n b est be e la b o r a te d a n d c o m m u n icated w h en en co d e

w o rd s a n d sentences. N a tu ra listic ae sth e tics w a rn s a g a in st m a k in g us
te rm s o r w o rd s in ille g itim ate w ay s, fo r ex a m p le , using th e sam e term s
d iffe ren t th in g s o r processes, o r em p lo y in g different te rm s fo r th e s;
th in g s w ith resu ltin g m isu n d e rsta n d in g s a n d confusions.

in

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 C H A P T E R 19
EDUCATION IN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE

ED U C A TIO N A N D H UM A N M A TU RA TIO N

Q \ s a g en eral object o f in v estig atio n , e d u c a tio n is, o f co u rse, a great

co m p o site o f in terre lated in stitu tio n s an d ev en ts'}C onsequently, it c a n be
a p p ro a c h e d fro m a n u m b e r o f d ifferent an g les— social, political, religious,
eco n o m ic, psychological, p ed ag o g ical, p h ilo so p h ical, a n d so on.
W h e th e r w e co n sid e r in d iv id u a ls a s a u to n o m o u s u n its o r m erely links in
a c o m m u n a l c h a in , th ere a re u rg e n t p ro b lem s o f p erso n al m a tu ra tio n an d
o f b ec o m in g a fit p a rtic ip a n t in th e v ario u s p h ases o f h u m a n e x isten c e th a t
m a k e e d u c a tio n a basic in tere st fo r p h ilo so p h ic al reflection. B ut it is
o b v io u s th a t th e p h ilo so p h ic al m a trix m u st c o n stitu te a d efen sib le disci­
pline. H ere as elsew here th e stu d y o f p h ilo so p h y m u st be co m p letely free
fro m a u tistic ab so lu te s a n d un iv ersals. In th is c h a p te r e d u c a tio n a l in stitu ­
tio n s a n d practices are e x a m in e d in th e perspective o f scientific ph ilo so p h y .

CO N VEN TIO N A L T H E O R IE S O F EDUCATION

G en erally sp ea k in g , e d u c a tio n c o n c ern s th e events in terre lated w ith the

process o f h u m a n o rg a n ism s c o n tin u in g th e ir d ev e lo p m e n t b ey o n d th eir
biological g estatio n to societal a d u lth o o d .
D e p e n d in g u p o n th e ty p e o f p h ilo so p h y serving as basic p o stu la tio n ,
w riters fo rm u la te p ro p o sitio n s co n c e rn in g th e goals an d objectives o f
e d u c a tio n . A m o n g th e objectives m e n tio n e d one finds self-realization,
g o o d citizenship, p erso n al co m p eten ce, in itiatio n , a n d m an y o th e rs.1 U n­
fo rtu n a te ly , fo r th e m o st p a rt th e goals to b e reached are prem ised u p o n
in a d e q u a te a n d even fallacio u s p h ilo so p h ic a l a ttitu d e s. A n e x a m in a tio n o f
th e lite ra tu re in th e p h ilo so p h y o f e d u c a tio n p ro d u c es th e im p ressio n th at
c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y is co n c ern e d p rim arily w ith th e c o n tro l an d
m a n a g e m e n t o f o rg a n iz ed e d u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s a n d system s in w hich
c h ild re n are m o ld ed to b ec o m e m em b ers o f th e c o m m u n itie s in w hich they
a re b o m . C o n seq u en tly , th e p ro b lem s th a t a re em p h asized a re cu rricu lu m s
an d sch o o l facilities. All this in term s o f fixities a n d fin alities.^

1Cf. Wynne, J. P., Theories o f Education: an Introduction to the Foundations o f Education. New
York. Harper and Row. 1963.

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 H U M A N E V EN TS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T 1

ED U C A TIO N AS PERSO N A LITY EVOLUTION

F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f scientific p h ilo so p h y , ed u c a tio n p ro p e rly

visaged co n sists essentially o f th e p rocesses o f developing th e beha
poTentialities o f in d iv id u a ls fo r effective o rie n ta tio n to th e ir v ario u s e
ro n m e n ts, b o th as c u rre n t a d ju s tm e n ts a n d as general p sychological c«
cities. A cco rd in g ly , e d u c a tio n a l ev en ts m u st featu re th e developm en
p e rso n s o f all ages n o t o n ly in specific s itu a tio n s w ith p re d e te rm in e d gc
b u t in clu d in g also situ a tio n s th a t a re th em selves open to a d v a n c e m e n t
novelty. E d u c a tio n , th en , is p e rso n ality d evelopm ent.

TW O PH A SES O F PER SO N A LITY D EV E LO PM EN T

a. Casual Personality Development. S ch o o ls a n d c u rric u lu m s coi

tu te o n ly o n e phase a n d b asically a m in o r o n e in p erso n ality ev o lu t
P e rso n a lity d e v e lo p m e n t p ro c eed s in th e m a in fro m a n in d iv id u al’s (
e x p e rie n c e w ith v ario u s s o rts o f stim u lu s objects w ith w hich he o r
*• in te ra c ts. Briefly, a d ju s tm e n ta l g ro w th is ca su a l as c o m p a re d w ith
co n triv e d d ev e lo p m e n t o f o rg an ism s.
b. Contrived Personality Development. C o n triv e d developm ents
in d iv id u a ls a re p e rm a n e n tly a n d in tim ately identified w ith an d influen
*
b y th e ir fam ilies, g u a rd ia n s, o r tea c h e rs, a n d b y th e ir d ialectal, religit
p o litical, a n d o th e r in s titu tio n s o f th e ir c o m m u n ities. It is th e c o n triv a
I* p h a se o f p e rso n a lity d e v e lo p m e n t th a t p ro m p ts q u e stio n s as to w h o
< a n d w h o sh o u ld be e d u c a te d , ev en w ith respect to the sim p le ca p a c itie
re a d in g a n d w riting. It is a c o m m o n b elief th a t c e rta in b iologically soi
i«
in d iv id u a ls o r g ro u p s a re u n e d u c a b le o r sh a rp ly lim ited in th eir intellect
•«
cap acities. A lso th ere still e x ists th e im plicit a ssu m p tio n th a t univei
tu . e d u c a tio n a n d th e d iffu sio n o f k n o w led g e a re d a n g e ro u s to a sta te oi
\ ru le rs a n d th a t e d u c a tio n s h o u ld b e c o n tro lle d in d o ctrin atio n . S u c h
v s u m p tio n s g o v ern th e n a tu re o f th e e d u c a tio n th a t is allow ed o r fo ster
i «•
w h e th e r te a c h in g a n d lea rn in g a re free o r restricted by th e n eed s o f
c o m m u n ity , its te ch n o lo g ica l s ta tu s , o r th e w h im s o f th e rulers. In a n y i
e v e ry case, n o o n e c a n c h a lle n g e th e relev ance o f scientific p h ilo so p h y
th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f ^ d u c a tio n d esp ite th e m a n y p ro b lem s involved.
i — > C o n sid effso m e p ro b le m s o f sc h o o l e d u c a tio n . A n e x a m p le co n c e rn s
i d e v e lo p m e n t o fa c fiird T n s c h o o l ! ^ is w ell k n o w n th a t m a n y sch o o ls are
o v er p o p u la te d as to o b v iate m u c h if a n y c o n ta c t b etw een th e p e rso n be:
e d u c a te d a n d th e e d u c a to r. [A definite d ra w b a c k to sch o o l life is i
, v io la tio n o f th e p sy ch o lo g ical p rin cip le th a t e a c h p erso n m u st develop

264
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his o r h e r o w n w ay a n d n o t be categ o rized eith er as a so-called gifted

in d iv id u al o r a b a c k w a rd oneT^
F u rth e rm o re , it is q u e stio n a b le w h e th e r sc h o o ls c a n d o as m u c h as is
ex p e cted o f th em . T h ere is th e p ro b le m o f a h a r m o n y o f school a n d h o m e
o r fa m ily life. In so m e cases th ere is a conflict o f o p p o rtu n itie s. T h e h o m e
i life o f c h ild re n n eg ates th e results o f w h a t th e sch o o ls a re in ten d ed to d o . A
case in p o in t is th a t o f p a re n ts w h o live o n a fairly low cu ltu ra l level b u t w h o
a re a m b itio u s e n o u g h fo r th e ir c h ild re n to c o m p e te w ith c h ild re n o f m o re
fa v o ra b le living c o n d itio n s. F o r ex a m p le , th e p a re n ts realize th a t th eir
speech h a b its a r e in fe rio r to th o se o f b e tte r e d u c a te d people. B ut ho w c a n
th e sc h o o ls h elp w h e n th e h o m e sp eech is in fe rio r to w h a t th e school tries to
teach? O b v io u sly ch ild re n w h o se fam ily c u ltu re h arm o n iz es w ith th e ideals
a n d g o a ls o f th e sch o o l reap th e a d v a n ta g e o f fam ily b ac k in g a n d s u p p o rt
fo r e d u c a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t.
N o th in g is e a sie r th a n to u n c o v e r serio u s w ro n g s in the o rg a n iz a tio n ,
p ro c e d u re s, a n d resu lts o b ta in e d b y sch o o l system s. F o rm a l e d u c a tio n a l
e n te rp ris e s in p o p u lo u s a n d d ev elo p ed n a tio n s are so gigantic, ex pensive,
a n d v a rio u s in th e e d u c a tio n a l p o p u la tio n th a t e rro rs a n d sh o rtco m in g s are
glarin g . B u t still th e re is n o d en y in g th a t e d u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s, like..
sch o o ls h av e th e ir o w n u n iq u e virtu e s a nd p o tentialities fo r im p ro v em en ts
a n d increased serviceabilities. C e rta in ly th ere is n o possib ility fo r rejecting
sch o o ls a lto g e th e r a n d d e stro y in g th e m as Iv a n Illich has recently been
a d v o c a tin g .2
S ch o o l, Illich defines “as th e age-specific, te a c h er related process re q u ir­
ing full-tim e a tte n d a n c e a t a n o b lig a to ry cu rric u lu m ,"3 a n d th e n m o u n ts a
nihilistic a tta c k u p o n schools. W ith o u t a d o u b t m a n y o f th e in d ictm e n ts h e
fo rm u la te s o f sc h o o l system s a re well a u th e n tic a te d b u t th e altern ativ es
th a t he offers m itig ate his w h o lesale a tta c k a n d d o n o t offer ju stific atio n fo r
th e v eh em en ce w ith w hich he b o m b a rd s sch o o ls. N o m issiles he d irects a t
th e ta rg e t o f sch o o ls n o t a id in g p u p ils to th in k a n d d evelop eq u ip m en t fo r
ii p ro p e r a d ju stm e n ts to th eir persistent a n d v ariab le en v iro n m en ts.
N u m e ro u s reviewers* h av e c o u n te ra tta c k e d Illich w ith d u e credit fo r
a c c e p ta b le view s th o u g h th ey d o n o t stress sufficiently th e fact th a t since
e d u c a tio n is p e rs o n a lity d e v e lo p m e n t m a n y p u p ils a re n o t h a rm e d by th e
3 I l l i c h . L , D e sch o o lin g S o c ie ty , N e w Y o r k , H a r p e r a n d R o w , 1 9 7 1 .
1 Ib id ., p . 2 4 - 2 5 .
4 F o r e x a m p l e . B o w e n . J . , " C o m m e n t a r y o n I l l i c h .’' in B o w e n , J . a n d H o b s o n . P . R . . Theories o f
Education, S y d n e y . W i l e y . 1 9 7 4 , p p . 3 9 V 4 0 2 . P e t r i e . H . G .. E d u c a tio n a l Theory, 2 1 . 1 9 7 1, p p . 4 6 9 - 1 7 8 .
G i n t i s , H .. “ T o w a r d s a P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y o f E d u c a t i o n ; A R a d i c a l C r i t i q u e o f I v a n l l l i c h 's l i e s c h o o l ­
i n g S o c i e t y , " H a r v a rd E d u c a tio n a l Review, 4 2 , 1 9 7 2 . 7 0 -9 6 .

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L PERSPECT1

sch o o ls since th ey b ec o m e s a tisfa c to ry ach ievers a fte r school life. In gen

th e re is little m eticu lo u s referen ce to th e co m plexities o f societal events
facilitate o r im p ed e th e ca ree rs o f perso n s.

ED U C A TIO N D ESC R IB ED

T h e first step in d efining o r d esc rib in g a n e d u c atio n al ev en t is to difTe

tia te betw een (a) th e c o n v e n tio n a l s itu a tio n o f p u blic o r p riv ate school
in clu d in g fo rm a l a p p ren ticesh ip s, a n d (b) th e m o re g eneral a n d ca
processes o f p e rso n a lity d e v e lo p m e n t th ro u g h in n u m e ra b le indivii
experiences.
j- In b o th types o f situ a tio n w e m u st ta k e a c c o u n t o f th ree o u tstani
facto rs: (a) th e p e rs o n c o n c e rn e d , (b) th e th in g s a n d c o n d itio n s w ith w
h e interacts, an d (c) th e situ a tio n o r au sp ices u n d er w h ich he in teract
W ith respect to th e p e rso n , in fo rm a tio n is required a b o u t his p ast
p re sen t circum stan ces, in c lu d in g as m a n y d ev elo p m en tal facts as poss
It is su ch in fo rm a tio n th a t a id s in u n d e rs ta n d in g the p sy ch o lo g ical d«
o p m e n t o f p erso n s a n d in th e im p ro v e m e n t o f m easures ta k e n to pror.
p erso n ality d ev e lo p m e n t in fo rm a l e d u c a tio n situations.
N o less im p o rta n t a re th e p a rtic u la r o b jects, persons, a n d c irc u m sta
w ith w h ich in d iv id u a ls co m e in to c o n ta c t. H e re m ay b e m en tio n ed
* so cio eco n o m ic sta tu s o f fa m ily a n d c o m m u n ity . C learly, su ch o p p o rtu
t„. fo r c o n ta c ts w ith th in g s a n d c o n d itio n s is v ery different as betw eei
p assin g th ro u g h a sch o o l sy stem o r ( b ) d ev e lo p in g as a p a rtic u la r indi
u al. In all s itu a tio n s th e specific c h a n g es a n d co n d itio n s used m us
•»' in q u ired into. F o r e x a m p le , sc h o o l situ a tio n s m a y em p lo y rad io , televit
•*' ch a rts, d iag ra m s, a n d th e fu n c tio n in g o f c o m p u te r m echanism s.
P are n ts, teach ers, sc h o o l a u th o ritie s , a n d social in stitu tio n s a re regai
as p a rts o f th e e d u c a tio n a l settin g so th a t th e ir p erso n ality eq u ip ir
train in g , a n d general co m p e te n c e m u st be ex am in ed fo r th e ir influe
**• u p o n e d u c a tio n a l situ atio n s. In a g en u in e sense it is these p erso n s whc
re sp o n sib le fo r settin g u p th e g o als o f th e e d u c a tio n a l p rocess. F o r ex
pie, th e a im o f e d u c a tio n m ig h t b e th e d e m o c ra tic one o f m a k in g per:
alik e in so m e w ay o r in ev e ry w ay, o r facilitatin g th e a c tu a liz a tio
p o ten tialities created b y ea rlie r d ev e lo p m e n ts o f p a rtic u la r individual
T h e d e sc rip tio n o f e d u c a tio n a l fields clearly p o in ts u p the in terb e
io ral processes specified b y scientific psychology. T his is the case whe
w e stress p erso n a lity d e v e lo p m e n t o r ju s t e n v iro n m e n ta l a d a p ta ti
sch o o l cu rricu la, e d u c a tio n a l fash io n s, o r rights a n d privileges o f teacl
T o re g ard th e ed u c a tio n a l p rocess as exclusively affecting the re sp o n

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 E D U C A T I O N IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

> in d iv id u a l is to o p en th e w ay to a belief in all sorts o f m ythical pow ers an d

co n d itio n s. S u c h a n exclusivist view b rin g s in its tra in instincts, in n ate
p ow ers, a n d in g en eral serio u s m isin te rp re ta tio n s o f psychological events.
In te rb e h a v io ra l p h ilo so p h y places te a c h e rs in p ro p e r perspective w hen
they a re c o n sid ered as p a rt o f th e settin g o f e d u c a tio n a l situ atio n s. T h ey
p ro v id e specific fa v o rab le o r u n fa v o ra b le c irc u m stan ces fo r the ad v an tag e
o r d isa d v a n ta g e o f a c q u irin g re actio n s, a c c o m p lish in g tasks, an d setting up
o p p o rtu n itie s fo r dev elo p m en t. N o t o n ly are teach ers p erip h eral facto rs in
learn in g s itu a tio n s, b u t th ey c a n o n ly o p e r a te in c o n ju n c tio n w ith b a c k ­
g ro u n d an d fo reg ro u n d featu res s u rro u n d in g th e m odification o f the
ta u g h t. T e a c h e rs a re g uides as w ell as stim u la to rs. O th e r p erip h e ral fa cto rs
m ay be located in th e attitu d e s o f p a re n ts w ith respect to schools.
A n in tere stin g o b se rv a tio n c o n c e rn in g p a re n ts as p erip h eral fa cto rs in
e d u c a tio n a l situ a tio n s is th a t o f p a re n ts w h o them selves are w ith o u t fo rm al
e d u c a tio n b u t w h o a re stim u lated to w a n t th e ir ch ild ren to receive such an
e d u c a tio n . T h e ir a m b itio n is stim u la te d b y e m u la tio n , a desire to stan d o u t
in th e c o m m u n ity , a n d th e h o p e f o r a rise in th e socio eco n o m ic scale. T he
ra n g e o f m o tiv es fo r se n d in g ch ild re n to sch o ol ex te n d s d o w n w a rd fro m
ac tu a l p e rso n a l im p ro v e m e n t to th e use o f sch o o ls as cu sto d ial locales fo r
b o th e rso m e ch ild ren , w ith a m id p o in t in th e c o m p lian ce w ith the laws o f
th e c o m m u n ity .

EDUCATION IN INTERRELATION
E d u c a tio n a n d its p ro b le m s o b v io u sly d o n o t exist in a v acu u m . Indeed,
e d u c a tio n a l e v e n ts a re in tim ately in te rre la te d w ith all so rts o f fa cto rs th at
influence its n a tu re a n d o p e ra tio n . S o m e o f th e in terre latin g fa cto rs fa v o r
th e o p e ra tio n o f e d u c a tio n a l processes w hile o th e rs a p p e a r as hin d ran ces
a n d interferences. In b o th cases th e in te rre la tin g fa c to rs p e rfo rm as c o n ­
tro ls a n d guides o f in d iv id u al d ev e lo p m e n ts. T h e influences m ay be categ o ­
rized as D irect o r as P erip h eral. T h e y influence b o th fo rm al a n d casual
d evelo p m en ts.
a. Direct Influences. D irect influences u p o n casu al p erso n ality devel­
o p m e n ts a re clearly illu stra te d w here e d u c a tio n a l facilities a n d p ro ced u res
a re hedged a b o u t by social, political, a n d ec o n o m ic facto rs, w ith a resulting
neglect o f in trin sic in d iv id u al differences e n g e n d ered by v aria tio n s in the
co n fro n ta tio n s o f p erso n s in different h u m a n situ atio n s.
D ire ct h in d e rin g fo rm a l e d u c a tio n a l p rocesses a re exem plified by th e
difficulties ex p erien ced by e d u c a to rs w ith te a c h er-p u p il ratio s, th e over­
c ro w d in g o f classro o m s, a n d th e m o re serio u s p ro b le m s o f sta n d a rd iz a tio n

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 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I

by th e su b je c tio n o f in d iv id u a ls to religious o r secu lar cu rricu la. 1

g en e ral effect o f su ch c o n s tra in ts is, o f co u rse, to reduce ac tu a l o r poteni
originality.
b. Peripheral Influences on Personality Development. In d irect interf
e n c e w ith p e rso n a l d e v e lo p m e n t is well illu strated by th e objective circu
stances o f fa m ilies a n d c o m m u n itie s w h ich p reclu d e th e u n d esirable tra
L ight is th ro w n u p o n th is c irc u m sta n c e b y th e c o n tra ry situ a tio n in w h
u n re stric te d in d iv id u a ls b u ild u p m a n y ty pes o f b e h a v io r b o th a p p r o '
a n d d isa p p ro v e d o f b y th e c o m m u n itie s in w hich they live.
G en erally sp ea k in g , e d u c a tio n a l co n tro ls, w hile they so m etim es p
m o te a d v a n ta g e o u s p erso n a lity d ev e lo p m en t, m o re o fte n clash w ith
scientific p sy ch o lo g ical rule o f in d iv id u a l differences. T o ab id e by th e r
elim in a te s c o n s tra in ts u p o n th e e d u c a te e a n d allo w s fo r th e possible fr
d o m an d s p o n ta n e ity o f b e h a v io r th a t he m ay display. It is to loosen
b a rrie rs o f b iological age. It is c o u n te d a s ed u c atio n al research to d eterm
h o w m a n y sy llab les a re b est a llo w ed fo r each ag e g ro u p in read in g boi
fo r ch ild ren . A sim ilar c o n tro l o v er in d iv id u al differences is to lim it
read in g o f ch ild re n to c e rta in grad es o f b o o k s acco rd in g to th eir ch ro n o l
ical ages. It is a n in tere stin g q u e s tio n h o w m u ch a rb itra ry c o n tro ls co n ti
u te to th e re ta rd a tio n o f ch ild re n ’s d ev e lo p m en t.
T o c o n fo rm to scientific p h ilo so p h y , th e e d u c a tio n o f in d iv id u a ls m
l*' b e co n sid ered as d y n a m ic p rocesses, sin ce th e ind iv id u al will gro w beca
i o f th e possibilities o f c o n ta c ts w ith all so rts o f novel objects a n d co n d itio
H e re th e su g g estio n is to d e v e lo p m e a n s o f in te ra c tin g w ith new situati<
' a n d objects o n a p erso n al o r in d iv id u a l p lan . S im p ly to be aw are o f pres
th in g s is n o t e n o u g h . T o d e v e lo p p e rso n a l efficiency, it is re q u ire d
d ev e lo p c o m p a riso n s, ev a lu a tio n s, analyses, a n d criticism s. Im plied her
..a th a t effective e d u c a tio n re q u ire s th a t ev en fro m early ch ild h o o d o n , f
c u rio sity s h o u ld be k e p t aliv e a n d th e ch ild b e en c o u rag ed to interbeh;
'* " w ith th in g s w ith in his c a p a c ity a n d o p p o rtu n ity a t th e tim e.

f ED U C A TIO N IN T H E P E R S P E C T IV E O F SC IEN TIFIC PSY CH O LO t

Since th e cen tral d a tu m in ed u c a tio n a l situations, nam ely, th e evolutioi

p erso n alities, p e rta in s to p sy ch o lo g ical p ro b lem s, m uch o f th e philosoi
o f e d u c a tio n hinges u p o n th e psychological processes in volved in learn
a n d g en eral b e h a v io ra l d e v e lo p m e n t. T h is is n o t to e x c lu d e o r ev en m
m ize th e p resen ce a n d o p e ra tio n o f th e settin g fa cto rs in psychologi
situ a tio n s. N o p sy ch o lo g ical situ a tio n ex ists w ith o u t th e co-presence
n u m e ro u s biological, social, a n d ec o n o m ic c o m p o n en ts. G ro u p -rela

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 E D U C A T I O N IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

e d u c a tio n c o m p rises tech n iq u e s fo r in d u cin g individuals to ac q u ire su ch

tra its o f b e h a v io r as a p p e a r to th e ir b iological a n d societal fo reb ears as
necessary o r d esira b le fo r m e m b e rsh ip in th e ir p a rtic u la r co m m u n ities.
A u to d id acticism , to o , p ro m o te s th e p e rso n ality -b u ild in g process, th o u g h
the g o als a re a u to g e n o u s a n d highly v aria b le. W h e th e r e d u c a tio n is id io ­
syn cratic o r so cial, psychology p lay s a g re at p a rt in the th e o ry a n d practice
o f ed u c atio n .
A lth o u g h it is u n d e rsta n d a b le th a t those w ho live in co m p lex in d u strial
an d te ch n o lo g ica l societies sh o u ld view e d u c a tio n as a g ia n t system o f
o rg an ized m ech an ism s fo r th e c o n v e rsio n o f in co m ers in to a g ro u p ’s
citizen ry a n d u su ally to m o ld o ffspring o n th e p a tte rn o f th e ir p ro g e n ito rs,
e d u c a tio n is ce rtain ly m u ch d ifferent fro m th at. A s we have a lre a d y
in d icated , e d u c a tio n consists o f th e inevitable p rocess o f evolving individ­
uals b ey o n d th e ir b io -em b ry o lo g ical statu s. E d u ca tio n a l processes co n sti­
tu te th e m e ta m o rp h o sis o f o rg a n ism s fro m m o re o r less p u rely biological
beings in to m em bers o f th e h u m a n o r cu ltu ra l p o p u la tio n . T h e m ech a­
nism s o f c o n v e n tio n a l e d u c a tio n , in clu d in g schools, a n d th eir financing,
cu rricu la, teac h in g system s o r m e th o d s, an d tech n iq u es, a re im p o rta n t an d
freq u en tly in d isp en sab le b u t still a re a u x ilia ry a n d p erip h eral factors.
W h e n a c c o u n t is ta k e n o f the e d u c a tio n a l processes o f the sim pler co m ­
m un ities a n d cu ltu re s as well as o f m o re co m p lex societies, strik in g differ­
ences a re o b serv ed as betw een reg u lated e d u c a tio n a n d th e m o re general
psych o lo g ical d e v e lo p m e n t o f p e rso n s a t all stages fro m infancy to a d u lt­
h o o d a n d b eyond.
It is surely s u p e re ro g a to ry to m en tio n th a t it is the pro v in ce o f psychol­
ogy to an a ly z e a n d ch a ra c te riz e th e b e h a v io ral n a tu re o f o rganism s.
O bv io u sly , it is to p sychology th a t we re so rt fo r ex p ertise respecting th e
m od ificatio n o f b eh a v io r, th e p o ten tialities a n d lim its o f th e developing
a n d learn in g process, th e p ro b lem o f c a p a c ity w h eth er in n ate o r a c q u ired ,
the a b ility perio d ically to re p erfo rm p reviously acq u ired reactions, the
basis fo r a p p ly in g a c q u ired skills, in fo rm a tio n , and m odes o f a d a p ta tio n to
en v iro n in g things a n d co n d itio n s.
U n fo rtu n a te ly , p sy ch o lo g y itself c a n n o t be universally reg ard ed as a
/ n a tu ra l science. It is still c o n ta m in a te d w ith tra d itio n a l spiritistic notions.
Like all th e sciences w hich are th e w o rk s o f h u m a n individuals, psychology
also o p erates in th e sh a d o w o f cu ltu ra l in stitu tio n s, including trad itio n al
p h ilo so p h y . O nly by e x tru d in g m isco n s tru c tio n s o fa n tiq u a te d p h ilo so p h y
^ ca n psy ch o lo g y b ecom e serviceable, in.s.upport o f ed u c atio n .
In sum , in o rd e r to achieve a p ro p e r p h ilo so p h ical overview , ed u c atio n al

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 H U M A N E V ENT S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V

th in k in g requires th a t a scientific psychology p ro v id e d ep en d ab le p o stu

tio n fo r th e o b serv atio n o f e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e d u re s an d practices.
T h e first step in th e e v a lu a tio n o f p sy ch o lo g y as a science is to d eterm i
w h e th e r o r n o t the d iscipline o p e ra te s en tirely o n the basis o f o b serving t
in te rb e h a v io r o f o rg a n ism s as they evolve in c o n sta n t a n d m o re o r 1<
effective in tera ctio n w ith th in g s an d events o f th eir en v iro n m en t. It is or
su c h activities th a t c o n fo rm to th e c a n o n s o f n a tu ra l science. W e a d o p t t
n am e “in terb e h av io ral” fo r su ch a psychological discipline.
T o ad h e re to th e stu d y o f co n c re te in te ra c tio n s is to d e p a rt radica
fro m th e im p o sitio n o f tra d itio n a l c o n s tru c ts u p o n events. In terb eh av io
psychology, as a scientific discipline, h as n o p lace fo r th e im ag in ary cc
stru c ts o f soul, m ind, co n scio u sn ess, o r su ch o p p o sitio n s as “m ind-boc
o r “ n a tu re a n d n u rtu re .” P sy ch o lo g ical in te ra c tio n s o r in te rb e h a v io r m
be reg ard ed as ev o lu tio n s a n d e la b o ra tio n s o f th e biological interactio:
P ro b a b ly th e m ost effective a p p r o a c h to p sy ch ological ev en ts is to th in k
th e m as resulting fro m a fo u r th e v o lu tio n follow ing: (a ) the inorgai
e v o lu tio n o f p h y sio ch em ical elem en ts, c o m p o u n d s, a n d processes, w:
la te r in tera ctio n s lead in g to th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f the su n a n d p lan ets a
g alac tic system s, (b) th e p h y lo g en etic b io lo g ical ev o lu tio n , a n d (c) t
o n to g en ic biological ev o lu tio n .

SEQUENTIAL O R D E R IN E D U C A TIO N A L D EV E LO PM EN T
B ecause p erso n ality e v o lu tio n is c u m u lativ e a n d often progressive, f<
low ing a n d paralleling b io lo g ical m a tu ra tio n , it varies so m ew h a t o n t
m basis o f age a n d m o re definitely u p o n a d a p ta tio n s to social c irc u m sta n c
•p O n th e w hole, th e g re a te st n u m b e r o f new tra its a re m o re easily a n d me
ra p id ly d eveloped in th e e a rlie r life o f in d iv iduals. In fa n ts a n d c h ild r
8* m u st d ev elo p re a c tio n a l e q u ip m e n t in o rd e r to b eco m e o rien ted a:
ad ju ste d to novel a n d d e m a n d in g e n v iro n m e n ts a n d a t th e sam e tim e n
u be h am p ered by a p rio r a c c u m u la tio n o f b eh av io ral eq u ip m en t. It is tl
early d ev e lo p m e n t o f h a b its, in c lin a tio n s, likes, an d dislikes w h ich reg
lates an d facilitates fu tu re d e v e lo p m e n t in p a rtic u la r directions.
By c o n tra s t w ith th e ease a n d sm o o th n e ss o f tra it d ev e lo p m e n t in y o u
perso n s, ad u lt trait d e v e lo p m e n t in m o re c o m p lex circum stances is com p
ca te d by p ro b le m s o f d irec tio n , o b lig a tio n , responsibility, a n d d u ty . O n t
o th e r h an d , o f course, th e a d u lt p erio d m ay b e m ark ed by k n ow ledge ai
w isdom w hich fav o r p a rtic u la r lines o f fu tu re g row th.
T h e sequential o rd e r o f e d u c a tio n o r p erso n ality d e v e lo p m e n t can
effectively observed in th e a c tu a l p sy ch o lo g ical d e v e lo p m e n t o f p erso n s.

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 E D U C A T I O N IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

th e e a rliest sta g e th e e n tire b e h a v io ral re p e rto ire is ce n te red o n in te rb e h a v ­

io r w ith th e m o th e r a n d is g ra d u ally en larg ed th ro u g h co n ta c ts w ith o th e r
m e m b e rs in th e fam ily. In la te r c o n ta c ts w ith a g ra d u a lly ex p a n d in g w o rld ,
th e in d iv id u al becom es b eh a v io rally b e tte r e q u ip p ed , m o re o r less inde­
p e n d e n t o f th e fam ily, a n d increasingly a d a p te d to th e social co n d itio n s in
w hich he lives.

CONTINUITY OF EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES

G ra n tin g th a t e d u c a tio n is a p ro c ess o f p e rso n a lity b uilding, it m u st be
lo o k ed u p o n as a c o n tin u o u s process. D esp ite th e g re at differences betw een
fo rm a l e d u c a tio n (sch o o lin g a n d tu to ria l experiences) a n d th e general
ev o lu tio n o f a n in d iv id u al o r p erso n ality , th e basic d ev elo p m en ts are
located o n a single co n tin u u m . P a ra lle lin g th e biological m a tu ra tio n stages
o f th e in d iv id u al, an ev o lu tio n o f ac ts a n d traits begins u n d e r fam ily
au sp ices an d c o n tin u e s th ro u g h o u t school a tte n d a n c e a n d later v o ca tio n a l
o r d o m estic careers. T h ro u g h c o n ta c t w ith m a n y k in d s o f persons, epi­
sodes, a n d in stitu tio n s, th e individual b eco m es culturalized, m olded, an d
m odified.5

SOME PROBLEMS IN EDUCATIONAL SITUATIONS

E d u c a tio n a l p ro c ed u re s an d processes involve a n u m b e r o f general
p ro b lem s w hich th e philo so p h ical o b serv er m u st co n sid er an d analyze.
a. The Ordinary and the Elite. O v e rsh ad o w in g all th e p ro b lem s a n d
p ro c e d u re s o f e d u c a tio n is th e fact o f in d iv id u al differences. N o tw o
p e rso n s a re co m p letely alik e, n o t ev en id en tical tw ins. T h is fact influences
all the featu res o f h u m a n d ev e lo p m e n t. S u c h influences vary o f course w ith
th e d im e n sio n s o f th e c o m m u n itie s in w h ich ed u c a tio n a l processes o ccu r.
C o m p le x co m m u n itie s face a n u m b e r o f p ro b lem s w h ich are n o t ev id en t in
sim p le r c o m m u n itie s. G enerally sp ea k in g , sim p le co m m u n itie s consist o f
sp arse p o p u la tio n s a n d a re u n c o m p lic a te d b y m an y varieties o f in stitu ­
tio n s. In su ch c o m m u n itie s th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro cess is p rim arily casu al an d
ap p ren ticelik e. C h ild ren sim ply a d a p t them selves to th e circum stances o f
local living as th ey g ro w ca p a b le o f p a rtic ip a tin g in the w o rk an d cerem o ­
nies o f th e ir p a rtic u la r tribes.
In m o re co m p le x c o m m u n itie s th e p o p u la tio n s a re larg e a n d ran g e fro m
p o o r so cio -eco n o m ic levels to v a rio u s deg rees o f affluence. O n e o f th e
o u ts ta n d in g differences betw een th e co m p lex a n d th e sim ple co m m u n itie s
3Cf. Kantor. J. R., An Outline o f SoriaI Psychology. Chicago, Principia, 1929.

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is th a t e d u c a tio n a l p ro cesses o f th e fo rm e r b eco m e form alized a n d in m;

cases co m p u lso ry . U n d e r su c h c o n d itio n s th e re arise system s o f p u
e d u c a tio n , th a t is, th e sta te o r o th e r g ro u p o rg a n iz atio n prov id es soui
a n d re so u rces fo r e d u c a tin g th e p e rs o n s w h o a re com pelled to u n d e
p u b lic e d u c a tio n . F r o m su c h c irc u m sta n c e s arise p ro b lem s o f d e m o c r
o r a u th o rity . T h e q u e s tio n b e c o m e s p o ig n a n t w h e th e r all the m em ber:
th e c o m m u n ity a re e q u a lly c a p a b le o f p a rtic ip a tin g in th e e d u c a tio
pro cesses set u p b y th e sta te o r o th e r g o v e rn in g agency. A m o n g th e seri.
p ro b lem s th ere is th e q u e stio n o f w h e th e r it is possible in all facets <
sections o f th e c o m m u n ity to p ro v id e e q u a l o r even effective tu itio n .
A n o th e r serio u s p ro b le m em erg es, th a t o f elitism . It is im possible
ign o re th e p ro b le m o f d ifferen tial o p p o rtu n ity a n d p re p a ra tio n f o r c o m |
ing w ith o th e r m em b ers o f th e g ro u p th a t have h a d d ifferent o p p o rtu n e
in th e e a rly d a y s o f th e ir living. D e m o c ra c y c o n te n d s w ith elitism a lth o i
th e re is n o q u e stio n h e re o f a n y in n a te su p e rio rity o r in ferio rity . It is a
m a tte r o f fam ily s ta tu s w h e th e r o n e gro w s u p in p o v erty a n d d e p riv a tio r
in e c o n o m ic affluence a n d p le n itu d e o f a d v a n ta g es. E ith e r so cio eco n o i
circ u m sta n c e m ay p ro v e a d v a n ta g e o u s o r d e trim e n ta l, d e p e n d in g
specificities.
EDUCATION VERSUS TRAINING
A c o n s ta n t b o n e o f c o n te n tio n in e d u c a tio n a l circles is th a t w hich divii
th o se w h o d ifferen tiate strik in g ly b etw e e n g en eral o r liberal e d u c a tio n a
v o c a tio n a l tra in in g , fro m th o s e w h o reg ard all e d u c a tio n as v o c a tio r
T h is p ro b le m is p e rh a p s m o re a p p a r e n t in th e u p p e r g ra d e s o f sch o o li
sa y in college; so m e e d u c a to rs a sse rt th a t th e ir colleagues are w ro n g
se p a ra te e d u c a tio n fro m v o c a tio n . F o r ex a m p le, o n e p a rty claim s tl
college e d u c a tio n sh o u ld b e q u ite d iffe ren t fro m v o c a tio n a l educatii
w hile th e ir o p p o n e n ts say th a t, f o r e x a m p le , th e s tu d e n ts m a jo rin g
la n g u a g e d o so f o r th e m o s t p a r t b ec au se th e y seek a tech n iq u e
teaching.
O n th e low er levels th e d iffe re n tia tio n b etw een general e d u c a tio n a
v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n is said to be b ase d o n th e fact th a t so m e c h ild r e n ;
u n a b le to m a ste r a c u rric u lu m fo r g e n e ra l e d u c atio n , a n d so they hav e to
ta u g h t so m e s o rt o f h a n d ic ra ft o r c ra fts m a n s h ip th a t will b e o f use to th«
in th eir ec o n o m ic a d ju stm en ts.
A g e n e ro u s p h ilo so p h ic a l a ttitu d e w o u ld b e to a tte m p t to im p ro v e i
p e rs o n a lity tra its o f y o u n g c h ild re n w h o even a p p e a r to b e in c a p a b le
m a ste rin g th e o rd in a r y c u rric u lu m . T h e effect w o u ld b e th a t in th

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m a tu rity ev e n as c ra ftsm e n th ey w o u ld h av e s u p e rio r a ttitu d e s to w a rd s th e

w o rld th e y live in a n d th e c o m m u n ity th e y reside in, th a n w o u ld o th erw ise
b e th e case. S in ce it a p p e a rs a t p re se n t in ev itab le th a t th ere sh o u ld be
im m en se differences b etw een p erso n alities, c e rta in sta n d a rd s o f excellence
in p eo p le w o u ld be a ta rg e t to a im a t. In c id e n tally , even if th e ex tern al
c o n d itio n s o f life c a n n o t be c o n tro lle d o r m odified, it w o u ld a d d to th e
q u ality o f c o m m u n itie s fo r e a c h in d iv id u a l to b e e d u c ated a s w ell as train ed
fo r so m e v o catio n .

EDUCATION IN SIMPLE AND COMPLEX CULTURES

Scientific p sy ch o lo g y d ifferen tiates betw een th e e d u c a tio n a l processes
localized in d iffe ren t m ilieu x . A c co rd in g ly , th e p sychologist observes th e
v a ria tio n in th e p ro c ess as p ra c tic e d in th e sp arsely p o p u la te d sim p ler
cu ltu re s as c o m p a re d w ith th ick ly p o p u la te d a n d co m p lex g ro u p s. In th e
sim p ler societies p e rso n a lity d ev e lo p m e n t is p rim arily ca su al a n d m o re o r
less h a p h a z a rd , th o u g h n o t w ith o u t th e effectiveness o f a d ju stm e n t re ­
q u ired b y m e m b e rsh ip in a p a rtic u la r co m m u n ity . T h e ca su al-co n triv ed
d istin c tio n derives, o f co u rse, fro m th e g en eral p sy chological d ifferen tia­
tio n b etw e en th e a d v e n titio u s a c c u m u la tio n o f tra its in a d ju s tm e n ta l situ a ­
tio n s a n d th e c o n triv e d b e h a v io r d e v e lo p m e n t co n stra in e d a n d ruled by
societal tra d itio n s a n d m a n a g e ria l a u th o ritie s. A g o o d ex am p le o f casu al
b e h a v io r d e v e lo p m e n t is th e free a n d easy w ay y o u n g c h ild re n a c q u ire
foreig n speech b y m ere c o n ta c t w ith n ativ e ch ildren. S o sim ple a n d effective
is th e p ro c ess th a t w riters h av e in v en ted in stin cts o f lan g u ag e a n d in n ate
lan g u ag e capacities.

EDUCATIONAL GOALS AND VALUES

P ro b le m s o f g o als a n d values to u c h u p o n b o th th e p sychological cen ter
a n d th e c u ltu ra l p e rip h e ry o f th e e d u c a tio n a l p rocess. S ince e d u c a tio n a l
p ro c e d u re s a re in tim a te ly co n d itio n e d b y th e c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s o f c o m ­
m u n ities, w h a t in d iv id u a ls learn a n d h o w a re p o w erfully influenced by
local c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s v ia th e agencies o f sch o o l a u th o ritie s, teach ers,
a n d p aren ts.
N o w , o b v io u sly , e d u c a tio n a l “g o als” m a y be p ro p e r a n d a d v a n ta g e o u s
o r im p ro p e r an d d is a d v a n ta g e o u s a n d th u s in se p a ra b le fro m p ro b lem s o f
value. I t is th e v a ria tio n in v alu es th a t d ictates th e d ev elo p m en t o f p a ro c h ia l
sch o o ls alo n g sid e th e p u b lic in stitu tio n s. S ch o o ls in a n a tio n o r co m m u n ity
estab lish ed o n th e basis o f a s e p a ra tio n o f sta te a n d c h u rc h em p h asiz e th e

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th ree R ’s, while p aro ch ial in stitu tio n s aim a t the cu ltiv atio n o f m ora
religious traits. F u rth e rm o re , it m ay be the edu catio n al goal o f a co m r
ty to req u ire new co m ers to a d a p t them selves to local tra d itio n s
c o n d itio n s w ith o u t q u e stio n as to th e p ro p riety o f existing institut
O th e r goals m ay be to cu ltiv ate in d ividuals to w o rsh ip eco n o m
political success a t any co st, o r to becom e “leaders” even by aggressii
chicanery o f an y sort.
In general, th e p ro b lem o f ed u c atio n al goals ru n s directly inu
relatio n s o f individuals a n d th e g ro u p s in w hich they are ensconced. \
it is tru e th a t individuals are d o m in ated by groups, it is also true
individuals by th eir inv en tio n s, p ro d u ctiv ity , an d general creativity-
pow erful influences u p o n th e co m m u n ities am o n g w hich they live
o th ers related to them . A lw ays th ere rem ain th e facts o f individual d
ences w hich the exigencies o f in d iv id u al an d social living inevitably
duce. S u ch are th e exigencies o f h u m a n living th a t they result it
d ev e lo p m e n t o f m an y varieties o f personality. C riteria are n o t lackin
th e categ o rizatio n o f som e as in ferio r an d som e as su p erio r. T h e cri
in voked range in value f o r tra its o f know ledge, skills, creativity, aflecti
a n d so on.
C learly, the influences o f g ro u p s u p o n individuals an d individuals i
g ro u p s are invariably reciprocal. T h is fact th ro w s considerable light o
p ro b lem o f elitism an d its value fo r social life. T h o u g h we banisf
fallacies o f innateness, it c a n n o t be denied th a t th e developm ent o f sup'
a n d inferior personalities carries m an y p otentialities fo r social d ish arn
an d conflict. H ow ever, it is still p ro b a b le th a t th e em phasis u p o n ex
ness, know ledge, g o o d ju d g m e n t, valid reasoning, individualism inste;
m ass co n fo rm ity , as well as sensitivity to n a tu ra l an d artistic beauty
i i 1 have a salu tary influence u p o n the co n d itio n o f m an an d his civilizat

TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING IN EDUCATION

As a final item in th e p h ilo so p h ic al ex a m in a tio n o f the educati
process, we glance briefly a t the technological an d engineering aspec
ed u catio n al events.
O u rs is a n age o f technology. W e c a n m ove m o u n tain s, p u t m en oi
m o o n , d irect missiles to d ista n t lands c ap able o f an n ihilating entire pof
tions, a n d p roduce c o m p u te rs th a t sim u late com plex intellectual feats,
sm all w o n d e r th at m achines are w o rsh ipped as m o d em golden calves
th a t a p p a ra tu s is devised fo r the ed u c atio n al province o f o u r culture.

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task , th e n , is to c o n sid er th e n a tu re o f te c h n o lo g y a n d its ap p licab ility to

ed u c atio n .
T e c h n o lo g y is essentially a n e n te rp rise o f e x te n d in g a n d am p lify in g
h u m a n p o w e rs o f co p in g w ith difficult s itu a tio n s b y d evising a n d in v enting
to o ls a n d m ach in es to p ro d u c e effects n o t p o ssib le w ith o u t su ch aids.
A lth o u g h tech n o lo g y sh o u ld n o t b e re g a rd e d a s lim ited to w o rk w ith
in o rg a n ic o r p h y sio ch em ical m a teria ls, it is su ch th in g s as levers, w heels,
w ires, cogs, a n d electrodes th a t m o s t re ad ily illu stra te en g in eerin g
activities.
F u n c tio n a lly , all tech n o lo g ical processes a re v a ria n t m ean s to w a rd en d s,
w h ich a re o th erw ise set up. T h e ap p lic a b ility a n d value o f engin eerin g
a c tio n s a n d to o ls p re su p p o se specifications f o r th e p u rp o se fo r w h ich they
are fa sh io n e d a n d im p ro v e d . In m o s t in sta n ce s tech n o lo g ica l d esig n s
re p re se n t a c c re tio n s o f a lre a d y e x iste n t things. T his is n o t to d e n y te c h n o ­
logical in v en tio n , b u t th e th in g s d e a lt w ith a n d the resu lts acco m p lish ed are
o n th e w h o le fixed a n d d eterm in e d .
T e c h n o lo g ic a l fu n c tio n s b eing strictly lim ited to th e m ech an ical a n d
relativ ely sta tic h ave little relevance in ed u c a tio n a l situ atio n s. A t best th ey
relate to th e v ery early perio d s o f in te rb e h a v io r, as, fo r ex a m p le , in p rim a ry
a n d s e c o n d a ry sch o o ls. In su c h s itu a tio n s th e e n g in e e r c a n exercise his
ta le n ts in th e p ro d u c tio n a n d use o f v isu al aid s, television, ra d io , teac h in g
m ach in e s, a n d p ro g ra m s o f v a rio u s so rts, in clu d in g th o se fo r c o m p u te r
o p eratio n s.
In su c h definitely co n triv e d situ a tio n s, te c h n o lo g ica l aid s prove to be o f
g re a t value. E d u c a tio n a l m a c h in e ry m ay co n serv e tim e a n d effort a n d
so m e tim e s ac celerate th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f sim ple types o f b e h a v io r b u t d o
n o t a d v a n c e th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o re sig n ificant b e h a v io r tra its o f ind iv id ­
uals. It is c e rta in th a t even in sim p le s itu a tio n s th e e m p lo y m e n t o f te c h n o ­
logical im p le m e n ts benefits m o re th e te a c h e rs an d a d m in istra to rs th a n the
pupils.
F r o m o u r review o f th e s p o n ta n e ity o f c o m p le x in te rb e h a v io r, it is clear
th a t tech n o lo g y is h a rd ly ap p lic a b le to th e e v e n ts o f biolo g y o r psychology.
T h a t is w hy te ch n o lo g y in e d u c a tio n is lim ited to th e learn in g o f sta te m e n ts
a n d sentences, th e spelling o f w o rd s, a n d sim ilar m in o r ta sk s th a t c a n be
re d u c e d to m ech an ical sim plicity. W h e n p e rso n al in te rb e h a v io r an d h a b its
o f so cial p ro p rie ty a re c o n c e rn e d , n o th in g o f a tech n o lo g ica l n a tu re is even
th o u g h t of. T h a t is, b e h a v io r b o th in th e case o f ch ild re n a n d a d u lts is
d ev e lo p e d in th e ca su al m a n n e r w e h av e d iscu ssed in th e early p a rt o f this
ch a p te r. In th is c o n n e ctio n , a tte n tio n m ay b e d irected to a recent in terest-

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ing letter in Science6 w h ich c o n tra s ts th e k in d o f tech n o lo g ica l act

sufficient fo r th e fa n ta stic feat o f p u ttin g m en o n th e m o o n w ith th e cu
u n y ield in g search fo r th e n a tu re a n d c o n q u e st o f cancer. N ow th at
possible to cu ltiv ate a p sy ch o lo g y free fro m th e m ystifications n o w in
in g the disciplines, it is n o t difficult to conceive a biological a n d m e
e d u c a tio n th a t will p ro v e effective fo r th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f n o rm a l
m alig n an t tissue a n d th e ir g ro w th .

SU M M A R Y

T w o p rim a ry p o stu la te s u n d e rlie the p resent ch a p te r. T h e first is

e d u c a tio n a l processes a re fu n d a m e n ta l fo r th e existence a n d vale
h u m a n beings a n d th e ir civ ilizatio n . E d u c a tio n is assum ed to be th e gei
p ro cess by w hich b io lo g ical o rg a n ism s a re tra n sfo rm e d into c u ltu re
persons; it is n o t ju s t sch o o l learning.
T h e second p o stu la te is th a t sin ce e d u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s rest up
psychological fo u n d a tio n , a n a tu ra lis tic a n d scientific psychology
special significance fo r e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry a n d practice.
Scientific psych o lo g y w ith its in terd iscip lin ary tan g en tial affiliates,
ogy a n d a n th ro p o lo g y , lig h t up g larin g ly th e processes o f educai
Ind isp en sab le fo r e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry a n d p ractice is a psychology rooti
th e stu d y o f in te rb e h a v io r, in ste a d o f verbal fo rm u la e c o n c ern in g f
m in d , o r o th e r p sy ch ic processes. O n ly in te rb e h av io ral psychology
nishes p ro p e r an sw e rs to th e q u e stio n s co n c ern in g th e n a tu re an d met
o f le arn in g a n d its im p ro v e m e n t a s w ell as c o n trib u te s to th e ger
u n d e rsta n d in g o f tra it d e v e lo p m e n t fo r effective a d ju stm e n ts to inter
so n al s itu a tio n s as well as to n o n h u m a n e n v iro n m e n ts. Specifically
in terb e h av io ral p sy ch o lo g y is c a p a b le o f offering verifiable d e s c rip to r
p erso n ality a n d v ario u s ty p es o f p e rfo rm a n c e such as rem em b erin g ,
ing, perceiving, reaso n in g , a n d u n d ersta n d in g .
B ecause o f th e clo se in te rd isc ip lin a ry re la tio n o f psych o lo g y a n d l
ogy, p sy ch o lo g y receives s tro n g s u p p o r t fro m biology in co u nteracting
tra d itio n o f m u ltip le species o f m en, a n d th u s c a n to p p le th e a x io m o f r
w ith d ifferen t c a p acities fo r le a rn in g a n d e d u c a tio n . T h e sam e m ay be
a b o u t all th e sp ec io u s view s a b o u t th e b ra in being a m a ste r o rg a n re j
w ith n o n sp atial cap acities to sto re ideas a n d fitted w ith th e pow e
rem e m b er, th in k , a n d re aso n . S im ilarly , cu ltu ra l a n th ro p o lo g y m ak
great c o n trib u tio n to the p sy ch o lo g y o f e d u c a tio n by p ro v id in g psychol

' f .lias. II.. “Cancer Kcsviirch." V o w r. 175. 1972. 1712

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w ith d a ta c o n c e rn in g th e stim u la tio n a l b asis fo rin te rb e h a v io ra l a c tio n and

its c o n d itio n s . A s th e s tu d y o f th e v ary in g b e h a v io r o f p erso n s w ith o th e r
p erso n s, o b je c ts, a n d in s titu tio n s o f p a r tic u la r g ro u p s o f p eo p le, it c o n trib ­
utes im m e n sely to o u r k n o w le d g e o f th e o rig in a n d ch a n g es o f p erso n ality
tra its u n d e r th e influence o f differen t e th n ic system s.
In th e la tte r p a r t o f th is ch a p te r, th e w riter an a ly z ed v a rio u s phases o f th e
e d u c a tio n a l e n te rp rise in o rd e r to c o n s id e r a t w h a t p o in ts th e in te rb e h a v -
io ra l h y p o th e sis c o u ld in cre ase th e efficiency a n d th e value o f th e effort.
A m o n g th e situ a tio n s c o n sid ered w ere th e re la tio n s b etw e en teac h ers and
th o se th ey ta u g h t, th e difference b etw een ca su al a n d co n triv ed b eh a v io r
d ev e lo p m e n t, th e g o a ls o f e d u c a tio n , a n d th e in tro d u c tio n o f tech n o lo g ical
m e th o d s. T h e im p lic a tio n w as su g g ested th a t th e in te rb e h a v io ra l h y p o th e ­
sis a d e q u a te ly assessed th e need fo r c h a n g es in b o th th e th e o ry a n d practice
o f ed u c atio n .
A t th is p o in t th e q u e s tio n arises: E ven if in te rb e h a v io ra l science is a n
im p ro v e m e n t o v e r th o se n o w p re v a le n t, w o u ld it be feasible to p u t it in to
force? It m u st be a d m itte d th a t sin ce e d u c a tio n a l m a tte rs a re o n ly c o m p o ­
nen ts in g ra n d so cietal co m p lex e s, m a n y social, political, a n d eco n o m ic
o b s tru c tio n s sta n d in th e w ay o f im p le m e n tin g w h a t m ay a p p e a r as a
d esira b le in tellectu al re v o lu tio n o r even a n u n re alizab le ideal. B ut g re a t as
th e difficulties m ay be, th e c o u n te rq u e s tio n arises: A t w h at p o in t c a n lim its
be set to th e fre e d o m o f d isc o v e ry a n d th e c u ltiv a tio n o f h u m a n ingenuity?

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 CH A PTER 20

P H IL O S O P H Y O F R E L IG IO N

ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF RELIGION

E x trem ely w id esp read is the o p in io n a m o n g p h ilo so p h ers as v
lay m en th a t religion is a u n iq u e ty p e o f p h e n o m e n o n univ ersal a
m a n k in d . R eligion is o n e th ey believe w h e th e r o f p erso n s o r g ro u p s .'
b e c a u se o f a faulty g e n e raliza tio n by. p h ilo so p h ers o f som e fo rm o:
scendence. A ctually th e te rm “relig io n ” is used to refer to a v ast v ar
related an d relatively u n re la te d activities a n d institutions. S o pre
indeed a re v ario u s specialized beliefs, practices, a n d rituals am o i
peoples o f p a rtic u la r civ ilizatio n s th a t cla rity m ust be achieved
a u th e n tic religious traits. T h e q u e stio n em erges, w h at so rts o f dat.
re a so n a b ly be classified o r c a te g o riz e d as religious? A ccordingly, the
o f religion m ust be preceded by a n iso latio n a n d identification o f a i
subject m atter.

WHAT IS RELIGION? VARIOUS DEFINITIONS

A lth o u g h it is futile to d esc rib e o r define religion by a sim p le al
fo rm u la , still m an y in tellectu als fro m different points o f view have au
ed to d o so. H ere are so m e ex am p les.
M y religion is n o w as e v e r th e p ro g re ss o f reason; in o th e r w or
pro g ress o f science. (R e n a n )
All th a t is fine in m an. (P a s to ra l precepts)
R eligion is th e o p iu m o f the people. (M a rx and others)
T h e essence o f religion, is a faith w hich, in d ep en d e n t of, nay in s{
sense an d reaso n , en ab les m an to ap p reh en d the infinite.
M uller)
T h e essence o f religion is th e b elief th a t all things are m a n ife sta tio
p o w er th a t tra n sc e n d s o u r know ledge. (S pencer)
R eligion is a feeling o f dep en d en ce. (S ch lcirm acher)
R eligion co n cern s th e highest h u m a n values. (A m es)
R eligion a n d n o t science first inspired m an to try to unify al
experiences. (O m a n )
R eligion is illusion ca u sed by feeling. (F e u e rb ac h )
R eligion the co n scio u sn ess o f A b so lu te Being. (H egel)

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 P H I L O S O P H Y OF R E L I G I O N

R elig io n is e m o tio n resting o n a co n v ic tio n o f a h a rm o n y betw een

ourselves a n d th e universe a t large. (M c T a g g a rt)
T h e h ea rt o f religion is n o t a n o p in io n a b o u t G o d , such as p h ilo so p h y
m ig h t re ach as th e c o n c lu sio n o f a n a rg u m e n t; it is a perso n al re latio n
w ith G o d . (W illiam T em p le)
R elig io n is th e vision o f so m e th in g w h ich sta n d s b ey o n d , b e h in d , an d
w ith in , th e passing flux o f im m ed iate things; so m eth in g w hich is real,
a n d yet w aitin g to be realised; so m e th in g w hich is a rem o te possibility,
a n d yet th e g reatest o f p re sen t facts; so m e th in g th a t gives m ean in g to
all th a t passes, a n d yet eludes a p p re h e n s io n ; so m eth in g w hose posses­
sio n is th e final g o o d , a n d yet is b ey o n d all reach; so m eth in g w h ich is
th e u ltim ate ideal, a n d th e hopeless q u est. (A . N. W h iteh ead )

VARYING TYPES OF RELIGIOUS DATA

a. Public and Private Religion. A n im p o rta n t distin c tio n m u st be m ad e
b etw e en religion as th e b e h a v io r (beliefs, rites, rituals, a n d so o n ) o f
in d iv id u a ls, a n d th e g ro ss in stitu tio n s o f v a rio u s n a tio n al, cultic, o r o th e r
c o m m u n a l entities. T h e c la rity o f this d istin c tio n is ev id en t fro m the
c o n sid e ra tio n o f v ario u s h isto rical m o v e m e n ts in w hich C h ristia n s, for
e x a m p le , as in th e C ru sa d e s fighting a g a in s t S ara cen s, o n th e p re te x t o f
re co v erin g th e locus o f C h rist’s activities. O th e r strik in g ex am p les are
fu rn ish e d by th e v a rio u s religious w ars in w h ich m em b ers o f ce rtain cults,
say, C a th o lic s a tta c k P ro te s ta n ts a n d vice versa. In the case o f p u blic
religion the em p h asis is n o t u p o n p riv ate faiths, b u t u p o n a political o r
m ilitary basis.
P riv a te religion as w e have in tim a te d co n sists o f th e in tim ate p erso n al
b e h a v io r o f p a rtic u la r in d iv id u als w h o h av e developed religious attitu d e s
in th e ir hom es, ch u rch es, o r o th e r fo rm s o f social o rg a n iz atio n . N o d o u b t
m ay b e e n te rta in e d as to the d iffe re n tia tio n b etw een p erso n al a n d g ro u p
religions. B ut in p ra ctice it is im p o ssib le co m p letely to sep arate th e tw o
fo rm s o f religion, th e o n e em p h asizes in d iv id u a l b eh av io r, w hile th e o th e r
co n sists o f in stitu tio n a l stru c tu re s o f v a rio u s styles o f c o m m u n a l w ays o f
living. O n th e w hole, in this c h a p te r, we shall em p h asize religion as th e „
b eh a v io r o f individuals in re la tio n to th e en v iro n in g religious in stitu tio n .
b. Sacred and Secular Religion. A lth o u g h religious system s are based
o n m y sticism a n d s u p e m a tu ra lism , th e e n tire set m ay be fra c tio n a te d o n
th e b asis o f w h a t m ay be called religious p u rity , th a t is, degree o f belief
a b o u t th e u n iv erse a n d th e su p e rn a tu ra l. H isto rically , this v a ria tio n a n d

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m o d ificatio n in religion h a d ta k e n o n th e fo rm o f social service, th a t

p erso n n el o f th e re lig io u s c o m m u n ity (priests, ra b b is, m ullas, a n d i
u n d e rta k e to allev iate p o v e rty , ta k e care o f th e sick, an d co m fo i
bereav ed . In recen t tim es m a n y re lig io u s g ro u p s w h ich have alre a d y c
o p e d b u ild in g s f o r w o rs h ip h av e a d d e d to th eir edifices o f w o rsh ip
facilities fo r w h a t th e y re g a rd as c u ltu re a n d re cre atio n . T o a g reat e
th e changes in this d ire c tio n have served as a n a rg u m e n t fo r m ainta
th e ch u rc h a s a religious sy stem b y p erso n s w h o are n o t very sym pathy
th e original religious fu n c tio n . O n e o f th e less a ttra c tiv e featu res o f reli
system s is lh e p ro p a g a tio n o f p o litical arid co m m ercial m o v e m e n ts ,.
o ften b ee n o b serv ed th a t b a n k e rs , o th e r busin essm en , an d politi
strive, a n d o ften su cceed , to be v estry -m e n , d ea co n s, a n d o th e r cl
fun ctio n aries.
c. The Plurality o f Religions. B ecause h u m a n beings alw ays ex
g ro u p s th ere is alw ays th e p o ssib ility th a t religion sh o u ld be im pli
w ith fa c to rs o f sta te , a n d g ro u p c o n tro l w ith th e result th a t religious
fo rm c o m m u n itie s called “fa ith s,” o r “cults,” o r “ch u rch es." It is
n a tu ra l, th en , th a t th e re s h o u ld be so m an y different sects o r u n its in
religious system . S o m e tim e s th e o rg a n iz a tio n is o n a h ierarch ical basi
so m etim es o n th e b asis o f a d e m o c ra tic system o f eq u al a u th o rity by a
t
m e m b e rs /O n e o f th e m o st strik in g illu stratio n s o f ch u rc h m em bers:
!•' th e m ultiplicity o f s e a s in th e p ro te s ta n t C hristian religion. T hese c
i ences m ay arise first o n th e basis o f beliefs w hich c a n n o t be alto g
sh ared by all th e m em b ers, o r it m a y be th a t som e aggressive a n d sir
l* t 11 in d iv id u al will c o n stru c t p ro p o s itio n s o f g o v ern m en t o r d o ctrin e and
will enlist a n u m b e r o f disciples o r s e a a r ia n m em bers.
H i" T h e d iv isio n o f religion a n d c h u rc h is closely related to th e divisi
p rivate a n d p u b lic religion. C h u rch e s and ch u rch m em b ersh ip s ten
w ard p ublic system s w hile religion m ay rem a in co n cern ed w ith th e fi
i»»“ 1
i m en tal beliefs based o n in to le ra n c e o f e x tern al co n d itio n s, the faith in
j sav io r o r red eem er a n d th e h o p e o f b e tte r things in the life to com e.
In cid en tal to p u b lic o r c h u rc h relig io n is th e c o n tro l o f perso n s in
religious a n d o th e r fo rm s o f activ ity , fo r ex am p le, the p ro b lem o f com
tio u s o b je a io n to w a r o r so m e o th e r fu n c tio n o f a state m ay result in h
a n d infidelity w hich ca n be a p p re h e n d e d an d p u n ish ed by th e a u th o ril
th e c h u rch system .

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IDENTIFYING ASPECTS OF PERSONAL RELIGION

a. . Religion as a Parapet yfDefense. R elig io n s co n sid ered a s pervasive
c u ltu ra l b e h a v io r co n sist o f sy stem s o f defen se a g a in st th e evils o f h u m a n
ex iste n c e b o th co sm ic a n d c u ltu ra l. By b u ild in g u p m ysteries a n d fables
in d iv id u a ls h o p e to esc ap e th e rig o rs o f la n d , air, a n d sea, as well as the
d an g e rs fro m o th e r in d iv id u als a n d g ro u p s.
F o r m o st o f m a n k in d , sh ee r living is heavily freighted w ith h ard sh ip s,
fru stra tio n s, d isa p p o in tm e n ts, a n d insufficiencies. H ence stim u la tio n fo r
im ag in in g a p e rso n o r p o w e r— a G o d o f T r u th a n d R ig h teo u sn ess, w ho
will h elp to b e a r th e w eighty b u rd e n s a n d allo t re w ard s in a n o th e r an d
b e tte r life. P ara d ise s in plen ty a re th u s in v en ted to assauge the p ain s o f

\x
living. R elig io n s a re m u c h m o re cu ltiv a te d in p o v erty th a n in riches, in
sickness th a n in h e a lth , in slavery th a n in m astery . S o m e tim es, o f co u rse,
th e g o d s a re fa v o ra b le to elect th e rich to c o n tro l w ealth n o m a tte r how
o b tain ed .
b. Religion as Unification o f Experience. A n o th e r p ro m in e n t a s s u m p ­
tio n a b o u t relig io n is th a t it serves to u n ify w h a t is re g ard e d as the
ex p e rien ce o f th e p ra c titio n e r o r p a r tic ip a to r in a religious c o m m u n ity .
R elig io u s sch o lars assert th a t even befo re p h ilo so p h y , religion w as d ev o ted
to th e o rg a n iz a tio n a n d u n ificatio n o f ex p erien ce, th a t is, th e ideology o f
th in k in g p erso n s a b o u t th e w orld o r th e universe in g en eral.1
c. Religion as Basis o f Self Identification and Adulation. It is a u n iq u e
n o tio n o f religion as a cu ltu ra l in stitu tio n th a t it pro v id es fo r its p artic ip a n ts
a sense o f definite b elo n g in g n ess a n d even se lf-ad u latio n . It.m a k es p o ssible t(
th e illu sio n o f b ein g a m o n g th o se ch o se n , a n d at th e sam e tim e fortifies the
belief o f p o ssessing th e sterlin g q u alitie s o f ideal values a n d s u p p o rts the
p e r s o n a l c a n d id a tu re fo r so u l salv a tio n . G re a t sto re is placed u p o n b ein g a i1
m o n o th e ist, a n d a s h a re r in th e g lo ries o f th e h ighest a p p e a rs a w ittin g o r
u n w ittin g a ttitu d e o f self flattery o f th e m em b ers o f v ario u s cults. (,
d . Religion as Creation. A fu n d a m e n ta l fe a tu re o f religion is th e p ro ­
d u c tio n o f relig io u s ob jects a n d in stitu tio n s o f m a n y sorts. P erso n s invent
o m n ip o te n t a n d o m n iscien t go d s, p laces like h eav en a n d hell, a n d codes o f
su p e rio r m o ra l practices. A ll th e beliefs a n d fa ith s a re p resu m ed to alleviate
o p p ressiv e a n d in to le ra b le c o n d itio n s, a n d p ro v id e a m o re c o m fo rta b le
circ u m sta n ce fo r th e ir existence. W h e n th e p ro d u c ts b ec o m e diffused
a m o n g m em b ers o f co m m u n itie s o rg an ized religious in stitu tio n s arise.
1See Oman, J., "The Sphere of Religion," in Religion, and Reality (J. Needham, ed.). New York,
MacMillan, 1925.

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VARIOUS TYPES OF RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOR

a. Religion as Compliance. W h e n religious in stitu tio n s are created
o r w ith o u t o n e d eity o r m a n y d eities, n u m e ro u s indiv id u als p articip at'
b ec o m e disciples w h o p ra c tic e th e te n e ts o f th e p a rtic u la r religion. Pri
instan ces o f such p a rtic ip a tio n in religious p ractice are b a sed o n accep
o f prom isF s~6rrew afds in Heaven o r in som e afterlife. Specific exam pli
th e ac tiv ities in d a n g e r a n d d e fe a t o f th e h a p p y w a rrio rs w h o an tic
c o m p e n sa tio n fo r th e ir u n to w a rd c o n d itio n in th eir present activiti
p o p u la r sy m b o l o f su ch c o m p lia n c e is th e p o p u la r ex p ressio n “ pie i
' sk y w hen y o u die."
b. Religion as Criticism. A u n iq u e su b sy stem o f religious th o u g h
practice c o n c ern s th e ac c e p ta n c e o f th e p a rtic u la r religion, fo r cxai
T a o is m , J u d a is m , B u d d h ism , C h ristia n ity , a n d M o h a m m e d a n ism . A
g o o d e x a m p le o f w h a t g o es o n in th is p a rtic u la r d o m a in o f religion
sk ep tica l o r q u estio n in g s ta te m e n t th a t w hile it is difficult to accep
p r o positio n "th a T C h n st w as b o rn in B eth leh em , m u ch stro n g er evidei
re q u ired to wip cred en ce fo r th e n o tio n th a t Jesu s literally rose fror
d e a d o n th e th ird d a y .2
c. Religion as Contention. T h e g re at a b u n d a n c e o f religious gr
each w ith m an y su b cu lts b rin g s to th e fore all so rts o f c o n te n tio n s a
d eta ils o f beliefs o r p ractice. T h is s itu a tio n is m o re o r less inevi
co n sid erin g th a t p erso n s w h o m ay be u n ited in the accep tan c e o f a ce
c u lt o r system o f religion still m ay d ev elo p in d ividual differences o f t!
, in g a n d ritu a l w ith respect to item s in th e religious system . It is a node*
fact th a t g re at difficulty arises w h e n a p ro p o sa l is m ad e fo r religious cu
system s, w h ich a re v ery clo se in m a n y p a rtic u la rs, to u n ite in a n o ecu r
» cal system . O f co u rse, fa c to rs o f a u th o rity a n d co m p etitiv e loyalties m
involved in su ch situ a tio n s. C e rta in types o f practices o r sacrament.*
i even the em b lem s a n d slo g an s m ay m o re o r less interfere w ith cohesioi
unity.
d. Religion as Entrepreneurism. A definite aid in u n d ersta n d in g
gious d a ta is to distinguish betw een s ta n d a rd , cu ltu ral beliefs an d ritual
th e m o n e ta ry system s a n d o rg a n iz a tio n s established a ro u n d religio
p erso n a l profit a n d self-ag g ra n d iz em en t. In general, sta n d a rd cul
religions im ply m ysteries, m iracles, a n d su p erstitio n s o f v ario u s t
P ec u n ia ry religions relate to co m m e rc ia l a n d e x p lo ra to ry e n te rp
A d v e rtise m e n ts in p u b lic p rin ts offer p rie sth o o d s in p riv ate c h u rch gr<

'Kaufman. W„ Critique o f KctiKum amt Philosophy, Garden Cily, Doubleday, 1961, p. I

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 P H I L O S O P H Y OF R E L I G I O N

w ith privileges o f c o n ferrin g p rie sth o o d s o n o th e rs a n d , w ith g reat a d v a n ­

tages fo r a v o id in g ta x a tio n , all fo r th e m agnificent su m o f ten dollars.

RELIGION AND THEOLOGY

N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e n o n th e o lo g ic a l religions a n d the m odificatio n o f
religions to b ec o m e m o ralistic o r oth erw ise tra n sfo rm e d , a n d in full view of
th e m y stic ism , su p erse n su alism , s u p e m a tu ra lis m , m iracles, a n d th eo lo g y
o f relig io n in gen eral, th e m o st typical d a tu m o f religion i s a j j o d o r gods. O f
all th e o b jects a n d c o n d itio n s th a t tra n sc e n d co n c rete experience, g o d s are
o u tsta n d in g ! T h e o lo g ia n s co n te n d w ith e a c h o th e r w ith a rg u m e n ts a n d
sc h e m a s to b o ls te r th e ir b elief o r fa ith in th e ex isten ce o f d eities th a t ex ist
b ey o n d th e w o rld o f a u th en tic c o n fro n ta tio n s w khthi.ngs_and events. In the
fo llo w in g p a ra g ra p h s w e c o n sid e r so m e sam p les o f th e w ay th e ex isten ce o f
deities is affirm ed. /•;/,'//;•;/ />•
a. Experience. A c o m m o n th eo lo g ical a rg u m e n t is th a t p erso n s ex p e­
rience a g o d a n d his qualities even th o u g h th e re is n o t possible a n y sen su o u s
c o n ta c t w ith a tra n s c e n d e n t d eity . It is th ro u g h th is e x tra o rd in a ry e x p e ­
rience it is said th a t m a n really m ak es c o n ta c t w ith a tra n sc e n d e n t being.
T h e m a tte r is p u t in th e w ay th a t p e rso n s d o h av e ex p erien ce o f G o d ’s
presen ce.3 T h e y m ay a d d th a t m a n do es n o t d isco v er G o d , b u t th a t G o d
\ discloses h im self to m an.4
s
In th is c o n n e c tio n it is significant th a t th is u n u su a l type o f ex p e rien ce is
' ex p lain e d by say in g th a t a fte r all th eo lo g y is o n ly th e th eo lo g ian s w ay o f
! talk in g a b o u t G o d .5
b. Commitment. A fa m iliar a rg u m e n t a b o u t belief a n d fa ith in a n
u n k n o w n G o d is e x p la in e d by th e p ro c ess o f c o m m itm e n t. F o r so m e
th e o lo g ia n s it seem s sufficient to estab lish th e e x istence o f G o d by th e view
th a t p e rs o n s a re so c o m m itte d in th e ir fa ith o r belief th a t th e re m u st be
so m e evid ence ol "the existence o f th e G o d th ey b e lieve in . A c tu a lly o f
}0
co u rse p sy ch o lo g y d o es n o t offer a n y s u p p o rt fo r th e objects o f belief o n the
basis o f so m e s o rt o f fa n ta sy o r d elusion.
c. Truth. T h e c o n stru c ts o f tru th a re used by m a n y th eo lo g ian s to
esta b lish th e ir b elief a n d fa ith in a d eity . C learly th is is a n a rb itra ry
in te rp re ta tio n o f tru th . T h e o lo g ia n s sim p ly c o n stru c t a n e x p e d ie n t in the
fo rm o f a c o m p le te a b s tra c tio n w ith o u t re g ard to th e fact th a t tru th is a

3Waters, F. W„ The Wav in and the Way Out: Science and Religion Reconciled, T oronto. Oxford
Univ. Press, 1967. p. 235.
‘ Waters. Ibid, p. 255.
’ Waters, Ibid., p. 240.

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 V

H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C 1

re la tio n o f v alid ity w ith re sp ect to a n asse r tio n a n d a p alp ab le obj

c o n d itio n . It m u st b e n o tic e d , h o w ev er, th a t th e qu alities asserted al
d eity re p resen t in v en tio n s by am p lific a tio n o f qu alities and conditii
c o n fro n te d things a n d ev en ts. T h e tra its o f c o m p assio n , helpfulness, t
tio n , a n d fo rg iv en ess ste m fro m th e o b se rv a tio n o f b e h a v io r o f .
persons.
d. Reality. T h e o lo g y as c o n c e rn e d w ith u n k n o w n yet k n o w n pers
ties re q u ire s an au tis tic in te rp re ta tio n o f reality. It is a r g ued by t heo|<
th a t re a lity J s so e n o r m o usly e x te n d e d as to include b o th sen s u o i
su p e rse n su o u s e x p e rien ce s so th a t th e re is ro o m e n o u g h fo r tran sce
beings a n d b eh a v io r a l o n g j v i t h n a tu ra lis tic b eings, a n d beh av io r,
place g re a t sto re o n th e whole o r total reality. It is c h a ra c te rs
th eo lo g ian s to a c cep t as real w h a t th e ir v erb al co n stru c tio n s assert.'
P ro b a b ly th e best w ay to in d icate th e essen tiality o f theological ty
religion is to c o n sid e r th e d o c trin e s w h ich T e rtu llia n m ad e fa m o u
q u o te o n ce m ore his b asic relig io u s a ttitu d e w ith respect to the Ch:
type o f religion.
. . . can any of them be so foolish as to believe in God who was bom. bom moreo
virgin, bom with a body of flesh, God who has wallowed through those reproa
nature?
The Son of God was crucified; lam not ashamed- because it is shameful. The Son
died: it is immediately credible-because it is silly. He was buried, and rose again: it is-
because it is impossible.’

RELIGION IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

a. Primitive and Sophisticated Supernaturalism. E x trem ely intei
p ro b le m s arise fro m th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f religion as th e a n th ro p o l
stu d y it. G en erally s p e a k in g th e ir basic d a ta consists o f v ario u s p n
observ ed by resident ob serv ers. D e p en d in g u p o n th eir intellectual
g ro u n d s, a n th ro p o lo g ists differ in th e w ay th ey in terp re t w hat th ey o t
A co m m o n view is th a t relig io n is u n iv ersalistic, t hat is, th a t th e religi
p rim itiv e people a n d th o se living in h ig h ly d ev elo ped in d u sTHal gro u
s im ija r o r a t least c o m p a ra b le . O th e rs assu m e th a t there is a great d iff
Betw een th e da ta"of p rim itiv e g ro u p s a n d th o se o f m o re ad v a n ced cu
S o m e a n th ro p o lo g is ts insist th a t p rim itiv e religion w ith its m agic,
m y sterio u s aspect is n o t relig io n a t all as co m p ared w ith the so p h ist
religions o f a d v a n c e d c o m m u n itie s o r peoples. It is highly q u estit
' Waters. K W„ Op. 0 7 . pp. 127-13.1.
’Tertullian, On the Flesh o f Christ - Pe Carne Chrisli. E. Evans. Tertullians Treaiis
Iniamatum. London. S. P C. X.. 1956. ch. 4. 41-43 and 4. 23-26.

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w h e th e r th e p o w e rs s p o k e n o f o r m e n tio n e d in p rim itiv e religious g ro u p s

a re in a n y w ay related to th e g o d s o r c r e a to rs in m o re c o m p lic a te d types o f
religion. It is u n d e n ia b le th a t th e re a re so m e definite sim ilarities b etw een
p rim itiv e a n d so p h istic a te d re lig io n s /ln b o th cases a valid in te rp re ta tio n is
, th at th e re is so m e fo rm o f a lien a tio n . M o re o v e r, b o th types o f co n st ru c tio n
'‘m ay be en tirely v e rb a l.^
T h a t so p h istic a te d ty p e s o f re lig io n m a y b e w idely d ifferent fro m th o se
o f p rim itiv e p o p u la tio n s o r g ro u p s is in stru ctively p o in ted o u t by the
d efin itio n o f religion as fo rm u la te d by G eertz. H e w rites
a religion is:
(1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting
moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of
existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (S) the
moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.®

W e h av e a lre a d y re ferred to th e in te re stin g sp ec u la tio n , w ith respect to

p rim itiv e a n d h ighly d e v e lo p e d religion, as fo u n d in th e v a rio u s views o f
m o d e rn sch o lars w ith respect to G re e k R elig ion.9 A d ialo g is av a ila b le in
w h ic h o n e side d ec la res th a t th e G re e k s w e re e n tire ly ra tio n a l a n d it is
p o in te d o u t th a t th e g o d s th ey h a v e p la c e d o n M o u n t O ly m p u s a re
d e lib e ra te ly fa n ta stic . B u t o n th e w h o le it is claim ed th a t th e G re ek s w ere
highly ra tio n a l a n d did n o t h ave a n y m y ste rio u s spiritistic featu res in their
cu ltu re a n d in th e ir religion. T h e o th e r side p o in ts o u t th a t th e G reek s really
w ere ir ra tio n a l a n d th e ev id en c e is offered th a t th ey d id in d u lg e in sp ecu la­
tio n s a b o u t m y ste rio u s en tities a n d p o w e rs. N o w th e evid en ce offered is
highly q u e stio n a b le . C e rta in ly th e re w as b e h a v io r in a b u n d a n c e a m o n g th e
G re ek s th a t w as n o t r a t i o n a l w ith n a tu ra l things.
B u t th a t m erely p laced th e G re e k s in a class th a t.in c lu d e d m o d e rn p o p u la -
tio n s in w fech m ysticism a n d _sp iritism .is_rife._
T h e e n tire p o lem ic w ith resp ect to G re e k religion p o in ts to a lack o f
p ro p e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f p sy ch o lo g y a n d p sy ch o lo g ical b e h a v io r. F u rth e r­
m o re, it is p la in th a t th e p o lem ic is s y m p to m a tic o f fa u lty k n o w led g e
c o n c e rn in g th e facts o f w o rsh ip , p o e tic d e sc rip tio n s o f ev en ts in general life,
m ix ed w ith im p ro p e r p o s tu la tio n c o n c e rn in g religion as a fo rm o f h u m a n
b eh a v io r. M a n y in stan ces o f sim p le ritu a l a re ca te g o rize d as religion. N o w
it is p erm issib le w ithin lim its to classify c e rta in k in d s o f b e h a v io r as
religious, th o u g h th ey d o n o t seem to be o f th e calib er o f activities w hich
•Geertz, C., "Religion as a Cultural System," in Anthropological Approaches to the Study o f
Religion (M. Banton. ed.). New York, Praeger, 1966, p. 4.
9 C f . C h a p t e r 2 , p . 16.

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sp a w n m y sterio u s in v e n tio n s o f sp iritistic entities, a n d th e p erfo rm a:

m iracles o f all so rts. A cts o f m ere c o m p lia n c e w ith estab lish ed trad itii
n o t essentially religious.

RELIGION AND SCIENCE

A n a lm o s t in ev itab le c irc u m sta n c e it is th a t religious w riters sh o t
a w a re o f th e g reat d e v e lo p m e n t o f science a n d o f its em p h asis u p o n ki
ed g e b ase d o n gen eral c o n f ro n ta tio n w ith th in g s an d th e investigati
su ch things. It is a lso to be ex p e cted th a t religious w riters sh ould b e ;
th a t th e n a tu ra listic a ttitu d e o f science m ay a p p e a r to be in conflict wi
d o c trin e s a n d d o g m a s o f religion. A m o n g religionists w h o tak e a n in
in the g re a t strid es o f scien ce so m e ta k e th e a ttitu d e o f a tte m p tin g t-
so m e h a rm o n y b etw een relig io n a n d science. O th e r religionists sim pl;
th e h ig h -h an d e d view th a t relig io n sta n d s fa r a n d aw ay ab o v e scienc
c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n . A fa v o rite s ta te m e n t o f w riters o n religion is
religion a n d even c e rta in ty p es o f religion are so elevated as to be g
s u p e rio r to science. T h ey claim th a t religion is an e n terp rise fc
a sc e rta in m e n t o f a b so lu te tru th , w hile science o p erates in local aren a
deals w ith p a rtic u la r p ro b lem s.
R elig io n ists w h o e n te rta in a fa v o ra b le n o tio n o f science assum i
k n o w le d g e is o f tw o b asic k inds. T h ey b o th co m p e te f o r th e increi
k n o w led g e, bjut o f c o u rse th e relig io u s ty p e o f k n o w led g e is to
in tim ac y w ith a n o th e r w o rld , o n e w h ich as W h iteh e ad say s “s
b ey o n d , b e h in d , th e p assin g flux o f im m e d ia te things. W h a t re lig io n '
to k n o w a b o u t is th e real w h ic h is w a itin g to be realized. S o m e th in g \
is th e u ltim a te ideal a n d th e hopeless q u est.”10
•J- T h e religious a rg u m e n t is o f co u rse b ased o n a sh ad o w y view th;
w ritin g s o f b o th science a n d relig io n a re c o n stru c tio n s. T h e difle
h o w e v er is ex tre m ely g re a t, fo r as we h ave in d icated so often , th e con*
tio n s o f science a re d e sc rip tio n s a n d e x p la n a tio n s o f o b serv ab le th in g
ev en ts w hile th e religious c o n s tru c tio n s a re autistic, called o u t b
general h u m a n circ u m sta n c e s o f helplessness, evils, disease, a n d
difficulties. T h e N irv a n a o f th e H in d u s “suggests th a t it is po ssib le
w o rld o r a c o n d itio n to ex ist w h ich n eu tralizes all the difficulties o f pe<
T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f p ra y e r w h ich is so c o n sp ic u o u s a featu re o f i
relig io n s in d icates b e h a v io r w h ich is alien to h u m a n activ ity in ge
b ecau se th ere is n o in te ra c tio n w ith a n y subject fo r d ialo g .^ F o r th e

"• Cf above, p. 279.

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p a rt th e c o n te n ts o f p r a y e r a re sim p ly w ishes o r h o p es fo r ch an g es in
in to le rab le s itu a tio n s .!
S cien tists in th e ir c a p acity a s in v e stig a to rs o f things an d events o cc u rrin g
in th e im m e d ia te tim e -sp ac e situ a tio n s o b ject to the religious ty p e o f
k n o w led g e a n d th e effo rts to ju stify th e b elief o n th e g ro u n d s th a t th e belief
an d fa ith in tra n s c e n d e n t c o n stru c tio n in terfe re w ith th e p ro p e r a d ju st­
m en ts o f h u m a n beings to th e a c tu a l am b ia n c e, including p erso n s a n d
v a rio u s th in g s o c c u rrin g in n atu re . E v id en ces fo r th e views o f scientists can
c o n s ta n tly b e m u ste re d b y su ch cases a s th e c u ltists refusing to m a k e use o f
m edical k n o w led g e a n d skills in o rd e r to c u re obv io u sly lethal diseases.
T h e g re a t p re v alen ce o f relig io u s in s titu tio n s based a s th e y are o n the
re ta rd e d s ta te o f all h u m a n p o p u la tio n s, reveals itself in m yths, su p ersen su -
ou s realm s, a n d so o n . B ut o f c o u rse th e re a re in d iv id u al differences so
th e re e x ists a ra n g e o f p h ilo so p h ie s a m o n g in d iv id u als. In so m e th e re are
, signs o f m a tu rity , o f a n a tta c h m e n t to m aterialistic influences.
A t th e basis o f su ch view s is th e p h e n o m e n o n o f fa ith w hich sid estep s the
facts a n d c o n d itio n s o f specific c o n ta c ts w ith th in g s a n d ev en ts w h ich
a c tu a lly are th e e n v iro n m e n ts o f p erso n s. It m ay be a d d e d h ere th a t th e
o b v io u s th in g th a t o p e ra te s is th e efficiency o f in d iv id u a ls to fo rm u la te
m e ta p h o rs a n d legends w h ich in m a n y ca ses g o d irectly c o u n te r to th e
events w ith w h ich they a c tu a lly are in co n ta c t.
a. Science and Supernaturalism. R elig io u s lite ra tu re w h ic h is basically
th eo lo g ical is replete w ith illu m in atin g case histories w h ich reveal the
m o o d s a n d th e m o tiv es o f believers w h e th e r w ith little o r m u c h k n o w led g e
o f science.
- t ' A n ex c ellen t e x a m p le is R u s t11 a fo rm e r s tu d e n t o f science b u t w h o
shifted o v er to th e B ap tist m in istry a n d religious teaching. T h o u g h a
fo rm e r s tu d e n t o f science, he u n d e rv a lu e s scientific w o rk a n d co n clu d es,
b ecau se it is lim ited to th in g s a n d events o f the n a tu ra l w o rld , th a t it is
it1' th ere fo re in co m p lete. H e seeks, as is ch a ra c te ristic o f religious th in k ers,
y/ so m e th in g b e y o n d science. A s it is o u r in te n tio n to m ak e use o f this w rite r
i:'-" as o n ly a n ex a m p le , w e reg ard his view s w hich ac tu a lly a re re p eated in
m a n y o th e r w rite rs, as c o m m o n a n d g en e ralized . All su ch w riters w h o
sta n d firm ly o n sp iritistic g ro u n d "a p p e a r to a c c ep t th e fa ctitio u s rule th a t if
th ere is so m e th in g la ck in g in scientific w o rk it is p ro o f o r p ro b a b ility th a t
th e sp iritistic p o in t o f view is co rrect.

11Rust, E. C., Science and Faith: Towards a Theological Understanding o f Sature. New York,
Oxford Univ. Press, 1967.

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O n e o f th e m o st effective s u p p o rts fo r so m e o n e w ith a p a rtia l scici

b a c k g ro u n d is to p a ra d e th e n a m e s o f th e g re a t scientists, m a n y o f t
phy sicists, w h o h av e b een c o m p e te n t in th eir scientific w o rk b u t w h o a
sa m e tim e insisted u p o n th e value a n d th e perfection o f th e sp iritu al lift
n a m e so m e o f th e p erso n alities in th is ca te g o ry is to m e n tio n M illi
C o m p to n , A. H .; W h itta k e r; a n d m a n y m o re . T h e fallacy o f th is rt
e v id en t a n d fro m a scientific s ta n d p o in t m erely em p h asiz es th e ia c tih ;
p e r s o n s a r e m u ltip le in th e ir p r a c tic a l c a p a c itic s _ a n ( L lh e ir _ t
philo so p h ies.

COMPARATIVE PHILOSOPHIES OF RELIGION

A ssu m in g th a t we h av e iso lated th e p rim a ry events c o n so lid a te d u
th e ca te g o ry o f religion, we a re re a d y to select fo r e x a m in a tio n th e esse
fe a tu re o f th is co m p lex h u m a n p h e n o m e n o n .
A fa ir e v a lu a tio n o f th e essence o f religion is th a t it is a com]
co m p re h e n siv e s tru c tu re erected fo r th e aid a n d c o m fo rt o f p eo p le wh-
facile in in v en tin g m ean s fo r e sc a p in g fro m th e in to le ra b le e x ig e n c i
h u m a n living.
D issatisfac tio n w ith co n d itio n s as th ey are stim u lates th e co n stru ctii
!^ a b e tte r w o rld se p a ra te fro m a c tu a l p re sen t circu m stan ces. O f coui
m u st be h ereafter, in a tim e to co m e , a n d in a w orld different fron
p re sen t o n e. O n ly so m e u to p ia s a re c o n stru c te d w ith m ateria ls o:
p re se n t w o rld . T h o se a re th e m o ra l re lig ions b ased u p o n th e c o n v e rsit
m a n k in d to c re a tu re s c a p a b le o f m u tu a lly a d v a n ta g e o u s a d ju stm
P e rh a p s m o st o f th e sy stem s b u ilt a re fash io n ed fro m im m aterial
sta n c e s su ch as m in d , co n sc io u sn e ss, th e psyche. T h e p ro d u c ts a re j
an g els, d e m o n s, g a rd e n s o f E d en , g a rd e n s o f bliss, hells, an d o th e r ■
tio n s.(S cien tific psy ch o lo g y c a n specify th e process. It is basicallj
am p lific a tio n o f th e lin g u istic c a p a c ity o f m a n k in d . By m ean s o f sy n
a n d lan g u ag e, stories c a n be m ad e b eg in n in g w ith m e ta p h o rs, a n a lo
a n d s u p e r s titio n s .^
A s a p h e n o m e n o n m c u ltu ra l e v o lu tio n , th e fan tastic features o f reli
re p resen t a d ecided q u irk in c u ltu ra l ev o lu tio n . A s c o m p ared w ith ex]
sive an d e x p e rt te ch n o lo g ica l a d v a n c e s, th e religious life o f h o m o sapie
a h u g e re ta rd a tio n . It is as if th e re w as a p la te a u in civ ilizational deve
m en t. E ven if o th e r ph ases o f c u ltu re sh o w lack o f progressive ch an g es
c o u ld n o t c o m p a re w ith th e re lig io u s p h ases in utility a n d u tte r significa
■ T h e m o st serio u s criticism o f th e o th e r w orldly an d v erb ally c o n s tru
| religion is its in terferen ce a n d in h ib itio n o f th e e v o lu tio n o f n a tu ra l

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in stitu tio n s. O rg a n iz a tio n s o f h u m a n in d iv id u a ls o f every s o rt w ith m any

e la b o ra te in stitu tio n s o f th e political, ec o n o m ic , a n d aesth etic types are
su p e rio r an d b e tte r a d a p ta tio n s o f h u m a n beings to o th e r p erso n s, and
e n v iro n in g circ u m sta n ces. T h e sam e m a y b e said o f th e in terre latio n s o f
co m m u n itie s w ith respect to ec o n o m ic a n d social circu m stan ces. Sufficient
evidences a re av ailab le in c u rre n t sa tisfa c to ry , a c tu a l, a n d p o ten tial c o o p ­
erative w o rk s a n d in stitu tio n s to e n c o u ra g e confidence in peaceful and
effective in terre latio n s betw een n a tio n s, sta te s, a n d o th e r g ro u p s o f people.

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGIES OF RELIGION

B ecause w riters o n psy ch o lo g y o f relig ion all a re ensconced in the
du alistic ty pe o f p h i l o s o p h y an d p sy ch o lo g y , th ey place great em phasis on
w h a t th e y re g ard as p sy ch o lo g ical a sp e c ts o f religion. A n ex trem ely good
e x a m p le is th a t o f W illiam Ja m e s th e e m in e n t A m eric an psych o lo g ist w ho
w ro te th e fa m o u s b o o k en title d , The Varieties of Religious Experience. H is
en tire series o f lectures su m m arizes v a rio u s n o tio n s o f a b n o rm a l b eh av io r
o n th e p a rt o f v ario u s individuals. A s is well k n o w n , Ja m e s w as quite
sy m p a th e tic w ith th e w o rk o f in v estig ato rs o f psychic research a n d in
g en eral he w as deeply in terested in th e im p ro v e m e n t o f psychology o n the
b asis o f c o n n e c tin g th e m in d o r self w ith th e o rg an ism . In his e x p o sitio n he
cites n u m e ro u s cases o f u n u su al ex p erien ce by p erso n s w h o w ere intensely
affected by tran c es o f v ario u s so rts w hich led to th e c o n stru c tio n o f the
R eality o f th e U nseen. A m o n g th e lectures he delivered in the series called
th e G ifford lectures o n n a tu ra l religion he m e n tio n s besides the religion o f
, h ea lth y m in d ed n ess th e p ec u lia r ex p erien ces o f the sick soul, th e divided
\ self, a n d religious co n v ersio n . A n o th e r set o f favorite topics are saintliness
a n d m ysticism .
W h a t is p ro m in e n t in J a m e s’ ex p o sitio n , a n d in m o st o th e r w riters o n the
subject o f th e psy ch o lo g y o f religion, is th e ab sen ce o f the ac tu a l fields in
w h ich th e religious experiences o ccu rred . O n e c a n n o t g leam fro m his
w ritings a n y th in g a b o u t th e re a c tio n a l h istories o f the p erso n s th a t he
w rites ab o u t. F o r e x a m p le , th e q u e stio n arises w h e th e r ind iv id u als w h o are
no t im b u ed w ith n o tio n s o f s u p e rh u m a n a n d su p e rn a tu ra l circum stances
w o u ld p a rtic ip a te in tran c es a n d in th e feelings o f p erso n ality division
w hich fo rm th e basis o f th e v ario u s religious experiences.
It is a d istin c t failin g o n th e p a r t o f w riters in p sy ch o lo g y a n d religion to
lim it th e psychological asp ects to in d iv id u al ab n o rm alities. W hile unusual
re a c tio n s even to tran c es d o c o n s titu te fe atu res o f religious perform ances,
th ey d o n o t e x c lu d e m a n y o th e r s o rts o f p sy ch o lo g ical experience. W h a t is

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m issing in general a re an aly ses o f p erso n s an d th eir b eh a v io r v

includes o th e r fo rm s o f p sy ch o lo g ical events.
O n th e w hole, w riters o n th e p sy ch o lo g ica l aspects o f religious e
rience re m a in in th e circle o f c o n v e n tio n a l m in d . F re q u e n tly th e y ref
F re u d a n d J u n g , p e rso n s w h o w ere n o t basically psychologists b u t r«
psych o lo g ical laym en . C e rta in ly th e ir c o n ta c ts w ith p atien ts were
peo p le w h o w ere e x tre m e in th e ir psychological b e h a v io r b u t th ey opei
o n the basis o f m en talistic p rin cip les w hich d id n o t very closely ide
w ith psychological processes.
’ P sychology, useful fo r th e a p p re c ia tio n o f th e n a tu re o f religion, sh
j b e based o n th e n a tu ra lis tic in te rb e h a v io r o f p erso n s w ith d istin
| re a c tio n a l histories. W h e n it is a sk e d h o w it is possible fo r sophistic
peo p le, so m etim es p e rso n s w ith effective know ledge o f scientific m attei
• m a in ta in a n d a rg u e fo r th e m o s t a b s tru s e a n d so m etim es im p o s
sp iritistic n o tio n s, th e a n sw e r is th a t they h av e cu ltiv ated spiritisti
religious a ttitu d e s in th e w ay, a s w e h av e p o in te d o u t before, th e y a
1 h ab its o f speech w h ich b e lo n g to c e rta in u n iq u e groups.
" J u s t as in d iv id u a ls g ro w in g u p in p a rtic u la r local g ro u p s sp e a k a cei
lan g u a g e a s th o u g h th ey w ere to ta lly u n fa m ilia r w ith a n y o th e r dialec
in d iv id u a ls g ro w in g u p a n d b e in g su b jected to v ario u s rites c a n n o t es
th in k in g a n d in g e n e ra l b e in g c u ltu re d in p a rtic u la r sects. A t th is p o in
in tere stin g to n o te h o w p e rso n s b ro u g h t u p as p a rtic u la r religious se
ian s d elib erately c h o o se , w h e n th e y a r e p a re n ts, to have th e ir chil
assu m e th e sam e p a tte rn o f th in k in g a n d o th e r types o f actio n . It is this
o f s itu a tio n th a t is re sp o n sib le f o r th e n u m e ro u s sch o o ls a n d coll
b ea rin g th e m a rk s o f c e rta in re lig io u s sects, to w hich p a re n ts c a n send ■
ch ild ren to be in d o c trin a te d as th ey them selves w ere form erly.
T h e p sy ch o lo g ical f o r m u la tio n o f tra its in g eneral, a n d religious trai
p a rtic u la r, escalates in to th e g re a t relig io u s w ars in h istory. T o h av
in te rb e h a v ip ra l h isto ry lim ited to c e rta in c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s a n d cc
tio n s resu lts in tre m e n d o u s differences b etw e en g ro u p s so th a t th e var
m e m b e rs o f th e group's c a n n o t a p p re c ia te th e v alu e o r th e sim ilarit
o th e r g ro u p s. A c co rd in g ly , th e y will b e w illing to a n n ih ila te th e m em
o f o th e r sects a n d them selves d ie fo r th e tru e a n d reliable beliefs.
A n atu ra listic view o f p sy ch o lo g y c a n n o t b u t p o in t o u t th e peculiar v
o f th o se w h o w rite o n th e su b ject o f religion. A n o u tsta n d in g ch a ra c te i
o f su ch w ritin g is th e irre sp o n sib le w a y in w h ich c o n tra d ic tio n s a re s t
a n d in g e n e ra l h o w fa r th e w rite rs m o v e aw ay fro m th e estab lish ed ir
m a tio n a b o u t psychological processes. F o r a fine sam ple o f c o n tra d ic t

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c o n s id e r th e w ritings o f H egel, o n e o f th e g re a t sources o f religious

attitu d e s.
. . . We cannot know God as object, or get a real knowledge of Him, and the main thing,
what we are really concerned about, is merely the subjective manner of knowing Him and
our subjective religious condition.15

B ut in a n o th e r place in th e sam e series o f lectures he says:

. . . The aim of philosophy is to know the truth, to know God. for He is the absolute truth,
inasmuch as nothing else is worth troubling about save God and the unfolding of God's
nature. Philosophy knows God as essentially concrete, as spiritual,. . , 1J

It is q u ite a p p a re n t th a t w riters o n religion assu m e g re at liberties in

d e a lin g w ith p sy ch o lo g ical p rocesses o f k n o w led g e, a rg u m e n ts w here faith
an d b elief a re c o n c ern e d . A lth o u g h th eo lo g ian s h av e to say th a t G o d as the
su b ject o f th e ir stu d ies c a n n o t be k n o w n a n d so th ey m u st assu m e a ty p e o f
negativ e th eo lo g y , still a ttrib u te n am es a n d c h a ra c te riz a tio n s to w h atev er
god th e y like to describe; fo r e x a m p le th ey sp e a k o f F irst C au se, Infinitely
W ise, Infinitely G o o d , C re a to r E x n ih ilo , E tern al P u rp o se. T h ey assert,
then, th a t they a re n o t u tte rin g linguistic c o n tra d ic tio n s an d puzzles
because “T h eo lo g y is a fte r all o u r w ay o f talk in g a b o u t G o d .14
A n ex a m p le o f th e freed o m s a ssu m e d by th eo lo g ian s co n cern s th eir
m o d e o f a rg u m e n t. F o r e x a m p le W aters d eclares th a t.
To say that man is made in the image of God is to affirm that it belongs to man's nature to
know God and enter into personal relation with Him.15

DOMINANCE OF SPIRITISTIC CULTURE

H o w so e v e r e m in e n t a p e rso n m ay be in som e practical field o f e n d e av o r
o r in scientific stu d e n tsh ip , he m ay a t the sam e tim e be b linded to the ac tu a l
c o n d itio n s p e rta in in g to religion a n d science. It is o f th e g reatest im p o r­
tan ce to u n d e rsta n d th a t sp iritism is a c h a ra c te ristic o f cu ltu re o r civiliza­
tion th a t exercises a tre m e n d o u s influence u p o n th e th in k in g a n d p ractice
o f individuals. T o q u o te e m in en t scientists w h o h av e been e x p o n e n ts o f
sp iritistic th o u g h t, it is essen tial to a p p re c ia te th a t en tire cu ltu re s an d
civilizations ca n be co m p letely im p reg n a te d w ith spiritistic notions. Scien­
tists m ay be a b le to ex ercise th e ir fu n c tio n s well in th e ir p a rtic u la r scientific
Hegel. G. W. F.. Lectures on the Philosophy o f Religion together with a Work on the Proofs o f
the Existence o f God {E. B. Spcirs, and J. B. Sanderson, trs.), vol. 2, London. Routledgeand Kegan
Paul. 1974. p. 331.
11Hegel, Ibid., vol. 3. p. 148.
14Ramsey, I. T., Religious language, quoted by Waters. F. W. in The Way in and the Way Out:
Science and Religion Reconciled. Toronto, Oxford Univ. Press. 1967, p. 239.
'’ Waters, Ibid., p. 227.

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stu d ies, b u t they still u n w ittin g ly d isp lay th e effects o f a spiritistic sys
w h ich d o m in a te s th e lives o f m a n y p erso n s in a n y co m m u n ity . A signifu
illu s tra tio n o f this s o rt o f c irc u m sta n c e is in d icated by a s c h o la r w h o w
p h y sician a n d ex p e rim e n ta l scientist in p sychology w h o in evitably fi
th a t ex p e rim en ts sh o w th e existence o f individual souls o r psyches.16
In c id e n tal to th e su b ject o f science a n d religion is th e view p o in t
w h ile h u m a n beings a re p h y sio lo g ic al a n d a n a to m ic a l m ach in es, they
e n d o w e d w ith sp iritistic p ro p e rtie s. T h is view c a n o f c o u rse be tra c e d b
to theological origins.
W h a t m ay seem a g re a t p a r a d o x is th a t a p erso n w ith consider!
a q u a in ta n c e w ith scientific issues s h o u ld still e n te rta in a religion basec
d o ctrin e s o f In c a rn a tio n a n d R e su rrectio n . T h e p a ra d o x is resolved w
w e co n sid er th e p o w e r o f c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s o n th e beliefs a n d th in k in
in d iv id u a ls w h o a c cep t su ch beliefs a s a re c o n tra ry to every observat
^ a n d every ex p erien ce o f p e o p le a n d m u st be lo o k ed u p o n as ac ts o r tr
i w h ich a re a c q u ired in early life, so th a t a n in d iv id u al believes su ch im pc
*■ V ^ bilities as events ju s t as he b ec o m e s in v aria b ly a sp ea k er o f a p a rtio
' dialect c u rre n t in his h o m e a n d c o m m u n ity .
a. God: Creator or Creation. S cien tists a n d laym en alike appea:
assu m e th a t G o d is th e c re a to r o f th e w o rld a n d th e m aster o f all th e pov
i assigned to h im by w ritte n o r sp o k e n d o g m as. T h ro u g h o u t th e h isto r
w estern religion in n u m e ra b le a tte m p ts have been m a d e to specify
n a tu re a n d fu n c tio n s o f G o d in clu d in g his p o w ers o f creatio n , b u t op
' n en ts co n c e n tra te d in a g ro u p fa v o rin g n eg ative th eo lo g y h av e w a rn ed i
hi th is is a n im p o ssib le th in g th a t n o ca te g o ry , n o d escrip tio n , n o in te rp r
in tio n is possible. T h e re seem s to be la ck in g th e re a ljz a tio n jh a t th e e r
G o d c o m plex is a c o n s tru c tio n by in d iv id u als in th e in terests o f so m e
* o f im m u n ity fro m difficult a n d su p p re ssin g co n d itio n s. T h e re is 1
a p p re c ia tio n o f th e fa c t th a t all g o d o r sp iritistic religion is b ased u;
hi cf n o th in g m o re th a n th e ca p a c ity to u se w o rd s o r sy m b o ls to m ak e
m e ta p h o rs a n d c o m p lete d o ctrin e s. V a rio u s w riters h av e p o in ted o u t
a n o m a ly o f m a k in g G o d in to a m ale, a c o n d itio n w hich m ay be m o d i
w h e n w o m en achieve g re a te r re c o g n itio n in th e v ario u s co m m u n ities.
A n in terestin g side light o n th e p ro b le m o f G o d as c re a to r o r creatic
to be fo u n d in th e w idely p re v alen t n o tio n th a t if th ere is n o p ro o f o f
existence o f G o d , th e re is a t th e sam e tim e n o p ro o f o f th e n o n ex isten c
su ch a being. T h is rid d le flies in th e face o f th e fact th a t h ard ly a n y tl
re la tin g to e v o lu tio n a n d a n th ro p o lo g y is m o re definitely estab lish ed t
14Moore, T. V., Cognitive Psychology, Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1939.

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th e k n o w le d g e o f th e origin o f g o d s a n d th e ir c o n stru c tio n by fa ith an d

asse rtio n . E ven a n im perfect u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h isto ry is well c o n fro n ted by
th e c o n d itio n s in w hich n o tio n s o f g o d s a re d ev elo p ed a n d th e legends
d istrib u te d w ith respect to g o d s o f d ifferent centers o f civilizational
d ev elo p m en t.
W h e n H a m le t said ‘d o u b t tru th to be a liar,’ he m ust have assu m ed th a t
n o th in g w as as sta b le a n d in v a ria b le as th e tru th . H o w ev er, w h en we
c o n s id e r th in g s a n d events in a n a tu ra listic w ay, w e see h o w tru th s ca n be so
p erv e rte d as to be l i e s j n . t h e co n te x t, o f science a n d religion, it is highly
in fo rm a tiv e to ob serv e h o w m u ch e stab lish ed kno w led g e o f ev en ts is
\ re fe rre d to in satisfac to ry s ta te m e n ts c o n c e rn in g h u m a n beings, th e ir
.a n a to m ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n a n d p h y sio lo g ical fu nctions. M o re o v er, th e tru th
m a y be fold a b o u t th e ad ju stm e n t o f o rg a n is m s to th e ir en v iro n in g circ u m ­
stan ces, b u t all this is u sually in te rp re te d to in d icate th a t o rg an ism s are
in ev itab ly ch a rac te rized by in n a te o r in tu itiv e p o w ers to believe a n d to act
as th o u g h spiritism w as a n ex isten tial a n d o b jective entity.

/ RELIG IO N A N D VALUES

It is a c o m m o n practice to asso ciate v alu es w ith religion. A long h istori­

cal tra d itio n h as it th a t religion is c o n c e rn e d w ith th e highest valu es o f
in d iv id u a ls a n d societies. T h e earliest re c o rd s o f religious th in k in g an d
in stitu tio n s sh o w th a t th e religious life a n d th o u g h t w hich deal w ith th e
tra n s c e n d e n ta l a re p re s u m ed to_be g re atly s u p e rio r to th in g s o f th e ac tu a l
w o rld ly situ a tio n . G re a t sto re has been laid o n th e irra tio n a l, th e u n k n o w n ,
a n d th e u n k n o w a b le . Scientific p h ilo so p h y in n o w ay sh ares any o f these
ideas. W h en values a re ex a m in e d it alw ays tu rn s o u t th a t th ey co n c ern th e
co n c re te b e h a v io r o f in d iv id u als in p a rtic u la r g ro u p s. In th e fo llow ing
sectio n s th e value p ro b lem is co n sid ered in an em pirical m an n er.
a. Values and the Valuable. T h e v alu e p ro b lem m ay be effectively
tre a te d in tw o different ways. In th e p re se n t case th in g s o f v alu e a re o f
p rim a ry interest. All so rts o f o b jects are localized o n th e scale ra n g in g fro m
th e least to th e m o st v alu ab le . S pecific e x a m p le s m ay be m e n tio n ed in
w h ich th e m o st v alu ab le fe atu re is localized in th e p a rtic u la r objects,
d ia m o n d s , c e rta in sto ck s o r b o n d s, relics, m etals, a n d m an y o th e r k in d s o f
thin g s th a t a re desired, collected, a n d conserved.
H ig h values a n d low valu es a re placed o n th e activities o r b eh a v io r o f
p erso n s a n d g ro u p s, fo r e x a m p le th e w o rk o f p eo p le m ay be g ra d e d as low
o r o f high value. P ro fe ssio n a l b e h a v io r is re g ard e d co m m o n ly as o f a
hig h er value th a n m echanical skills.

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A special crite rio n fo r o b jects o f v alu e is allo ted to th em on th e basis o f

th e ir fittingness fo r c e rta in p u rp o se s. T o o ls a n d a p p a ra tu s m ay be very
highly ev a lu a ted fo r p ro fessio n al o r scientific w ork.
b. Values and Evaluation. A d istin c tiv e d e p a rtm e n t o f valu es is th a t
w h ich stresses th e activity o f e v a lu a tin g o r assay in g things, b e h a v io r, a n d
events. In m a n y cases th e e v a lu a tio n p h a se o f values a p p e a rs closer to th e
activities o f p erso n s a n d th e re fo re p h ilo so p h ic ally m ay be called m o re
em p irica l th a n is th e case w ith m a n y th in g s re g ard e d as valuable. T h e p o in t
is th a t it is easier to o b serv e v alu es in a fu n c tio n a l sense. H ere values c a n be
trac e d to desires, tastes, a n d o th e r fo rm s o f b e h a v io r w hich ca n be a ttrib ­
uted to th e learn in g o r e d u c a tio n a l h isto ry o f th e individuals co n cern ed . ■
c. Values, Absolutes, and Empirical. A very in teresting p h ase o f valu e
stu d y fo rm s th e w ay to d iffe re n tia te b etw e en values th a t a re re g ard e d as
in n a te o r in h e re n t in th in g s as o v e r ag a in st valu es th a t are seen to be allo ted
by p erso n s in specific situ a tio n s. R elig io u s valu es a re m o re o fte n th a n n o t
envisaged as ab so lu te a n d u n iv ersal. T h is is tru e prim arily because religious
values b elo n g m o stly to in stitu tio n s d ev e lo p e d in p a s t ages w h ereas relativ ­
istic valu es a re seen to be d ev e lo p e d in p a rtic u la r situ atio n s o n th e basis o f
directly observed circum stances.
A m o s t in tere stin g p h a s e o f v a lu e s is th a t m e n tio n e d a b o v e in w h ich th e
g re ate st su p e rstitio n is labelled as th e m o s t ideal v alue in th e p e rso n ’s
experience. A m o n g th e b e tte r e x a m p le s h e re a re th e beliefs th a t go c o u n te r
to scientific o b serv atio n , su c h as w e h av e in d ic a ted a b o v e in th e a ttitu d e s o f
T e rtu llia n w h o ex claim ed th a t th in g s a n d ev en ts th a t are im p o ssib le an d
even silly are fe atu res o f th e h ig h est id eals w h ich c a n serve as g uidelines fo r
th e m o st cherished b e h a v io r a n d situ atio n s.
d. Religious Values and Scientific Values. It is q u ite a p p a re n t th a t
w riters o n religious values a re in flu en ced b y u n iv ersalistic principles a n d by
nonscientific psychology. H e n ce th e e la b o ra te a rg u m e n ts a n d m isin terp re­
ta tio n o f values, v alu atio n s, a n d th e critical analysis o f value situ atio n s.
By c o n tra s t a scientific tre a tm e n t o f v alu es d ispenses entirely w ith u n i­
versals a n d tre a ts th e p ro b le m s o f v alu es o n th e co m p lete basis o f o b serv a­
tio n s o f value situ a tio n s th a t a re c o n s ta n tly a t h a n d . A scientific tre a tm e n t
o f valu es ta k e s in to a c c o u n t th e c o m m e rc ia l values w hich m erc h an ts offer
to in d u ce sales, values o f th in g s a n d e v e n ts u sab le fo r p a rtic u la r p u rp o se s as
well as in te rp re ta tio n s o f tra n sc e n d e n ta l v alu es as co n stru c tio n s o f ph ilo ­
so p h ical th in k in g .

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R ELIG IO N A N D M O R A LS

A n ex ceed in g ly a m b ig u o u s re la tio n sh ip is th a t w hich co n n ects religion

a n d m o rals. In th e first place, n a tu ra listic religions a re reg ard ed as lacking
n o tio n s o f gods, angels, a n d spirits o f v ario u s so rts, as ov er ag ain st religious
in stitu tio n s w hich em p h asiz e sp irits, c re a to rs, an d d em o n s. O n th e o th e r
h an d , ra tio n a l religions a re held to in clu d e only eth ica l prin cip les a n d
ethical b e h a v io r. T h e relig io n called B u d d h ism for e x a m p le is c o u n te d as
free fro m deities o r spirits, a lth o u g h th e view also prev ails th a t th e tra n ­
scen d en t p rin cip les a re sim p ly su p p re sse d a n d n o t m en tio n ed , b u t n o t
elim inated.
A n im p o rta n t ex a m p le o f this p ro c e d u re to av oid su p e rn a tu ra l a n d su p er-
sen su o u s asse rtio n s is th a t o f P ro fe ss o r B raith w aite w h o c o m b in es m o r­
alistic religion w ith linguistic analysis. H e accep ts th a t th e p rim a ry q u estio n
co n c e rn in g relig io u s b elief is n o t w h e th e r a religious sta te m e n t as th a t a
p erso n al g o d created th e w o rld is tru e o r false, b u t h o w it co u ld be k n o w n
to be tru e o r false.17
B raith w aite th e n sets u p th re e c lea r classes o f tru th -tellin g statem en ts as
follows.
1) Statements a b o u t p a rtic u la r m a tte rs o f fact
2) Scientific hypotheses a n d o th e r gen eral em pirical statem en ts
3) Logically necessary statements o f logic a n d m ath e m a tic s a n d
co n tra d ic tio n s
H e th e n asserts th a t religious state m e n ts, as th ey are n o rm ally used, have
n o place in th is tric h o to m y . B ut he d o es n o t re tre a t fro m religious beliefs.
H e finds a w ay to m ak e th e m v erifiab le b y su b su m in g verification to a
prin cip le o f use, so th a t relig io u s s ta te m e n ts b eco m e em piristic. H is a rg u ­
m en t is th a t th e m e a n in g o f a s ta te m e n t is h o w it is used. M o ra l beliefs an d
a sse rtio n s in d ic a te a n in te n tio n to b e h a v e in a ce rta in w ay. M o ra l asser­
tio n s th e n re fer to a ttitu d e s o f th e in d iv id u a l a n d n o t to e x te rn a l acts o f
right o r w ro n g . R eligious sta te m e n ts th e n a re to be replaced by m o ral
1 statem en ts. S o religious beliefs a re sav ed by logical pro ced u res.
A n in te re stin g item in th e c o n te x t o f relig io n a n d m o ra ls stem s fro m th e
p h ilo so p h e r’s desire to escape fro m the su p e rn a tu ra lism s o f co n v en tio n al
religio n . A ca se in p o in t is D ew ey w h o a t th e ag e o f 75 p u b lish ed a b o o k
11Braithwaite, R. B„ An Empiricist's t'iew o f the Nature o f Religious Belief, Cambridge, Cam­
bridge Univ. Press, 1955, p. 3.

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en title d , A Common Faith™. In th a t w o rk D ew ey asserts th a t he w o u ld us

th e w o rd “g o d ” as a n active re la tio n b etw een th e ideal an d a c tu a l. A
b o tto m th e religion of Dewey stresses valu es a n d m orals. By a d istin ctio
h e m a k e s b etw een religion (n o u n ) a n d th e religious (adjective) he believe
th a t he co u ld d isp en se w ith a ll s u p e rn a tu ra lis m a n d still re ta in th e pr<
fo u n d c o m m o n ex p erien ce “t h a t lend d eep a n d e n d u rin g su p p o rt to tl
pro cesses o f living.” 19 B ut th e q u e stio n arises w h e th e r th e science ■
p sy ch o lo g y c a n in te rp re t th is faith as a long range a tta c h m e n t to tl
d o g m a s o f th e great past.
A critic o f D ew ey's p h ilo so p h y o f religion, R o m a n e ll,20 assu m es tl
p o p u la r view th a t religion is in se p a ra b le fro m o th e r-w o rld ly d o c trin e s at
beliefs, th a t “ m a n d o e s n o t n ee d relig io n to be g o o d , he needs it to
h o ly .” 21 A gain he says we sh o u ld g o to religion fo r th e teach in g s a b o
d estin y .22

R ELIG IO N A N D PO LITICS

U n d e r th is title we c o n s id e r th e h ighly o rg a n ized religious in stitu tic

th a t ex ist a n d o p e ra te a lo n g w ith th e ec o n o m ic , social, a n d m ilitary entit
o f n a tio n a l, eth n ic a n d o th e r g ro u p s. E x a m p le s are n u m e ro u s a m o n g t
religious system s, th e Islam ic religion o f v ario u s M iddle E ast states, i
C h ristia n religion o f E u ro p e a n d th e W estern hem isphere, S h in to is
H in d u ism , a n d T a o ism o f th e F a r E ast.
P o litical religions th o u g h th ey a re b ased like all o th e r religions on
b e h a v io r o f individuals, fu n c tio n in q u ite a different w ay. T h ey cm phas
th e political significance o f v a rio u s c o m m u n itie s th o u g h th ey m ay diffe
th e ir lan g u ag es, a rts , g e n e ra l social o rg a n iz a tio n , a n d so o n . N a tu ra lly ,
tra n sc e n d e n ta l a n d th e p o litical a sp e c ts o f religion c a n n o t be sep arated ,
th e re lig io n o f v a rio u s g ro u p s o p e ra te s especially in th e case o f wai
political en tities th a t serve to identify a n d in dicate th e belongingnes;
peo p les as o v er ag a in st o th e r g ro u p s th a t a re fo u g h t w ith , c o n q u e red
an n e x e d . S y m b o lic is th e re c o rd o f th e sw o rd o f Islam w hich in its
c o n q u e re d a large n u m b e r o f sta te s a n d in w h ich Islam ic relig io n still p :
a great p art.
•*Dewey. J., A Com m on Faith. New Haitn, Yale Univ. Press. 1934.
MDewey, J., Ib id . p. 15.
“ Romanell, P., “Religion from a Naturalistic Standpoint," in Religion in Philosophies
Cultural Perspectiw: A New A pproach to the Philosophy o f Religion through Cross-Discipi
Studies (J- C. Feaver and W. Horosz. eds.). Princeton. New jersey. D. Van Nostrand, 1967.
Jl Romanell, P„ Ibid., p. 63.
2 Romanell, P„ Ibid., p. 68.

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A n o th e r well k n o w n e x a m p le is th e o p e ra tio n o f E u ro p e a n n a tio n s in

th e fo rm o f C ru s a d e rs w h o w ag ed e la b o ra te w a r w ith Islam ic religionists,
in so m e cases, o n th e p re te x t o f reco v erin g th e h o ly places o f C h ristia n
origins. T h e ir b a n n e rs b o re th e m o tto In H o c S ig n o Vinces.
A sid e fro m th e in te rn a tio n a l p o litical o p e ra tio n s o f v ario u s religious
in stitu tio n s, they also p lay larg e roles w ith in p a rtic u la r g ro u p s. T h e v ario u s
sectaries influence in tra sta te co n d itio n s. In d u stria l a n d co m m ercial o rg a n i­
z a tio n s d isc rim in a te a g a in st p erso n s w h o p ro fe ss c e rta in religions sim ply
becau se th e y a re categ o rized as m em b ers o f su ch entities a lth o u g h p e rso n ­
ally th e in d iv id u a ls c o n c e rn e d d o n o t p ra c tic e th e ritu als o f su ch in stitu ­
tio n s. In Ira n th e p resen t ru lers d o n o t to le ra te th e B ahaists th o u g h th ey a re
Ira n ia n s . In th e U nited S ta te s it o n ly b e c am e p o ssib le re cen tly fo r a
C a th o lic to be elected to th e P residency.

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PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

LAWS IN P H IL O S O P H IC A L PERSPECTIV E

C o n sid e rin g th a t law s a re so u b iq u ito u s a fe atu re o f co m p lex societ

system s it is a n o m a lo u s th a t law s a re so in d e te rm in ate a to p ic in p h ilo so p
ical co n tex ts. Law s a re o f g re a t v arie ty b o th in stru ctu re a n d fu n c tio n ai
differ in stab ility a n d p ro n e n e ss to ch an g e. P ro b le m s co n c ern in g la'
p e rta in b o th to events in n a tu re a n d to events o f h u m a n b eh a v io r an d soc
re latio n s. F o r ex am p le, a re law s o f n a tu re like o r different fro m th e rules
so cial regulations? A s to law s o f n a tu re a re they aspects o f objective even
o r o n ly n am es o r te rm s im p o se d u p o n events? A g ain , a re law s sy m b o ls
m ark e rs a b o u t ac tu a l events o r sim p ly a rb itra ry projections?
H ow ever a m b ig u o u s th e p h ilo s o p h y o f law m a y be, th a t very fact po i
to th e co n so la to ry c irc u m sta n c e th a t p ro b lem s o f law cast co n sid era
light o n a n u m b e r o f g en eral p h ilo so p h ic a l issues. N o ta b ly th eclarificat:
o f th e issue o f universality a n d a b so lu ten e ss versus co n crete events, z
also the in terrelatio n s o f a u th e n tic p sy ch o lo g y w ith events o f every tyj

LAW S O F N A T U R E A N D O F SOCIETY

T o identify an d an a ly z e th e n a tu re a n d o p e ra tio n s o f law o r law s,

f essential to be alert to th e ex isten ce o f th e g ra n d division o f laws in to law
n a tu re a n d social a n d p o litica l law s. B o th types o f law s a re m e m b e r s '
class o f c o n stru c tio n s c o n c e rn in g o b serv ed events. D esp ite th e s im ila r
betw een th e tw o classes o f law s, it is a n in d u c em e n t to clarity to distingi
betw een th e m as in th e fo llo w in g schem a.

T a b l e 6. S c h e m a o f L a w C o n s t r u c t io n

Scientific Laws Societal Laws

Subject M atter Events of N ature Events of Social Interaction, Cu
Methodology Emphasis o f Events Emphasis of System (Interpreta
Durability Slow Changing Rapid Changing (local conditic
Validity Verifiable Consensus
Experiments

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VARIOUS P H IL O S O P H IE S O F LAWS

It is o n ly to b e e x p e c te d th a t defin itio n s o r in te rp re ta tio n s o f law s sh o u ld

b e different in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e differences in p h ilo so p h ical view points
o f th o se d iscu ssin g p ro b lem s o f law. T h ese differences m ay be categorized
as A b so lu tistic, R elativistic, a n d Scientific.
a. Absolutistic Laws. In d iv id u als inclined to w ard a n ab so lu tistic form
o f p h ilo so p h y h o ld to laws as a b so lu tistic a n d to a c e rta in e x ten t in d ep en d ­
en t o f th e c o n stru c tiv e activities o f p h ilo so p h ic al w o rkers. G enerally speak­
ing, th e n , su ch in te rp re ta tio n s o f law w o u ld be re m o te fro m th e actual
c o n d itio n s o f science o r g o v e rn m e n ta l co n tro l. A n excellent illu stratio n o f
th is type o f th in k in g is th a t o f M o o re (1873-1958) th e E nglish p h ilo so p h er
w h o asserted th a t th e term “g o o d ” as ap p lied to ethics is essentially im m u n e
to d efin itio n a n d analysis, g o o d is g o o d a n d th e re is n o p ro b lem o f w hy,
w hen, o r w h e re .1 In th is m a tte r p ro fe sso r M o o re re so rts to ab so lu tistic
p rin cip les so th a t his in sisten ce u p o n th e a b so lu te n e ss o f the g o o d is in line
w ith p h ilo so p h ic al views w h ich in clu d e th e im m u tab le , th e incontestable,
an d in trin sic q u alitie s o f th in g s a n d assertio n s. T h e ab so lu tistic a ttitu d e
m ay w ell be trac ed to religious sources, p e rh a p s there is here a n u n w ittin g
asso c ia tio n w ith th e w idely p rev alen t in stitu tio n o f n a tu ra l rights.
b. Relativistic Laws. R elativ istic p h ilo so p h e rs w h o d o n o t m a in ta in
n o tio n s o f a b so lu te idea, a b so lu te rules o f c o n d u c t, in terp ret law s w hether
in ethical o r o th e r situ atio n s, as relativistic. T h ey fo rm u late definitions o f
law as d e p e n d e n t u p o n p a rtic u la r c irc u m sta n ces w h e th e r stab le o r ch an g e­
able. B ut th e en tire a ttitu d e re m a in s a b s tra c t an d v erb al, a n d d o es n o t
reach d o w n to co n crete events o f everyday experience.
c. Scientific Laws. Scientific p h ilo so p h y d e p a rts radically fro m b o th o f
th e types o f th in k in g m e n tio n ed , it h o ld s th a t all laws a re co n stru c tio n s a n d
a re n o t p a r ts o f events n o r p rin cip les o f a b s o lu te in tu itio n , o r o th e r sim ilar
types o f epistem ological th in k in g . T h e p ro b lem s o f law alw ays lead to
q u e stio n s o f th e so u rces o f law s, o f th e specific s itu a tio n s in w hich rules
p articip ate.
W hile an aly zin g th e tw o fo rm e r types o f in te rp re ta tio n o f laws, one
d iscern s th e fu tility o f h o ld in g to co n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h ical view's.
M o re o v e r, it is easily seen th a t b o th view s a re based on unscientific
psych o lo g ical principles. In n e ith e r case d o e s it seem th a t th e in terp re ter
co n s tru c ts his view s a b o u t law s o n th e b asis o f th e o b serv atio n o f the m an y
situ a tio n s in w hich laws a re fo rm u la te d a n d im plem ented.
1Moore. G. E.. Principia Ethica. Cambridge. Cambridge Univ. Press. 1903.

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A. N A TU RE O F LAW S IN S C IE N T IFIC CONTEXTS

G ra n tin g th e sim ila rity o f th e law s in th e v a rio u s b ra n ch es o f science, v
m a y n o w co n sid e r th e n a tu re o f th o se law s. It is necessary to estab lish wh.
scientific law s a re a n d h o w th e y o p e ra te in scientific situ atio n s. T h is inqui
will lead to th e c o m p a riso n o f th e v ary in g p h ilo so p h ies o f science th a t s e r
as th e m atrices o f th e d ifferen t th eo ries a b o u t law s. T o begin this in q u iry \
g lan ce at so m e av ailab le th eo ries a b o u t laws.
a. Varying Conceptions Concerning Laws. E v en a ca su a l glan ce a t t
w ay v a rio u s scientists conceive o f law s offers a valu ab le lesson in sem antii
C o n s tru c tio n s differ a c c o rd in g to th e ty p e o f e v en ts w o rk e d w ith as w ell
th e p h ilo so p h ic al b ias o f th e c o n s tru c to r. A t o n e en d o f th e scale is th e vit
th a t law s in science a re m erely in d ic a to rs o f o b serv ed results. T h is view w
a ttra c tiv e to C a m p b e ll.2 A t th e o p p o s ite p o le a re m an y v a ria n ts o f t
fa m o u s p ro n o u n c e m e n t o f K a n t th a t m a n is th e law giver o f n a tu re
so u rc e fro m w h ich sp rin g s u n fo u n d e d beliefs a b o u t in tu itio n s, a prioi
universal a n d a b so lu te laws.
B etw een these ex tre m e s a n u m b e r o f v a ria n t m o d els h av e b e e n c<
stru c te d w ith a lesser o r g re a te r in c lin a tio n to w ard the o p p o sin g poles.
K a n to r 3 h as p o in te d o u t, so m e w riters h a v e likened law s to p o stu lat
hy p o th eses, o r th eo ries, th a t is, o p e ra tio n a l aids, w hile o th ers hi
re g a rd e d th e m as a x io m s in th e sense o f finalistic e x p la n a tio n s im p o sed
events.
W h a te v e r n o tio n o f law s is held, all a re sh ap e d by th e p h ilo so p h y
science w h ich c o n stitu te s th e ir fo u n d a tio n a n d b a c k g ro u n d . In tu rn ,
c o u rse , p h ilo so p h ie s o f science a re o n ly a sp ects o f g en eral p h ilo so j
w h ic h w o rk e rs e n te rta in a s p a r t o f th e ir c u ltu ra liz a tio n — in m a n y a
w ith o u t b ein g aw are o f th e cu ltu ra l in stitu tio n s w hich influence scien
f w o rk .
b. Laws Genuine and Spurious. C o g n iz a n c e o f th e v ary in g th eo
* a b o u t law s in science clearly d e m a n d s critical selection to se p a ra te v
fro m invalid laws. I p ro p o s e th a t law s in science be co n sid ered a s c o n st
d o n s b ased solely u p o n events a n d th e ir o b serv atio n . Im plied is th e \
th a t law s a re precise p ro p o s itio n s c o n c e rn in g th e events stu d ied in p a rt
la r disciplines. L aw s a re n e ith e r a b s o lu te p ro n o u n c e m e n ts b ased o n ini
p o w e rs o f “ m in d ," n o r c a p ric io u s a sse rtio n s built u p o n in ex p ert a n d ca
a c q u a in ta n c e w ith events. A n d ab o v e all, o n ly those law s o r fo rm a l

JCampbell, N. R., Physics: The Elements , Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1921.
’Kantor. J. R., The Logic o f M o d em Science, Chicago, Principia. 1953; and Interbeht
Psychology: A Sample o f Scientific System Construction, Chicago, Principia, 1959.

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sta te m e n ts a re v alid th a t a re as free fro m c u ltu ra l a n d a u th o rita ria n

influences as possible. B ecause th e sciences a re corrigible, d e p e n d in g u p o n
b o th o b se rv a tio n a l exigencies involving tech n o lo g ical facilities a n d m o d i­
fications in events, law s a re n o t im m u tab le b u t o nly tem p o ra rily stable.

Philosophical Roots o f Law Theories

In d ic a te d a b o v e is th a t th e e v a lu a tio n o f law s in science c a n be m a d e o n
th e basis o f th e u n d e rly in g p h ilo so p h y . It m ay b e well th e n to c o m p are
m etap h y sical a n d scientific p h ilo so p h y .
a. Metaphysical or Transcendental Philosophy. T h is w ay o f th in k in g
co n sists o f view s d e v e lo p e d a fte r th e G re c o -R o m a n age. T ra n sc e n d e n ta l
p h ilo s o p h y eith er ig n o res o n g o in g ev e n ts o r tra n sla te s them in to e x tra s p a -
tial en tities o r processes by exclusively v erb alistic m ethods. It divides the
un iv erse in to c ru d e m a tte r a n d spirit w hile p e rso n s are d ich o to m iz e d in to
sp irit a n d flesh, so u l a n d b o d y , o r m in d a n d body. Being oblivious to
o c c u rrin g e v e n ts m etap h y sica l p h ilo so p h ers seek a b so lu te reality a n d the
arc a n e m ysteries o f th e s u p e rn a tu ra l.
H o w scientific w o rk ers infected w ith tra n scen d en tal p h ilo so p h y unw it­
tingly d is to rt th e ir d iscipline is well exem plified by th e psychologist S p erry
w h o insists th at p sychology sh o u ld n o t d isp en se w ith “co n scio u s m ind" a n d
“th e sp iritu al c o m p o n e n ts o f h u m a n n a tu re , in clu d in g th e im m o rta l soul"
a n d “free will.”4 T h is w riter goes so fa r as to d eclare th a t those w h o ab ju re
m etap h y sica l p h ilo so p h y in fa v o r o f th e scientific ty p e “ca n be accu sed o f
h av in g d e p riv e d th e th in k in g m an o f his “ F a th e r in h eav en a lo n g w ith
heaven itself.” 5
T h a t o n ly physics a n d n o t psychology co n stru c ts law s is a p ro p o sitio n o f
tra n sc e n d e n ta l p h ilo so p h y . F re e d o m fro m su ch a p h ilosophy indicates th a t
desp ite all th e differences b etw een physics a n d psychology b o th a re en ter­
prises o f p erso n s en g ag ed in the in v estig atio n o f varying so rts o f interb e­
h av io r. T h e p rim a ry difference b etw een th e tw o disciplines is th a t th e
psych o lo g ist ch o o se s to w o rk w ith ev e n ts in w h ich one o f th e in terb eh av in g
entities is in v ariab ly o rg a n ic in n atu re.
O ne o f th e ca rd in a l e rro rs o f m etap h y sical p h ilo so p h y is th e accep tan ce
by its p ro p o n e n ts o f a sp iritistic p sy ch o lo g y w h ich en d o w s p h ilo so p h ers
w ith p o w erfu l im ag in atio n s, o m n iscien t in tu itio n s th a t can co n ju re w ith
abso lu tes, u ltim ates, a n d tran sc e n d e n ta l values.
‘Sperry, R. W.. Mind. Brain and Humanist Values, in New Views o f the Nature o f M a n li. R. I’lall.
cd.). Chicago. Univ. of Chicago Press. 1965.
’Sperry. R. W„ Ibid., p. 73.

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b. Scientific philosophy. T h e o u ts ta n d in g tra it o f n a tu ra listic p i

o p h y is its c o n s ta n t a n d ex clu siv e p re o c c u p a tio n w ith th ings a n d e'
th a t h u m a n beings e n c o u n te r in th e ir a c tu a l living a n d learning,
p ro p o s itio n s fo rm u la te d in scientific p h ilo so p h y a re n o t au tistic bee
th e re is n o need to esc ap e fro m u n b e a ra b le c o n d itio n s o r sim ply to inc
in the sp in n in g o f in tellectu al w ebs. E specially to be m e n tio n e d is
scientific p h ilo so p h y is free fro m th e d e lu sio n th a t it c a n tran sc en d tra r
in g events.
In so fa r as scientific law s a re c o n c e rn e d , to d ifferentiate b etw een thi
types o f p h ilo so p h y h elp s to a c c o u n t fo r the v ary in g fo rm s th ey assur
w ell as th e p ro b le m o f ex clu siv e p o ssessio n o f laws by a c e rta in ty;
discip lin e. S ince th e n a tu ra lis tic ty p e o f p h ilo so p h e r s u p p o rts th e viev
law s in science a re g e n e ra liz e d d e sc rip tio n s o f single ev en ts o r co n s
tio n s o f ev en ts as th ey h a v e b een o b serv ed a n d m easu red u n d e r sp
c o n d itio n s , th e re is n o h in d ra n c e to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f law s in
scientific discipline.

Laws in Scientific Philosophy

W h e n science is freed fro m an tiscien tific p h ilo so p h ie s a n d th e ir unc
in g spiritistic p o stu lates, th e re is n o d e a rth o f p o ten tialities fo r law
stru c tio n . S in ce scientific law s p e r ta in to d a ta , investigative o p eratio :
w ell as to p red ictiv e a n d c o n tro l p o ssib ilities, I a p p e n d a relev an t sam j
five types o f scientific law s w ith c o m m e n ts.
1. Laws o f Events. A ll sc ien tists select o u t o f th e event p le n u r
m u tu a l a n d re cip ro ca l in te rb e h a v io r o f th in g s a n d ev en ts w ith o th e r t
a n d ev en ts u n d e r specific c o n d itio n s.
C o m m e n t . W h e re a s n o n p sy ch o lo g ica l scientists stu d y th e in te rb e h

o f a s tro n o m ic b o d ies, c h e m ic al re a g e n ts, a n tig e n s a n d a n tib o d ie s, c

in te rb e h a v io r o f p r o to n s , e le c tro n s, m eso n s, a n d so o n , th e p sy c h o
stu d ies th e in te rb e h a v io r o f h u m a n a n d n o n h u m a n an im als. S u c h int
h a v io r ran g es fro m c o n d itio n e d a c tio n s to co m p lex social b eh a v io
scientific ev en ts a re th u s d ire c tly o r in d irec tly c o n fro n ta b le a n d cle
m y th s a n d fantasies.
2. Laws o f Origin and Evolution. W ith in th e ra n g e o f science
scientifically b ased p h ilo s o p h y o b se rv e d th in g s a n d ev e n ts a re st
re g a rd e d as o rig in a tin g a n d ev o lv in g fro m sim p ler th ings a n d even
strik in g e x a m p le is th e tra n s f o rm a tio n o f h y d ro g e n in to h eliu m a n
fu rth e r e v o lu tio n o f all c o m p le x th in g s a n d e v e n ts fro m less th a n a hui
sim p le r elem en ts. S im ila r d e v e lo p m e n ts o f c o m p le x m o tio n s a n d ei

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tra n s fo rm a tio n s m ak e u p th e events o f physics. It is a legitim ate g en eraliza­

tio n th a t th e subject m a tte rs o f all scientific disciplines are derived in this
m a n n e r. A n ex a m p le fro m th e m o st c o m p lic a te d levels is the ev o lu tio n o f
p sy ch o lo g ical in terb e h av io rs fro m bio lo g ical a d a p ta tio n s th o u g h the
fo rm e r a re v ery d ifferent fro m th e latter. C o n sid e r th a t th e ex trem ely
co m p le x so cietal b e h a v io r is in a definite sense trac eab le to elem en tary
biological o r b iochem ical fo reru n n ers.
C o m m e n t . T h e essential traits o f scientific orig in s an d ev o lu tio n s are

ex cellen tly illu strated in th e general re la tio n s betw een psychological an d

biological events. A lth o u g h psychological ev en ts a re p artially derived from
an d ac tu a lly a re a t th e sam e tim e b iological, they differ greatly. B iological
ev en ts consist p rim arily o f cell a n d tissue stru ctu re s in in terb eh av io r w ith
ele m e n ta ry ecological circu m stan ces, w hile psychological in teractio n s co n ­
sist o f m o re co m p lex fields including to ta l o rg an ism s an d su ch intricate
stim u lu s o b jects as c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s. W h e n psychological in terb eh av ­
io rs o c c u r biological c o m p o n e n ts p a rtic ip a te in b u t d o n o t d o m in a te the
en tire field.
3. Laws of Investigation. S in ce scientific ev en ts co n sist o f o rg an ism -
object in terb e h av io rs, th ey a re in principle alw ays available fo r investiga­
tio n by m ean s o f v ary in g strateg ies. T h e ra n g e o f such e n c o u n te rs includes
sim p le o b se rv a tio n , h isto rical an aly sis, m an ip u lativ e inspection a n d an a ly ­
sis u n d e r u su al e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s a n d by la b o ra to ry co n tro l. Inves­
tig a tio n law s a p p ly to all research in every discipline. N o ex cep tio n is
perm issib le in th e case o f psych o lo g ical o r a n th ro p o lo g ic a l disciplines.
T h e y a p p ly as well to scientific p h ilo so p h y since p h ilo so p h y is concerned
w ith th e sam e co n fro n ta b le ex p erien ces as th e v ario u s scientific disciplines.
C o m m e n t . Investigative law s ex c lu d e all im p o sitio n o f in ternal m yste­

rio u s p o w e rs u p o n events stu d ied , f o r e x a m p le , a b stru se d eterm in e rs o f a

gen etic o r m en tal facu lty type. W h a te v e r effects th e biological stru ctu re s
a n d fu n c tio n s e x e rt o n p sy ch o lo g ical in te rb e h a v io r su ch as species ev o lu ­
tio n , m a lfo rm a tio n s o r m u tilatio n s, th ey are all setting o r auspice factors
n o t d e te rm in e rs w h eth er reg ard ed as p h y lo g enetic o r o ntogenetic.
4. Laws of Explanation. B ecause scientific e x p la n a tio n s consist of pre­
cise d e sc rip tio n s o f ob serv ed events, e x p la n a tio n s only specify th e co n d i­
tio n s u n d e r w hich th e in tera ctio n o f things a n d events occur.
C o m m e n t . R ejected is th e o b jectio n ab le p ro c e d u re o f inven tin g autistic

prin cip les su ch as forces, o cc u lt p o w e rs, in te rn a l states o f consciousness,

psychic p ro p e rtie s, co n scio u s qualities, a n d sim ilar verbalism s to acco u n t
f o r th e in te rb e h a v io r o f energies, objects, m ov em en ts, o rganism s, o r
cultures.
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5. Laws o f Scientific Cooperation. A s a m e m b er o f the scientific frate

n ity n o discipline c a n ig n o re th e m e th o d s a n d findings o f o th e r w o rk er
T h e p sy ch o lo g ist sh o u ld be a w a re o f w h a t th e biologist, psychologist, a r
physicist c a n c o n trib u te to th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f philo so p h ical thinking.
C o m m e n t . W o rk e rs in every scientific d iscipline m u st be a le rt to know

ed g e achieved by n e ig h b o rin g sciences. It is im p o rta n t, how ever, fo r e a ch i

be su re o f w h a t has ac tu a lly b een discovered by physicists, psychologist
ch em ists, a n d biologists. F o r e x a m p le , a p sychologist m u st questic
w h e th e r light in visu al d is c rim in a tio n is a s tim u la to r o f o ccu lt m en t
q u a litie s o r a m ean s o f c o n ta c t b e tw e e n o rg a n ism s an d objects. S im ilarl
all scien tists m u st b e a w a re o f w h a t th e n eu ro lo g ist ac tu a lly discover!
a b o u t the b ra in a n d th e rest o f th e n erv o u s system , o r th e geneticist a b o
th e re la tio n o f p ro g e n ito rs a n d o ffspring. L aw s o f interdisciplinary’coope
a tio n im ply th a t physicists a n d b io lo g ists learn fro m the psych o lo g ist th
th e ir d o c trin e s m ay be suffused w ith q u e s tio n a b le principles n o t derivi
fro m free co n tac ts w ith events.

B. LAW S AS SO C IE T A L INSTITUTION S

Legal Philosophy Extremely Abstractionistic

T h e d o m a in s o f ju ris p ru d e n c e a n d th e g eneral p h ilo so p h y o f law a
p ro b a b ly m o re th a n o th e r in telle ctu al d o m a in s ex tre m e in th eir a b stra
tio n ism a n d a b so lu tism . T h is is u n d o u b te d ly th e case becau se legal rul
r a n d d ecisio n s c o n c e rn a u th o rita tiv e a n d finalistic tra n sa c tio n a l b e h a v io r
e x tre m e ly v a ria b le situ a tio n s. T o ach iev e o rd e r a n d c o n tro l in hu m .
affairs fo rm u la e , an alo g ies, m o d e ls a re c o n stru c te d , o ften w ith little o r i
t re la tio n to events. It is th is sa m e c irc u m sta n c e w h ich a c c o u n ts fo r th e fa
th a t th e p h ilo so p h y o f law is s o closely in tertw in ed w ith psychologic
a . view s w hich a re seriously c o n fu sin g a n d basically w rong.

Nature of Societal Laws

S o c ietal law s a re c o n v e n tio n a lly d escrib ed as au th o rita tiv e rules fo r t
c o n tro l o f b e h a v io r b y c o m m a n d in g a n d lim iting a c tio n o n the p a rt
p e rs o n s a n d g ro u p s. T h e y a re th e n a c c o rd e d a s ta tu s o f d u ra b ility so th
c a n b e a p p lied to specific in stan ce s o f legal claim s a n d conflicts. Law s, the
m ay be reg ard ed as in stru m e n ts o f social policy.6 U n fo rtu n ately , howevi

6IJodenhcimer, E„ Jurisprudence: The Philosophy an d M eth od o f the Law, Cambridge, Harv

Univ. Press, 1974, pref.

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th e ev en ts o f d o m estic , in d u stria l, a n d c o m m e rcial situ atio n s d o n o t co m ­

p o rt w ith a c a lm a n d p eacefu l d e sc rip tio n so th a t d o u b ts an d d en ials are
n u m e ro u s c o n c e rn in g th e n a tu re a n d fu n c tio n o f legal law s in a c tu a l life
co n d itio n s.7
V e rb al fo rm u la tio n s d o n o t in d ic a te th e im m en se scope o f societal laws.
F o r o n e th in g , th ey d o n o t a c c o u n t fo r th e v arieties in law s su ch as exist in
n o n -c e n tra liz e d legal sy stem s in m a n y n a tio n s .'A s it h a p p e n s in th e U n ited
S ta te s, law s a r e p ro m u lg a te d b y th e fe d era l co n g ress, s ta te leg islatu res,
c o u n ty co m m issio n e rs, city a ld e rm e n , a n d so o n . C ivil a n d crim in al laws
n o t o n ly g o v e rn b e h a v io r b u t a lso re g u la te th e v a rio u s ty p es o f ta x a tio n as
set b y v a rio u s a u th o ritie s. In c id e n tally , to o , g o v e rn m e n ta l law s d o n o t
m erely serve a s guides to p u b lic c o n d u c t, b u t also h elp to c o n fer ad v a n ta g es
u p o n c e rta in p e rso n s o r g ro u p s as c o m p a re d w ith o th e r in dividuals.
A n th o lo g ie s o f ju ris p ru d e n c e a n d th e p h ilo s o p h y o f law a re replete w ith
in n u m e ra b le v a ria tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e esse n tial n a tu re o f law s a n d th e ir
o p e ra tio n .8 A c co rd in g ly , s tu d e n ts o f ju ris p ru d e n c e a re tro u b le d by huge
p ro b le m s c o n c e rn in g th e n a tu re o f laws.
a. Uncertainty and Indefiniteness o f Law. It is a b asic m y th says J e ro m e
F r a n k 9 th a t it is th e law y ers th a t a re re sp o n sib le fo r th e v ag u en ess an d
u n ce rta in tie s o f th e law s. F r a n k believes firm ly th a t it is the n a tu re o f
h u m a n in te rre la tio n s th a t m a k e law s u n c e rta in a n d indefinite. H e q u o te s
O liv er W en d ell H o lm e s (1841-1935) to th e effect th a t “g en eral p ro p o sitio n s
d o n o t d ec id e c o n c re te ca ses.” A p p a re n tly F r a n k is a le rt to th e influence o f
a b stra c tio n s as th ey fu n c tio n in c o m p le x h u m a n situ atio n s.
b. Legal Realism. S tu d e n ts o f ju ris p ru d e n c e em p lo y th e te rm legal
realism fo r th e m o s t a b stra c tio n is tic view th a t law s are su b sta n tia l en tities
existin g in th e ir o w n rig h t a n d th a t ju d g e s m u st find a n d a p p ly th e law s in
specific litig atio n . T h e e m in e n t B lack sto n e (1723-1780) re g ard e d societal
law s as in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e law s o f n a tu re d ic ta te d b y G o d .10 A ju d g e ’s
ta sk , B lac k sto n e th o u g h t, is o n ly to find a n d a p p ly law s a n d n ev er to m a k e
a n y law .
O p p o n e n ts o f legal re alism a re m o re p ra g m a tic th a n th e realists a n d rely

7Cf. for example. Holmes, O. W., The C om m on Law, Boston, Little, Brown, 1881; also. Holmes,
O. W., “The Path of the Law," in Collected Papers, New York, Harcourt, Brace, 1920.
•For example, Cohen a n d Cohen's Readings in Jurisprudence an d Legal Philosophy (P. Schucb-
man, ed.), Boston, Little, Brown, 1979; also Kent, E. A., L aw a n d Philosophy: Readings in Legal
Philosophy, New York, Appleton, Century, Crofts, 1970.
•Frank, J., L aw a n d the M o d e m M ind, New York, Brentanos, 1930.
10Benditt, T. M„ Law as Rule an d Principle: Problem s o f Legal Philosophy, Stanford, Stanford
Univ. Press, 1978.

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m o re o n o b s e rv a tio n th a n o n a p r io r i re a s o n in g . T h u s H o lm e s d ecla
law is n o t a “b r o o d in g o m n ip re s e n c e in th e s k y ," 11
The common law is not a brooding omnipresence in the sky but the articulate voia
sovereign or quasi-sovereign that can be identified; although some decisions with
have disagreed seem to me to have forgotten the fact.

A s a n o p p o n e n t o f th e le g a l re a lis m p h ilo s o p h y , F . S. C o h e n reft

a s “tr a n s c e n d e n ta l n o n s e n s e .” 12 O t h e r o p p o n e n ts o f th e P la to n ic i
legal re a lism e v e n d e n y t h e e x is te n c e o f a s c h o o l o f re a lists a n d p ro p c
a p r o p e r p h ilo s o p h y o f la w m u s t b e b a s e d o n th e flux o f legal e v e n ts i
n ec essity fo r ju d ic ia l c r e a tio n o f la w ,13

Scientific Philosophy and Societal Laws

D e s p ite th e w id e - s p re a d v iew t h a t n a tu r a l a n d so c ie ta l law s a re
m e n ta lly d iffe ren t, scie n tific p h ilo s o p h y in sists th a t th e d ifferen ces a
m a tte r s o f w h a t k in d s o f e v e n ts a r e re fe rre d to b y a c c e p te d o r w ai
p ro p o s itio n s . A ll la w p r o p o s itio n s w h e th e r v a lid o r in v a lid a r e n a tu
a s th e y a r e c o n s tr u c tio n s o f p e r s o n s a b o u t a c tu a l th in g s a n d eve
f a b u la te d a u tistic a lly .
A ll law s a r e c o n s tr u c tio n s j u s t a s a ll fa b le s, tales, a lle g o rie s, met<
m o d e ls , b lu e p rin ts , a n d s o o n a r e . H e n c e th e o b s e rv e r o r re a d e r
v a r io u s p r o p o s itio n s is a d v is e d to c o n s id e r th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n w
law o f u n iv e rs a l g r a v ita tio n o r th e law o f th e rm o d y n a m ic s sets f o r th
a g a in s t ju r id ic a l p r o n o u n c e m e n ts w h e th e r f o r m u la te d b y a d ic ta to r,
le g isla to r, o r c o n q u e r o r . T h e c o n s tr u c tio n a l p rin c ip le is su b sta n tia te -
w e c o n s id e r th e e c o n o m ic la w o f s u p p ly a n d d e m a n d w h ic h is so flaj
m a n ip u la te d .

Sources o f Societal Laws

S o c ie ta l la w s m a y b e tra c e d b a c k in s o m e in s ta n c e s to c u s to n
s o m e h o w b e c a m e c ry s ta lliz e d a n d p e r h a p s re c o rd e d . B u t th a t is i
o n ly w a y law s a rise . In c o m p le x c o m m u n itie s law s m a y b e d e v e lo
ju d g e s w h o d e c id e w h a t is th e la w a n d h o w it s h o u ld b e im p le m e n te d
e x c e lle n t e x a m p le o f th e v a r io u s s o u rc e s o f law w e c o n s id e r n e x t,

" Holmes, O. W„ dissenting opinion in Southern Pacific Co. vs. Jensen. 244 U S. 205. 1
"Cohen, F. S., "Transcendental Nonsense and the Functional Approach," in C oh en am
Readinx* in Jurispru den ce a n d t e g a l P h ilosoph y (P. Schuchman.ed.), Boston, Little, Browi
2K8.
"Cf. Llewellyn, K., “Some Realism about Realism," H a rva rd L aw R eview 44. 1931,
Llewellyn, K„ The C o m m o n Ixtw T radition, Boston, Little, Brown, I960.

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 PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

a. Anglo-Saxon Common Law and Statute Law. L aw s deriving fro m

c u sto m a n d an c ie n t u sag e a re g en erally re fe rre d to as c o m m o n law . T h e
p rim a ry o p e ra tio n o f su c h law s c o n sists o f th e ju d g m e n t o f ju d g es w h o are
p re su m e d to be e x p e rts in c o m m o n law a n d w h o in d icate h o w it sh o u ld be
in terp re ted a n d im plem ented in specific cases.
S ta tu te law by c o n tra s t w ith u n w ritte n c o m m o n law , w h ich is p resu m ed
to be k n o w n by re c o rd s o f d ecisio n s, c o n sists o f a c tu a lly fo rm alized rules
estab lish ed by legislatures an d co n firm ed b y th e h ighest a u th o rities in a
p a rtic u la r legal system . In th e U n ited S ta te s th e P resid en t m ay v eto th e
law s w hich th e H o u se o f R ep re sen tativ es a n d th e S en ate ap p ro v e o f an d
p ro p o se as law .
b. Enactments and Evasions. S ug g estiv e o f th e n o n a b stra c tiv e a n d
viab le c h a ra c te r o f legal affairs is th e w id e g a p w h ich sep a rates th e a s s u m p ­
tio n ( I) th a t law s in v a ria b ly c o n tro l th e a c tio n s a n d in terre latio n s o f peo p le
a n d (2) w h a t ac tu a lly h a p p e n s in legal s itu a tio n s . A n y m ech an ical a b stra c -
tio n al view o f law m u st be m ista k e n in view o f th e a c tu a l o p eratio n s o f legal
e n a c tm e n ts an d ev asio n s. A s in ev ery h u m a n s itu a tio n it is a fte r all p erso n s
w h o en act, im p le m e n t, a n d ev ad e laws. F o r ex a m p le , law s ce rtain ly o f a
co m m ercial s o rt are en acted n o t fo r th e benefit o f th e public at large, b u t fo r
so m e a d v a n ta g e to p a rtic u la r in d iv id u a ls o r in stitu tio n s. In a n earlier p a rt
o f th is b o o k I have referred to th e fa ct th a t b a n k e rs m ay c o n tro l the
e n a ctm e n ts o f law s w h ich m ainly p ro te c t th em selves to th e d isad v an ta g e o f
th e gen eral p u b lic o r th e p erso n s w h o d e p o s it th e ir m o n ey in th eir b an k s.
It is n o t a n idle s ta te m e n t th a t th e re a re p le n ty o f b rillia n t law yers w h o
can a n d d o ev ad e so m e o f th e best c o n stru c te d laws. In general, all law s
m ay b eco m e p lay th in g s in th e h a n d s o f o p p o s in g law yers, each side o f
w h ich ca n m a k e u p a rg u m e n ts to ev ad e law s o r to preserve th em . T h e
c o n tra s t m en tio n ed ab o v e is freq u en tly sta te d as th a t betw een c o n v e n tio n a l
logic a n d w h a t g o es o n in c o u rts o f law. A p p ro p ria te here is th e c o m m e n t
o f th e A u to c ra t o f th e B reak fast ta b le w h o said,

You can hire logic, in the shape of a lawyer, to prove anything you want to prove.

c. IVho benefits by Laws? L ig h t o n th e c o n tra s t betw een fo rm u la te d

rules a n d a c tu a l legal p ra c tic e is th ro w n b y th e p resen t q u estio n : If law s are
ac tu a lly c o n tro lle rs o f b e h a v io r a n d o p e ra te im p artially th e n they m ay
an sw e r to th e c o n tro l d esc rip tio n . H o w ev er, as we hav e seen there a re o th e r
fu n ctio n s served b y v ario u s law s o f an y co m m u n ity .

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Laws: Natural or Functional

T h e q u e stio n w h e th e r law s a re n a tu ra l o r ju s t socially fu n ctio n al a
illu m in ates th e c h a ra c te r o f so cietal law s. W rite rs influenced by a b s tr
tio n a l p h ilo so p h y a rg u e th a t law s a re n a tu ra l a n d different fro m rules
o rd in a ry p ractice w hile p ra c tic a l p ro c e d u re s them selves are n a tu ra l. 1
c o m m e n ts o f P o llo c k (1845-1937) th a t C o h e n q u o tes illustrate th is polai
a tio n . C o h e n 14 q u o te s P o llo c k as follow s,
natural law either does not exist or does not concern lawyers more than anyone else.

B ut tw en ty years later he is a g a in q u o te d by C o h e n as follows,

some English writers half a century behind their time still maintain the absolute Bcnthan
aversion to its name (natural law). Meanwhile our courts have logo on making a great c
of law. which is really natural law. whether they know it or not. for they must find a solut
for every question that comes before them, and general considerations of justice i
convenience must be relied on in default of positive authority.

T h e co n clu sio n to be d ra w n fro m th e in d icated discussion is the necess

to c o n sid er specific circ u m sta n ces as n a tu ra l law. Ju d icial decisions p
su p p o se a d e q u a te a tte n tio n to p re v ailin g situ atio n s since inevita
changes in h u m a n c o n d itio n s w eigh heavily as ag ain st fo rm u lae set up
different tim es. T h ere can be n o a b so lu te n e ss in law as th ere is n o n e
a n y th in g else. S ta tu te s a re n o t p e rp e tu a l, im m utable, o r sacred, alth o u
th e serviceability o f codified rules c a n n o t be m inim ized.

Semantics and the Law

In all literary cu ltu res, m a n y p ro b le m s arise from th e presence
re co rd e d a n d codified rules c o n c e rn in g th e rights, d u ties, a n d privileges
th e m em b ers o f specific co m m u n itie s. T h e p ro b lem s m entioned p erta in
am b ig u ities c o n c ern in g th e m e ta m o rp h o s e s o f h u m a n affairs, th e n atu re
psychology, a n d the view s e n te rta in e d a b o u t language.
a. Metamorphoses of human affairs. T ranscribed legal d o cu m en ts ex
tw o kinds o f influence o n th e b e h a v io r a n d general style o f living
p a rtic u la r in d e p e n d e n t o r so v ereig n co m m u n itie s. O n o n e h an d they pi
vide p a lp ab le in stitu tio n s w h ich p lay sig n ificant p a rts in p a rtic u la r politic
units. O n th e o th e r h a n d , h o w ev er, th e y m a k e it possible fo r the rules a
law s to in d u ce a c e rta in kind o f iso latio n . In g en eral estab lish ed law s a
co d ific atio n s a p p e a r to be re m o te fro m th e p a rtic u la r m em b ers o f t
political g ro u p , they req u ire law yers in o rd e r n o t to b reach the laws, o r

“ Cohen. M. R., N e a u m a n J Saturc, New York, Harcourt. Brace, 1931, p. 406.

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b e freed fro m th e re sp o n sib ility o f h a v in g d o n e so. T h u s a sizab le g ap

sep a rates p erso n s fro m th e legal in stitu tio n s o f th eir co m m u n ities.
B ut even in th e case o f w ritten c o n s titu tio n s q u estio n s arise as to th e
in te n tio n o f th e law m a k e rs in fo rm u la tin g th e lan g u ag e o f th e bills
desig n ed to b e e n a c te d in to law . In g en eral, ho w ever, th e w o rd s d escrib in g
o r re p resen tin g s itu a tio n s o f co m m a n d o r in h ib itio n o f a c tio n a re alw ays
subject to in te rp re ta tio n by th e listen er o r re a d e r o f th e w o rd . V agueness in
w o rd s is a lm o s t im p o ssib le to av o id . A s is well k n o w n th e re is alw ay s a g a p
betw een w h a t w rite rs o f lite ra tu re w rite a n d w h a t th e re a d e rs o f th e sam e
lite ra tu re u n d e rs ta n d c o n c ern in g w h a t is w ritten . It is w ell k n o w n , to o , th a t
a g re a t a m o u n t o f litig a tio n hinges u p o n th e relative in te rp re ta tio n o f th e
atto rn e y s fo r o r a g a in s t a n offender o r a civilian arg u m e n t.
b . Codified Aspects o f Law. In co m m u n ities w here th e law s are
codified, it is n o t as difficult fo r law s to re g u late th e b e h a v io r o f citizens as
w h ere u n w ritte n law s prevail. T h is is m o re tru e th a n o th erw ise w h en the
co d es a re clear a n d leave n o place fo r a m b ig u ity . It is p la in o n th e w hole
fro m th e ex isten ce o f w ritte n co n stitu tio n s th a t o rd in a ry individuals m ay
b e ex p ected to be m o re fa m iliar w ith law s th a n w hen c o n stitu tio n s are n o t
explicit a n d n o t ev en w ritten . A n in tere stin g o b se rv a tio n is th e c o m m e n t
th a t th e a n th ro p o lo g is t R u th B enedict re p o rts a b o u t th e occasio n al sayings
o f A m eric an In d ia n s,
In the old days, there were no fights about hunting grounds or fishing territories. There was
no law then, sc everybody did what was right.15

Psychological Aspects o f Societal Law

A lo n g w ith c o rre c tio n s in p h ilo so p h ic al view s co n c ern in g law s it is
essential to d o th e s a m e fo r th e p sy ch o lo g ical asp e cts o f societal law . A n y
n o tio n th a t th e re is a m en tal o r sp iritistic en tity in w hich processes h ap p e n
e ith e r e n tire ly a u to n o m o u s ly o r in c o n n e c tio n w ith h ap p e n in g s e x te rn a l to
th e m in d o r so u l m u s t be e ra d ic a te d . S u c h a psych istic view is held by
P ro fe sso r B in g h a m .16 A s C o h e n says th is view is old p o p u la r m e ta p h y s­
ics.17 P h ilo s o p h e rs o f law a p p re c ia te w ell th e p sy chological asp ects
involved in litig a tio n a n d p ro p o s e a n e x p la n a tio n o f th e psychological
asp e cts o f ju d ic ia l a c tio n , especially d ecision m ak in g . U n fo rtu n a te ly th e
rem edy th e y a p p ly is to in v o k e a q u estio n a b le if n o t w holly false psycholog­
ical system . F o r e x a m p le , F r a n k p ro p o se s to e x p la in ju d ic ia l b e h a v io r on
■’Benedict, R., Patterns o f Culture, New York. Houghton Mifflin, 1934, p. 252.
16Bingham, J. W., “What is the Law?" Michigan Law Review, II, 1912, 1-25, 109-121.
17Cohen, M. R-, Law a n d the Social Order, New York, Harcourt Brace, 1933, pp. 208-214.

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th e b asis o f F re u d ia n fa n ta s ie s .18 F ra n k m ak es a g re a t d ea l o f
a u th o rity , F a th e r w o rsh ip , a n d in g en e ral influences o f u n co n scio u s
pies. In th e follow ing p a ra g ra p h s 1 illu stra te th e fu n c tio n o f p sycho
ev ery d ay law situ a tio n s a n d in th e c o u rts o f law.
Ig n o ra n c e o f th e law ex cu ses n o b o d y . It is a p re su p p o sitio n
m a k e rs a n d law a d m in is tra to rs th a t o rd in a ry citizens sh o u ld b e respi
fo r k n o w in g th e law s a n d a b id in g by th em . B ut ac tu ally even codifk
a re n o t p a rt o f th e e v e ry d ay a c q u a in ta n c e o f p riv ate citizens. U sual
are b u sy an d co m p letely o cc u p ie d w ith all so rts o f affairs o f a n econc
d o m e stic type. T h e rem o ten ess o f p riv a te citizens fro m th e business
a n d its c o m m a n d m e n ts is m e a su re d b y th e m a g n itu d e o f th e p o p u la
v a rio u s legal units.
T h e m o re se rio u s p ro b le m o f p sy ch o lo g y an d th e law concei
b e h a v io r o f ju d g e s as th ey m a k e th e ir decisions. T h e so-called reali
B lack sto n e (1723-1780) a ssu m e th a t ju d g e s a re sim ply seek ers a n d <
erers o f in d ep en d e n t, o b jectively existing, self-sufficient, entities. <
o th e r h a n d , th e m o re p ra g m a tic legalists like G ray (1839-1915), f
(1841-1935), F ra n k ( 1889-1957), a n d o th e rs regard th e law as m ad e
ju d g es. A s G ra y 19 p u ts th e m a tte r, “all law is ju d g e -m a d e law .” T h e p
here b esp eak s a fallacio u s view o f psychology. Scientific psychology
p re ts ju d ic ia l decisio n s as in v a ria b ly in te rb e h av io ral processes. T h a t
m ak e d ecisio n s a t all d e p e n d s u p o n th e ir a c q u a in ta n c e w ith th e mv
o f asc e rta in a b le fa cto rs in c u rre n t specific situ atio n s. Ju d g e s a re o r
be le a rn e d in th e law , th a t is, ex p e rie n c e d w ith respect to th e
c o n d itio n s p rev ailin g fo rm e rly a n d cu rren tly . P rec ed en ts m ay be vi
o r n o n re le v an t. E v id en ce o p e n s th e w ay to p ro p e r u n d e rs ta n d ^
e v a lu a tio n o f ev e n ts a n d a rg u m e n ts a b o u t th em . Ju d g e s sh o u ld be r
o f probabilities.
Scientific psy ch o lo g y insists th a t all legal events m u st be baser
o cc u rrin g activities o f p e rso n s in in te ra c tio n w ith o th er p erso n s, thin;
events in th eir am b ian c e. N o m etap h y sical principles sh o u ld b e a lio
d is to rt th e b e h a v io r o f ju d g e s o r th e th in g s an d ev e n ts th ey encc
A p p eals, reviews, a n d reverses re p re se n t n o n -in fallib le checks a r
ances. T h ey su p p ly th e sta n d a rd s a n d crite ria th a t re g u la te affairs pr<
fo r ad ju d ica tio n .

Frank, J., Law a n d the M odern M ind, New York, Brentanos, 1930.
’’ Gray, J. C., The N ature and Sources o f the Law , Boston, Beacon. 1909, p. 125.

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Natural Rights and Positive Law

O n e o f th e m o s t in stru c tiv e lesso n s c o n c e rn in g so cieta l a n d even scien­
tific law s is fu rn ish e d b y th e tra d itio n o f in a lie n a b le n a tu ra l rig h ts. Law s
c o n c e rn in g th e rig h ts o f p e rso n s to life, lib erty , a n d th e p u rsu it o f h ap p in ess
a re p re su m e d to be essen tial d e m a n d s o f c o sm ic n a tu re . T h e essential p o in t
a b o u t n a tu ra l rig h ts is th e b elief th a t in ju rio u s tre a tm e n t o f p erso n s is
w ro n g a n d s h o u ld b e p ro h ib ite d . C e rta in ly th e re a r e a d m ira b le tra its
ex h ib ite d b y th o s e w h o w ish to a b o lis h in ju ry a n d su fferin g o n th e p a r t o f
m istre a te d p erso n s. N evertheless, it is p u re sen tim e n ta lity to assu m e th a t
n a tu ra l law s ex ist c o n d e m n in g tra n sg re ssio n s o f th e n a tu ra l rig h ts o f
c e rta in in d iv id u a ls. M o re o v e r, th e n o tio n o f n a tu ra l rig h ts reflects th e
a s s u m p tio n th a t n a tu ra l events in clu d e invisible p o w e rs a n d sa n c tio n s to
ju stify th e in alien ab le c o n d itio n s o f p a rtic u la r p erso n s. T h e th e o ry o f
n a tu ra l rig h ts suggests a definite sim ilarity t o th e invisible h a n d in eco n o m ic
th e o ry a n d t o th e in v isib le a n d su p re m e r u le r o f th e u n iv erse in theo lo g y .
F u rth e rm o re , th e n o tio n o f n a tu ra l rig h ts in d ic a te s a g re a t p o w e r o f th e
u n k n o w a b le . In d iv id u a ls w h o h o ld to th e n o tio n o f n a tu ra l rig h ts a p p e a r to
d isv alu e th e p rocesses a n d th e th e o ry c o n c e rn in g th e c o n s tru c tio n o f
c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s. O n ly in p o sitiv e law d o th e y seem to believe in th e
c o n stru c tio n a l asp ect o f social th in g s a n d ev en ts becau se o f th e o b v io u s
p ro cesses o f e stab lish in g a n d co d ify in g legislative law . W ith o u t a d o u b t the
th e o ry o f n a tu ra l rig h ts is in definite co n flict w ith h is to ry a n d th e p rocesses
o f c u ltu ra l ev o lu tio n . T h e h o ld e rs o f th e p rin cip le o f n a tu ra l rig h ts over­
lo o k th e fact th a t d ifferent cu ltu re s d ev e lo p d ifferen t n o tio n s a b o u t “n a tu ra l
rig h ts.” S o m e c u ltu re s m ay a sc rib e th e p rin cip le to v ery different types o f
tre a tm e n ts o f in d iv id u als, a n d to d iverse fo rm s o f privileges a n d a d v a n ­
tages. S o m e c u ltu re s m a y even ig n o re e n tirely a n y p rin cip le o f in alien ab le
rights.

Judicial Review and Modification o f Law

A m o s t in tere stin g bit o f evidence a g a in st th e ab so lu ten e ss a n d u n iv ersal­
ity o f p o sitiv e law s is p ro v id e d by th e c h a n g e o f view c o n c e rn in g th e
A m e ric a n c o n s titu tio n . A t o n e tim e it seem ed th a t th e p ro v isio n s o f th e
c o n s titu tio n w ere im m u ta b le a n d u n c h a n g e a b le , b u t th is view w as m in i­
m ized b y J o h n M a rsh a ll (1755-1835), th e c h ie f ju stic e , in his ju d g m e n t
re la tiv e to M a r b u ry vs. M a d iso n . P ro fe ss o r E d m o n d C a h n (1906- )
offers a n a ttra c tiv e s ta te m e n t o f th e c h a n g e s th a t M a rsh a ll ratified in 1803.

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L PERSPECT

H e in d icates th a t th e re w ere m o d ificatio n s as to objective, as to coi

a n d as to san ctio n , as in th e a c c o m p a n y in g table.

T able 7. C o n s t it u t io n a l M o d if ic a t io n

As to Objective As to C ontent As to Sanction

from perpetuity immutability appeal to Heaven

to efficacy adaptation appeal to the courts

In M a rb u ry vs. M a d is o n M a rsh a ll fo rm a lized th e p o w e r an d prest

th e w ritten c o n s titu tio n as o v er a g a in st th e force o f co ngressional It
tio n o r s ta te law s. B u t th e q u e s tio n arises as to th e p e rm a n e n c e •
d ecisio n . T h e re a r e o b je c tio n s fo rm u la te d as to th e efficacy o f th e dec
P ro fe sso r J . P. F ra n k is o f th e o p in io n th a t so fa r as basic liberti
co n cern ed n o th in g re le v a n t h as b e e n a tta in e d .21

Paradoxes in Legal Philosophy

If law s a re ta k e n to be se ts o f ru les fo r th e reg u latio n o f th e intercoi
p e rso n s w ith o th e r p e rso n s, a n d w ith th in g s, it im plies s ta n d a rd s,
a n d g uides. B ut fixity a n d p e rm a n e n c e a re n o t tra its o r characteris
a n y events especially n o t o f th e fleeting o cc u rren ces o f h u m a n rel:
H ere is th e p a r a d o x o f leg al p h ilo so p h y o r science. C a rd o z o (1870
h as attra ctiv e ly d iscu ssed th is p a ra d o x ic a l situ a tio n th o u g h in term s
relativ e a b so lu te n e ss o f science. H e bew ails th e ab sen ce o f lo g arit
legal situ a tio n s a n d th e p re cisio n a n d finality o f th e bridge-bi
en g in eer.22
a. Paradoxy and Orthodoxy in Law. W h a t a p p e a r as p a ra d o x e
law w hen carefully a n a ly z ed a re sim p ly th e con seq u en ces o f philosi
p a ra d o x e s. T h e p h ilo so p h y u n d e rly in g th e n o tio n o f p a ra d o x e s in
co n sists basically o f a im s to w a rd c e rta in ty a n d ab so lu ten e ss. F r
sta n d p o in t o f scientific p h ilo so p h y th e p a ra d o x e s d isa p p e a r beca
a ttitu d e s involved a re d eriv e d fro m events in th e first place, an d th t
plainly display differences. In te rre la tio n sh ip s betw een p erso n s sha

BCahn, E„ “An American Contribution,” in Suprem e C ourt a n d S u prem e Law (E. C

Bloomington, Indiana Univ. Press, 1954. p. 3.
21 Frank, J. P.,“Reviewand Basic Liberties," in Suprem e Court a n d Suprem e L aw { E. (
Bloomington, Indiana Univ. Press, 1954. ch, 5.
“ Cardozo, B. N., “The Paradoxes of Legal Science,” in Selected W ritings o f B enjam
Cardozo { M. E. Hall, ed.). New York. Fallon Publications, 1947.

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m in im a l sim ilarities w ith th e fa c to rs in civil en g ineering. T h e p h ilo so p h e r

o f law can ex ercise his calling o n ly if he is free to ta k e a c c o u n t o f events as
th ey o c c u r so he c a n d iffe ren tiate b etw een th e d ifferent varieties a n d n o t
evalu ate th em o n th e basis o f tra d itio n a l th em es.

Societal Laws Not Laws of Nature

J u d g e s a re n o t civil en g in eers a n d have to d eal w ith rap id ly c h a n g in g an d
volatile m ateria ls as c o m p a re d w ith so-called physical technologists.
J u d g e s m u st o p e ra te w ith different p o stu la te s a n d u n iq u e aim s. L aw yers
are n o t scientists d esp ite th e view s o f L a n g d e ll (1826-1906), A m es (1846-
1910), K elsen (1881-1973), a n d m a n y o th e rs th a t ju ris p ru d e n c e is a science,
o r th a t,
the work of the scientist and the work of the lawyer can be reduced to . . . a common
denominator.”

a. Natural Science and Legal Science. W h e n th e q u e stio n is ask e d , is

th e re a legal science?, th e re a re tw o answ ers. O n o n e h a n d , w h en science is
ta k e n in th e a b stra c t so th a t th e science o f n a tu ra l a n d th e science o f societal
law s a re e q u a te d , th e n o a n sw e r prevails. B ut o n th e o th e r h an d , w h en the
q u e stio n im plies th e ex isten ce o f a d iscip lin e tra in e d in th e d ire c tio n o f
o b se rv in g a n d d esc rib in g legal p ro c e d u re s a n d legal situ a tio n s th e reply is
in th e affirm ativ e. H o w ev er, in th e la tte r ca se th e re a re ex c lu d e d all n o tio n s
o f a b so lu te n e ss a n d th e a s s u m p tio n o f d u a lis m w h e th e r o f soul an d m a tte r
o r m in d a n d body.
b. Authentic Legal Paradox. A n a u th e n tic legal p a ra d o x is th a t th e law s
a n d c o u rts o p e ra te as w ell as th e y d o in th e lig h t o f th e p ro b le m s a n d
difficulties th e y co n fro n t. Legal s itu a tio n s a n d legal p ro ced u res w o rk o u t as
well as c a n be e x p e cted . D esp ite th e c o n tra d ic tio n s , th e bickerings, th e
schem in g , a n d o th e r h in d ra n c e s a fa ir m e a s u re o f social h a rm o n y does
ex ist in p a rtic u la r c irc u m sta n ces. W h e n ju s tic e is so u g h t, it very o fte n is
a tta in e d . It is folly to ex p e ct m o re w h en th e u n to w a rd d e v e lo p m e n t o f
p erso n s a n d so cietal g ro u p s a re co n sid ered . C o m m e rcial tra n sa c tio n s are
fairly w ell an aly zed . W ro n g d o e rs a re in v e stig ated fo r in ten tio n s an d
a m b ie n t circ u m sta n ces. T h e p rin cip le o f specificity fu n c tio n s th o u g h p h ilo ­
so p h ic a l th e o rie s a re fau lty . H o m o sap ien s m a y be m o stly h o m o fab er, his
ach ie v e m e n ts m ay b e g re a te r in te c h n o lo g y th a n in p ro p e r p h ilo so p h y , b u t
ev en ts a n d c o n d itio n s as th e y a re h av e n o t y et given w ay co m p letely to idle
fantasies.
21La iv and the Social Law o f Science (H. W. Jones, ed.), New York, Rockefeller Univ. Press. 1966.

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T o follow th ro u g h cases o f stric t liab ility in th e crim in al law . th-

en fo rce m e n t o f c o m m u n ity s ta n d a rd s , th e d u ty to re n d er aid, th e prosecu
tio n o f th e co n scien tio u s, p re fere n tia l tre a tm e n t in hiring, en ro llm en t ii
sch o o ls, a n d plea b a rg a in in g is to o b serv e how m u c h h u m a n e considera
tio n ca n be fo u n d a lo n g w ith m iscarriag es o f ju stice.24

National and International Law

A b stra c tio n ism in legal p h ilo so p h y p ro m o te s th e lim ita tio n o f leg 2
th e o rie s a n d legal e v e n ts to in tra n a tio n a l affairs a n d the neglect o f interna
tio n a l laws. T h is is to fo rg et th e n u m e ro sity o f bran ch es o f th e philo so p h
o f law , a n d failure to ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e influence o f law o n how n atio n
b eh av e. A s stu d e n ts o f in te rn a tio n a l law suggest, in te rn a tio n a l law detei
m ines, go v ern s, o r m odifies th e policies o f g o v ern m en ts in a d d itio n to th
b e h a v io r o f n atio n s to w a rd ea c h o th e r.25
T h e p o sitio n here ta k e n is th a t societal law s m ay definitely be reg ard ed z
o f tw o q u ite different varieties. W h e rea s n a tio n a l law s co n cern th e relatioi
sh ip o f in d iv id u als a n d th e ir executives o r representatives, in tern atio n ;
law co n c ern s th e in te rre la tio n sh ip o f sta te s o r n a tio n s all o f w hich claii
so v ereig n ty fo r them selves. In in te rn a tio n a l law o rd e r a n d peace d o nc
d e p e n d u p o n a su p e rio r e n tity o r sovereign p o w e r th a t is c a p ab le (
en fo rcin g a c tio n s o n th e p a r t o f th e assu m ed m em b ersh ip . T h e regulatio
o f b e h a v io r o n the p a rt o f in d iv id u al n a tio n s o r states, m u st be a m a tte r c
v o lu n ta ry acco rd by m ean s o f treaties. S u ch treaties are p re su m a b
fo rm e d a n d m a in tain ed o n th e basis o f eq u al a n d ju st a d v a n ta g es on tl
p a r t o f th e c o n tra c tin g p artie s. U n fo rtu n a te ly , su ch treaties a re subject 1
m isin te rp re ta tio n a n d o f co u rse a b ro g a tio n .
a. Basic Problems o f International l a w . B ecause o f the traits o f intern;
tio n al law d ee p sh a d o w s d o e n sh ro u d th e subject. O n e o f th e m ost serioi
p ro b le m s is th a t o f its ex isten c e a lto g e th e r. G ra v e d o u b ts have bet
expressed w h e th e r th e re a re in te rn a tio n a l rules a n d reg u latio n s w hit
m ai ntai n o rd e r a n d ju stic e a m o n g th e n a tio n s o f th e w orld. P ro fe sso r H . I
A. H a rt a d d s th a t d o u b ts a b o u t in te rn a tio n a l law a re su p p o rte d by
ihc absence of an international legislature, courts with compulsory jurisdiction, and ce
(rally organised sanctions.-’'’

See for example. Kipnis. K., Philosophical Issues in Ia w : Cases and Materials. Englewood Cli
New Jersey. Prentice-Hall. 1977.
11fo r example. Henkin. I... Him Malians Behave: law and Foreign Policy. New York. Colum
Univ. Press, 1979.
Hart, H. I.. A., The Concept of law , Oxford, Clarendon, 1961, p. 209.

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P ro b a b ly th e m o st s trik in g ev id en ce fo r th e ex isten c e o f in te rn a tio n a l

ju ris p ru d e n c e is th e b re a c h o f o b serv an ce as in recent ev en ts like th e S uez
affair, th e E ic h m a n n a b d u c tio n , th e E n te b b e a irp o rt rescue, a n d th e A m er­
ican h o stag es in Iran .
F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f scientific p h ilo s o p h y w ith its fo u n d a tio n in
c o n fro n ta b le ev e n ts th e q u e stio n o f th e ex isten c e an d o p e ra tio n o f in te rn a ­
tio n al law is to be an sw ered o n the basis o f events. R ig h ts an d o b lig atio n s
a re n a tio n a lly p ro m u lg a te d by p a rtic u la r n a tio n s a n d en fo rced as ag ain st
so m e o r all o th e r n a tio n s. A g o o d e x a m p le is th e settin g up o f fishing zones
a n d th e trial a n d p en alizatio n o f offenders by u n ilateral c o u rts an d arm s.

Jurisprudence as Interdisciplinary Philosophy

Ju ris p ru d e n c e as th e discipline stressin g th e b e h a v io r an d in te rre la tio n s
o f p erso n s m u st o f necessity be in terd iscip lin ary . T h e stu d y o f laws c a n n o t
fail to b e in to u c h w ith ev en ts o f o rg a n ic , in o rg an ic, a n d an th ro p o lo g ic a l
sp ecia liz atio n . In this sec tio n we p la n to ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e re la tio n s
betw een law a n d logic, law an d ethics, a n d law a n d psychology.
a. Law and Louie. C o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y d ev o ted to th e ex istence
a n d p o w e r o f re a so n co n n e c ts law a n d logic v ery closely. But th e co n n e c­
tio n is n o b e tte r th a n its w e ak est lin k . It is o b v io u s th a t re a so n is ta k e n as a
te rm o r a b s tra c tio n an d th u s ju risp ru d e n c e is b etter cleared fro m su ch
c o n stru c tio n s . B ut w hen logic is d e sc rib e d as th e pro cess o f system b u ild ­
in g 27 it is w ell said th a t law s fo rm u la te d sy stem atically are su p e rio r to th o se
h a p h a z a rd ly o rg a n iz ed . In o th e r w o rd s th e m a k in g o r accep tin g laws a n d
th e dec isio n s b ased o n th em sh o u ld b e in ac c o rd w ith th e social, ec o n o m ic ,
political, a n d scientific c o n d itio n s p revailing at th e tim e an d p lace o f
o p e ra tio n . D o u b tle ss it is in this sen se th a t H o lm es asserted in his m u ch
q u o te d sta te m e n t,
The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience.-’'
b. Laws and Morals. As in stru m e n ts o f o rd e r a n d peace in societies,
law s sh o u ld , o f co u rse, be in ac co rd w ith th e m o ral p rin cip les21* prevailing
at th e tim e. H o w ev er in th e in tere st o f p h ilo so p h ical clarity th e processes o f
law fo rm u la tio n a n d o p e ra tio n s h o u ld be an aly zed a lo n g w ith th e n atu re
an d o p e ra tio n o f eth ical b eh av io r. O n ly so c a n th e rela tio n sh ip betw een th e
tw o be p ro p e rly assayed. E th ical rules an d b e h a v io r p rescrip tio n s o cc u r in

!,Cf. Kantor, J. R., Psychology and Logic, Chicago. Principia. 1945-1950.

* Holmes. O. W„ The Common Law, Boston. Little. Brown. 1881, p. 1.
’’ Hart. H. L. A.. The Concept o f Law, p. 109.

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 HUMAN EVENTS IN P H IL O S O P H IC A L P E R S P E C T 1 '

ev ery ty p e o f b e h a v io r s itu a tio n ;30 b u t th e is o f law in terest sh o u ld n o t

co n fu sed w ith the ought o f eth ical p erfo rm an ces.
J u s tic e is a b rid g e erected to link law a n d m o rals. F irst it is asserted th
ju s tic e is a m o ral v alu e an d th e n every v io la tio n o f a law is in terp re ted
injustice. W h a te v er difficulty th e re m a y be in seeing th e differences ai
sim ilarities as betw een ju stic e a n d m o ra lity o r eth ics an d law in general,
o w in g to th e neglect to an a ly z e specific situ atio n s. C o m p le x situ atio
w h e th e r investigated fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f legal ju stic e o r m o rals cons
tu te fields.
In th e case o f law o r ju ris p ru d e n c e th e em p h asis is o n decisions whi-
m ay be ju s t o r u n ju st b u t in a c c o rd a n c e w ith p reced en t o r statu te. W h
m o ra l situ atio n s a re in view, a c tio n is fu rth e re d o r im p ed ed on th e basis o
self-fo rm u lated rule o r so cial c o n v e n tio n . In ea ch case th e in terre latio n
ju s tic e o r law an d m o ra ls is a m a tte r o f p a rtic ip a tio n o f v a ria n t fa c to rs ir
to ta l co m p lex , and n o t a m a tte r o f c o n jo in t presen ce o f tw o n o n id en tical
p a rtia lly sim ilar en tities. T h e e x tre m e case o f p o la riz a tio n o f ju stic e ai
m o rals m ight be th e p rin cip le Ig n o ra n tia legis n o n excusat.
c. Laws and Psychology. T h e p sychological co re in th e m ak in g o f la>
a n d th eir a p p lic a tio n to in n u m e ra b le p h ases o f h u m a n situ atio n s needs i
special m en tio n . S in ce law s a re so in tric a te ly involved w ith p erso n s t
re la tio n sh ip o f psychology w ith law s is p a te n t an d subject to ready observ
tio n . B ut w h a t m u st be b ro u g h t to th e su rface is th e necessity to have
ra tio n a l a n d scientific a p p re c ia tio n o f th e n a tu re o f psychology. U n fo rt
n a te ly th is is n o t fre q u e n tly th e case. W rite rs o n law a d o p t ideas o f cu rre
a p p e a l by so m e p eo p le o r p a ss off as p sychological, n o tio n s th a t th
fo rm u la te fo r them selves. M o re o v e r, th e law situ atio n s th ey co n c ern thei
selves w ith a re co n seq u en tly n o t in g o o d o rd er.
A n ex a m p le o f th e m is ta k e n tre a tm e n t o f th e re la tio n sh ip betw een la
a n d psychology is th e follow ing. A lth o u g h in te rn a tio n a l law p erta in s to t
b e h a v io r o f states an d n o t o f in d iv id u a ls th e a tte m p t is m a d e to descri
a n d ex p la in in te rn a tio n a l law o n th e m o d el o f in d ividual psychology. Su<
d e sc rip tio n s are p re sen ted in b o o k s p re su m e d to be tre a tin g in tern a tio n
law an d p sy ch o lo g y 31 b u t d isp lay a fu tile a tte m p t to “ex p lain ” in tern atio n
re la tio n s o n the basis o f F re u d ia n P sy ch oanalysis. W e have alreat
referred to J e ro m e F ra n k ’s a tte m p t to a p p ly p sychoanalysis to th e in terp i
ta tio n o f legal problem s.
“ Pound, R., Law and Morals. 2nd ed„ Chapel Hill, Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1926.
11For example, West, R., International Law a n d Psychology, Dobbs Ferry, Oceana Publicatic
1974.

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 C H A P T E R 22
PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF HISTORY

A M B IG U ITIES C O N C ER N IN G T H E P H IL O S O P H Y O F HISTORY

A m o n g th e to p ics tre a te d by p h ilo so p h ers, h isto ry is one o f th e m o st

a m b ig u o u s a n d difficult. W rite rs o n th e p h ilo so p h y o f h isto ry face serious
p ro b le m s co n c e rn in g th e n a tu re a n d v alu e o f h isto ry as a subject, as well as
a b o u t th e a v a ila b ility o f h isto rical ev en ts a n d c o n d itio n s fo r in v estig atio n
a n d in te rp re ta tio n . T h is s itu a tio n hinges o n th e fact th a t h isto ry c o n c ern s
th in g s a n d ev en ts o f th e past, a n d th e difficulty o f achieving reliable
k n o w le d g e a b o u t s o m e th in g th a t n o lo n g e r ex ists. S m all w o n d e r th en , th a t
w riters a b o u t h isto ry v ary fro m th e o n e e x tre m e th a t h isto ry is th e m o st
esse n tial su b ject fo r th e p h ilo so p h e r, C o h e n ;1 to th e o th er, th a t p h ilo so p h y
h a s n o th in g to d o w ith history, E lto n .2 In d iv id u al p h ilo so p h ers a n d h isto ri­
a n s ea c h in th e ir o w n discipline differ ra d ic ally an d c o n tra d ic t ea ch o th er.
T h is is a n a tu ral co n seq u e n ce o f clinging t o cer tainties a n d absolutes in
p h ilo so p h y , a n d to o b so lete p sy ch o lo g ical p re su p p o sitio n s w h ich .d isto rt
p ro b le m s o f k n o w led g e a n d existence.

H IS T O R IO G R A PH Y E M E N D E D x

It is o n e o f th e p rim a ry c o n te n tio n s o f th is w o rk th a t th e am biguities a n d

c o n tra d ic tio n s o f c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y o f h isto ry c a n be clarified by a
critical e x a m in a tio n o f its p o stu la te s a n d p ractices. It is necessary th a t
p h ilo so p h e rs a n d h isto rian s e x a m in e carefu lly th e basic characteristics o f
b o th p h ilo so p h y a n d psychology.
a. Scientific philosophy. A s we h av e c o n te n d e d th ro u g h o u t this w o rk ,
a d e q u a te p h ilo so p h y z in g m u st d isp en se w ith n o tio n s o f a b s o lutes, etern i­
ties, a n d c e rtain tie s w h ich in effective an a ly sis co n sist o f n o th in g m o re th a n
v erb al a b s tra c tions. T o d o so is to p re o c c u p y o n ese lf w ith co n c rete things
a n d e v e n ts w h ich in clu d e th e a ttitu d e s o f th in k e rs w ith respect to th eir
en v iro n in g w o rld s o f n a tu re a n d cu ltu re.
b. Scientific psychology d e p a rts rad ically fro m th e tra d itio n a l a ssu m p ­
tio n th a t o rg a n ism s o f a n y species co n sist o f tw o types o f factors, th e

■Cohen, M. R., The Meaning o f Human History , Chicago, Open Court 1947.
; Elton. G. R.. The Practice o f H istory , London. Sydney Univ. Press. Methuen, 1967.

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p sy ch ic a n d th e biological. It rests u p o n th e o b v io u s fact th a t psy ch o lo j

ev e n ts exclusively c o m p rise o rg a n ism s in te rb e h av in g w ith stim u lu s obj
w h e th e r o th e r o rg a n ism s, in o rg a n ic th in g s, o r cu ltu ra l co n d itio n s m al
u p a u n iq u e field. A specific e x a m p le o f w h a t scientific p sy ch o lo g y esch
in th e u su a l d iscu ssio n s o f h isto rical p ro b le m s is th e n o tio n o f a n it
w o rld o f co n sc io u sn e ss o r m in d a n d a n o u te r w o rld m o stly createc
m in d . T h e classic e x a m p le o f th is ty p e o f th in k in g is H egel’s verbal
a b o u t th e “ A b so lu te Id e a” o r “S p irit” w h ich creates th e universe in al
m u ltip le details.1*3

H ISTO RY AS EVENTS A N D AS CON STR U C TS

A s a first ste p in th e effo rt to c o rre c t so m e e rro rs in th e c o n v e n tk

p h ilo so p h y o f histo ry , it is h ig h ly d e sira b le to be fully a w a re o f a n im |
ta n t d istin c tio n b etw een th e p a s t ev en ts w hich a re d e n o m in a te d hist<
a n d th e c o n stru c ts w h ich c o n sist o f d e sc rip tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s a t
th o s e ev en ts also re ferred to as h isto ry . P h ilo so p h e rs o f h isto ry occasi
ally call a tte n tio n to th e differences b etw e en H isto ry ] as ev en ts a n d 1
to ry 24 as th e stu d y o f events.
In th e te rm s o f th e scientific p sy ch o lo g y u p o n w h ich scientific p h ilo so
is b ased, th e processes o r specific h a p p e n in g s w hich a re c u m u la ti’
referred to as h isto ry c o n s titu te stim u lu s ob jects fo r th e e la b o ra te reacti
called d esc rip tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s.
Q i N o w scientific p h ilo s o p h y v ig o ro u sly rejects an y in te rp re ta tio n o f
to ry as a u n iv ersal process. E sch ew ed th e n a re su c h in te rp re ta tio n s as I
h isto ric a l e v e n ts a re th e w o rk s o f a d eity w h o creates th e m fro m tinu
tim e th ro u g h o u t th e c o u rse o f h isto ry . A p o p u la r v e rsio n o f th is typi
in te rp re ta tio n is th a t h isto ry co n sists o f th e cre atio n s o f a n A b so lu te Ide;
d e ity su c h as H egel in v en ted . S im ila r u n iv ersalistic in te rp re ta tio n s m a k
th e co u rse o f h isto rical ev en ts a gen eral ab stra c t ev o lu tio n , so th a t u n iv e
h isto ry b eco m es very re m o te fro m c o n c rete events.
O p p o n e n ts o f th e u n iv ersalistic view o f h isto ry in te rp re t h isto rical ev<
as a series o f discrete ac c id e n ts w ith o u t a u n ify in g p rin cip le, p u rp o se

1Hegel, G. W. F., The Philosophy o f History ( i . Sibree, trs.), New York, Wiley, 1944. To a sci
it is astounding how popular and sympathetic the vaporings of this religious romantic are at
historians.
4Cf. Atkinson, R. F., Knowledge and Explanations in History: An Introduction to the Philos
o f History, Ithaca, Cornell, 1978.

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a n y sim ila r so u rc e o f e v e n t co n n e c tio n . T h e E n g lish h isto ria n F ish e r w rites

. . . Men wiser and more learned than 1 have discerned in history a plot, a rhythm, a
predetermined pattern. These harmonies are concealed from me. I can only see emergency
following upon another as wave follows upon wave, only one great fact with respect to
which, since it is unique, there can be no generalizations, only one safe rule for the historian:
that he should recognize in the development of human destinies the play of the contingent
and the unforeseen. This is not a doctrine of cynicism and despair. The fact of progress is
written plain and large on the page of history; but progress is not a law of nature. The
ground gained by one generation may be lost by the next. The thoughts of men may flow
into the channels which lead to disaster and barbarism.9

T h e w ritin g s o f K a rl M a rx a n d F rie d ric h E ngels a re ex tre m ely in stru c ­

tive c o n c e rn in g th e subject m a tte r o f history. T h ese w riters assert th e
necessity o f tra n s fo rm in g h isto rical stu d ies to elim in ate c o n v e n tio n a l his­
to ry a n d to in itia te n ew h isto rio g ra p h ic d ire c tio n s. O n e im p o rta n t targ e t is
th e tu r n in g a w a y fro m th e g re atly in flated sp iritism o f H egel a n d th e
s u b s titu tio n fo r it o f co n c rete m aterialistic ideas b earin g especially u p o n th e
lives a n d activities o f th e p ro le ta ria n m asses.
W ith respect to H egelian sp iritism M a rx w rites,
H e g e ts conception of history presupposes an A b s tr a c t a t A b s o lu te S p ir it which develops
in such a way that mankind is a mere m a s s that bears the Spirit with a varying degree of
consciousness or unconsciousness. Within e m p ir ic a l, exoteric history, therefore, Hegel
makes it s p e c u la tiv e , esoteric history, develop. The history of mankind becomes the history
of the A b s tr a c t S p ir it of mankind, hence a sp irit f a r r e m o v e d from the real man.6

F o r his o w n p a r t M a rx believes he is th in k in g scientifically a n d basing

h im self o n n a tu ra listic g ro u n d . H u m a n beings m u st h av e fo o d , d rin k , an d
sh elter, a n d o f c o u rse th e freed o m to a d a p t them selves to th e ir n a tu ra l a n d
c u ltu ra l e n v iro n m e n ts. B ut h isto ry d eals m o stly w ith th e lead ers w h o
d o m in a te o v er o th e rs a n d d ep riv e th e m o f th e ir m ateria l a n d m o ra l rights
a n d p re ro g ativ es. A s a h isto ria n a n d critical o b se rv e r M a rx fa v o rs changes
in h u m a n affairs. In th e C o m m u n is t M a n ife sto h e an d E ngels disclose th e ir
co n fid en ce th a t th e p ro le ta ria t will in h erit th e e a rth in th e future.
H o w so e v e r m u c h o n e w ay sy m p a th iz e w ith M a rx ia n p o litical a n d
e c o n o m ic sen tim e n ts an d h o p e fo r th e ir e v e n tu al fulfillm ent, th e c o m m u ­
nist h isto rio g ra p h y c a n n o t co n ceal its sh o rtco m in g s. T h e em p h asis o f
p ro p a g a n d a , th e b asic d u alistic psychology ex h ib ited a n d th e to ta lita ria n
re m n a n t o f H egel d o n o t really a d d u p to a n a u th e n tic scientific history.

’ Fisher, H. A. L„ A History o f Europe, London, Arnold, 1936, preface, p. v.

6 Marx, K.. and Engels, J., The Holy Family, or Critique o f Critical Criticism: Against Bruno Bauer
and Company (R. Dixon and C Dutt, trs.), Moscow, Progress, 1975. p. 100.

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in metaphysics Marx was not a simple materialist, but a supporter of the theory t
emergent evolution, according to which conscious life has developed from conditions whic
were at first wholly material.’

P rom inent am ong the negative historians is N am ier (1888-1960) wh

tak es the position th a t history is necessarily subjective an d individua
conditioned by the interest an d vision o f th e historian.8 Also Beard (1 87<
1948) thinks o f science as only th e “natural" sciences, and is im bued wit
the spiritistic m etaphysics to regard history as “contem porary thougl
a b o u t the p ast,”’ so w ritten history is a n act o f faith not a science, a n art,
theology, philosophy, o r a b ra n ch o f literature. T here are m any o thers, ft
exam ple, D ra y 10(1921- ), T re v o r-R o p er" (1914- ), to n am e only
few. Each o f th e pros and cons is based o n particular assum ptions o f tl
writers.
W hat is lacking in all these w riters is the anti m etaphysical view thi
science is a n institutional form o f occupation, th e aim and p urpose <
ri w hich is to procure an d organize inform ation a b o u t things and events <
interest to som e o r all th e m em bers of cultural populations.

CAN HISTORY BE A SCIENCE?

| T his question is th e them e o f m any debates am ong historians. S on

tak in g the position th a t history can be scientific while others are j u s t ;
If
certain that it is not possible. A m ong th o se w ho tak e a positive view o n th
l question, Fustel de C oulanges declares th at “history is and should be
br science,"12 while B ury in agreem ent says history “is simply a science, no le
mi•— an d no m ore.” 13 Sim ilarly C ollingw ood in no uncertain term s asserts th
HI
“science is finding things out; an d in th a t sense history is a science.” 14 O the
*n* tak e the position th at history is m ore like literature o r poetry and c ite .
exam ples the w orks o f E. H. C laren d o n , T . Carlyle, T. B. M acaulay, G. ft
mat­ Trevelyan, an d E. G ibbon.

’Walsh, W. H., An Introduction to Philosophy o f History, London, Hutchinson Univ. Libra

1958, p. 159 n.
•Namier, L. B., “History and Political Culture,’ in The Varieties o f History (F. Stem, ed.), N
York, Meridian. 1957, pp. 371, 386.
9Beard, C. A., “Written History as an Act of Faith," American Historical Review, 39.2,219-2
10Philosophical Analysis and History (W. H. Dray, ed.), New York, Harper and Row, 1966.
__ 11Trevor-Roper, H., Historical Essays, London, Macmillan, 1957.
•i Fustel dt Coulanges, “An Inaugural Lecture," in The Varieties o f History, (F. Stem, ed.), N
JYork, Meridian, 1957, p. 178.
15Bury, J. B., “The Science of History," in Selected Essays, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Pn
1930, p. 3-22.
’ “Collingwood, R. G., The Idea o f History, Oxford, Oxford Univ. Press, 1946, p. 9.

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O f co u rse , th e d e b a te s d ep en d u p o n v a ry in g p o s tu la tio n s o r basic

a ssu m p tio n s^ T h e negative p o sitio n is assu m ed m o stly by th o se w h o regard
th e events o f h isto ry as m erely creatio n s o f th e h isto rian s^ T h ey rely u p o n a
ty p e o f p h ilo so p h ic al an d psychological a ssu m p tio n acco rd in g to w hich
th in g s a n d ev e n ts m ay be re g a rd e d as p ro je c tio n s o f th e m in d w ith o u t
in d ep en d e n t reality.
T h e en tire d e b a te o r d ialo g u e loses its m erit com p letely in the perspective
o f scientific p h ilo so p h y . N o tice th a t th e d e b a te begins w ith a p ro b lem , fo r
ex am p le, c o n c e rn in g w hat erro rs N a p o le o n m ig h t have m a d e in 1813 o r the
id en tity o f th o se w h o slew J u liu s C a e sa r. It is p o ssible th a t so m e situ atio n
o r circ u m sta n ce th a t has been w ritten a b o u t did no t o cc u r at all.15 T hen,
th ere is n o stim u lu s object fo r an aly sis a n d d escrip tio n . B ut this h ap p e n s in
th e case o f a n y d e p a rtm e n t o f science in w h ich som e ev en t is p resu p p o sed
V w h ich d o e s n o t ex ist at all, b u t is th e re su lt o f so m e s o rt o f e rro r o f
j o b se rv a tio n . A strik in g e x a m p le is th e case o f th e F ren c h physicist B lond-
s lot. T h is physicist re p u te d to be q u ite c o m p e te n t b ecam e so excited a b o u t
s th e d isco v ery o f X -ray s, th a t he th o u g h t he h a d disco v ered a n o th e r ty p e o f
f ray s w hich he called N -rays. A lth o u g h so m e F ren ch colleagues also
“o b serv ed ” such rays, it tu rn e d o u t th a t n o s u ch rays ex isted .16 H ere it is
in terestin g to n o te th a t E lto n asserts th a t th ere is a g reater objectivity fo r
h isto ry o r h isto rical stu d y .17 In this c o n n e c tio n also we no te th a t H eisen­
berg an d colleagues p ro p o se d a principle o f u n c e rta in ty fo r m o d ern
physics.
It has lo n g been a tra d itio n th a t h u m a n ev en ts a re in principle different
fro m th e ev en ts o f physics a n d ch em istry so th a t th e re has g ro w n up a
b a rrie r betw een th e so-called n a tu ra l a n d th e social sciences. It is certainly
clear, how ever, th a t this d istin c tio n is a rb itra ry a n d baseless, except th a t the
u p h o ld e rs o f this view derive c o m fo rt fro m a m en talistic o r subjectivistic
type o f psychology o f h u m a n -n a tu re .1*

ANALYSIS O F SC IE N T IFIC E N TER PR ISE S

H elpful fo r d ecid in g w h e th e r o r n o t h isto rical w o rk c a n be scientific is

th e analysis o f scientific enterprises acco rd in g to scientific p h ilosophy. Such
analysis c a n o n ly be based u p o n o b serv atio n s o f th e w ork d o n e by scientists
l s C f . M o m i g l i a n o , A . D . , “ H i s l o r i a e A u g u s t a e , ” in S tu d ie s in H istoriographv. a n U n so lv ed
P ro b lem o f H isto rica l F orgery: The S crip tu re s. N e w Y o r k . H a r p e r a n d R o w . 1 9 6 6 . c h . 9 .
" ■ C f. T h o m p s o n . J J . , R eco llectio n s a n d R eflectio n s. N e w Y o r k . M a c m i l l a n . 19.17.
17 E l t o n , G . R . , O p. cit.. p . 5 2 .
'" C f . K a n t o r . J . R . . “ S e g r e g a t i o n in S c ie n c e : A n H i s t o r i c o - C u l l u r a l A n a l y s i s ," P s u h o lo g tta l
R e c o rd . 2 3 . 3 3 5 - 3 4 2 .

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 H U M A N E V EN TS I N’ P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I

in a tta c k in g th eir p ro b lem s a n d a tte m p tin g to solve th e m .1’ G enerali;

least six fa c to rs g o to m a k e u p a scientific situ atio n . T h ey m ay be liste
follow s.

1) The scientific worker 5) Auspices under which Scientific

2) Things worked with enterprises are conducted
3) Scientific operations 6) Products of Historical Work
4) Facilities and Aids

1. The scientific worker. A u th e n tic scientific w o rk depends, o f co

u p o n th e co m p e te n c e o f th e w o rk er. T h e v alu e o f h istorical investig:
involves a n ex p e rtn e ss o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e situ a tio n before him , a
essen tial fo r ta k in g th e p ro p e r m e a su res fo r p ro ceed in g w ith th e v
C o m p e te n c e o n every level is th e fu n c tio n o f th e ex p erien ce o f th e w<
w h ich v aries w ith th e p ro b le m s to be w o rk ed at. A t th e o u tset, noth)
m o re im p o rta n t th a n th e a x io m s o r a ssu m p tio n s w hich su p p ly th e g
lines fo r th e inv estig atio n . T h e m assac re o f S t. B arth o lo m ew becom es
d ifferent a t th e h a n d s o f a C a th o lic o r a H u g u e n o t. In th e historical do
it is also im p o rta n t to u n d e rs ta n d th e go al o f th e investigator. '
m o tiv a te s a h isto ria n to e n te r u p o n a n d c o n tin u e his w o rk ? T h e liter
o f th e p h ilo so p h y o f h isto ry in d icates th a t h istorical w o rk an d its p n
a re b e tte r o r w o rse fo r th e p re s u p p o sitio n s o f th e w o rk ers, a n d thest
trem en d o u sly . H e ro d o tu s u n d e rto o k his historical reco rd s
in the hope of thereby preserving from decay the remembrance, of what men have do
of preventing the great and wonderful actions of the Greeks and Barbarians from
their due meed of glory; and with all to put on record what were their grounds of

T h u c y d id e s21 w ro te o n th e sam e basis. O th e r h isto rian s em phasizi

uses o f h isto ry fo r p u rp o se s o f a v o id in g th e erro rs o f the p a st ai
g a ining so m e w o r th y o b ject in th e fu tu re. A n o th e r in terest o f hisi
w riters is th e value o f h isto ry fo r e d u c a tio n a n d general literary enjo>
T hey assu m e th a t it is w o rth w h ile to k n o w w h at has h ap p e n ed in th e |
satisfy th e c u rio sity o f th e re a d e r o r to teach him w h at h a s h a p p e n e d
past as a m odel fo r fu tu re b ehavior.
2. Objects Interacted with. If a n d w hen h isto rian s incline to w a
view th a t h isto ry is scientific th ey m u st lim it th eir activities to even
have a c tu a lly h a p p e n e d . In o th e r w o rd s g re at em p h asis m u st be
u p o n th e p rio r ex isten ce o f p a s t ev en ts w h ich the w riter k n o w s
" C f . K a n l o r , J . R ., The Logic o f Modern Science, C h i c a g o , P r i n c i p i a , 1 9 5 3 .
20 The History o f Herodotus ( G . R a w l i n s o n , t r s . ) , N e w Y o r k . D i a l , 1 9 2 8 .
11 T h u c y d i d e s , The History o f the Peloponnesian War ( R . C r a w l e y , t r s . ) , L o n d o n , D e n t,

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p e rh a p s fro m h isto rio g ra p h ic a l tra d itio n . W h a t is env isag ed as the object

w o rk e d u p o n m ay be th e w a r b etw e en A th e n s an d S p a rta , re v o lu tio n s in
F ran ce, A m eric a, a n d R ussia.
W h a t th e h is to ria n w rites a b o u t d ep e n d s u p o n th e im p o rta n c e o f the
events a n d th e v alu e su ch events h av e fo r h isto rian s. T h ey m ay confine
them selves to p o litica l ev en ts o r w h a t h a p p e n e d in th e succession o f
p h ilo so p h ic al d o ctrin e s, a n d p e rh a p s m o re specialized s o rts o f subject
m a tte r. It is a c o m p a ra tiv e ly recen t c irc u m sta n c e th a t h isto ria n s have been
urg ed to w rite a b o u t so cial an d e c o n o m ic m atters. T h is s o rt o f co n c e n tra ­
tio n o n su b ject m a tte r is a fu n c tio n o f th e h isto rio g ra p h y o f a p a rtic u la r
tim e o r p e rio d .(H is to ry w ritten w ith a c o n c e rn fo r social a n d eco n o m ic
c o n d itio n s inclines h isto ry aw ay fro m th e in terest in h ero es a n d royal
p erso n a g e s in o rd e r to ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e p eo p le o f given p o p u la te d
c o u n trie s.^
3. Historiographic Operations. S in c e h isto rio g ra p h y in v ariab ly p er­
tain s to h a p p e n in g s in th e p ast, th e w o rk o f th e h isto ria n in g en e ral is eith er
to refer to th e p a s t o n th e basis o f p re se n t ev id en ce o r, as it is im p ro p e rly
p u t, re cre ate th e events o f th e past. In so fa r as free creatio n is in d u lg ed in,
su ch h isto ric a l w o rk d o e s n o t m a tc h scientific rules. H isto rical w riting
p ro d u c e d b y free im a g in a tio n p a r ta k e s m o re o f th e q u a lity o f literature.
S uch lite ra tu re co n sists o f fictions th a t w riters m ay reg ard a s v alu ab le fo r
som e p u rp o se.
T o resp ect th e guid elin es o f scientific h isto ry the h isto ria n m u st o f course
be as m eticu lo u s as possible to in tera ct w ith th e evidences o f th e p ast events,
he m u st re s tra in a n y u rg e to en d o w th ese ev en ts w ith p ro p e rtie s o r q u alities
n o t o b serv ed o r in ferred fro m reliable evidence. B ut o f co u rse as N am ier
p o in ts o u t22 th e fu n c tio n o f th e h isto ria n is a k in to th a t o f th e p a in te r a n d
n o t o f th e p h o to g ra p h ic cam era.
T h e w o rk o f th e h is to ria n it is a g reed by m a n y w riters d e m a n d s e x p e rt
selection a n d o rg a n iz a tio n in o rd e r to a v o id triviality a n d to induce
significance.
4. Facilities and Aids for Historical Research. It has b een said th a t
h isto ry d o es n o t d ea l w ith th e p ast at all, b u t o n ly its p resen t relics o r traces
left fro m th e p a st.23 T h is view goes c o u n te r to scientific psy ch o lo g y ac c o rd ­
in g to w h ic h e v e n ts o f th e p ast a re th e stim u lu s o b jects th a t h isto rian s refer
to o r re act to . N o w it is a p rin cip le o f scientific p sy ch o lo g y th a t definite
22 N a m i e r . L . B ., “ H i s t o r y a r i d P o l i t i c a l C u l t u r e . " i n The Varieties o f History ( F . S t e m , e d .) . N e w
Y o rk . M e rid ia n . 1957. p . 379.
» E lto n . G . R ., Op. Cit.. p . 9.

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p sy ch o lo g ical events im p ly in te rb e h a v io r w ith so m e o bject. T h e relics

trac es left fro m th e p a st c o n sist o f su b stitu te stim u lu s objects fo r t
orig in als w h ich m ay n o t ex ist a n y lo n g e r a fte r m an y centuries. T h e re i
m a n y types o f su b stitu te stim u li, fo r e x a m p le , in historical situ a tio n s t
stim u lu s fu n c tio n s m ay in h e re in d o c u m e n ts o r in scrip tio n s m ad e o n sto
o r clay o r th ey m ay be m o re re cen t a n n a ls , in scrip tio n s, a n d o th e r sub:
tu te s fo r ev en ts th a t h a v e tra n s p ire d b e fo re w ritten h is to r y .^ h e conclusi
reach ed h ere is th a t it is im p ro p e r to say th a t h isto ry does n o t deal w ith •
p a s t at all. U nless h isto ric a l m a te ria ls a re p u re fa b ric a tio n s instead
sym b o ls o f p a st events, we ac cep t th e m as evidence fo r events o f th e p
JnotO • w h e n they c a n be verified in w h o le o r p art, ^ h e p ro p e r a ttitu d e to ti
to w a rd th e so-called relics o r trac es is th a t th ey a re in stru m e n ts o r aids
describ in g p ast e v e n ts ^ MA'jBE
S in ce h isto ria n s u su ally h o ld to a m etap h y sical a n d pseudosciem
p sy ch o lo g y , they raise v a rio u s q u e stio n s a b o u t h istorical events. T h ey
w h a t, w hen, a n d w h ere are th ey ? A n in te re stin g an sw e r to th e w hereabc
o f h isto rical events is B ecker’s a s se rtio n th a t h isto rical facts a re in so
o n e’s m ind o r they a re n o w h e re.2*
S u rely th e p o sitio n a ssu m e d is ex tre m e ly re m o te fro m a n y s o rt o f ev
It a p p e a rs as a p erv ersio n o f a ttitu d e s to w a rd tim e a n d its success
M o re o v e r, B ecker seem s to be o u t o f th e ra n g e o f scientific psychoh
hen c e he m isu n d e rsta n d s th e ev en t o f p e rso n s in te ra c tin g w ith p a s t si
tio n s by m ean s o f p re sen t in te ra c tio n s w ith stim u latin g su b stitu te o b ;
w h eth er o ra l c o n v e rsatio n o r sy m b o lic rep resentatives o f past things.
5. Auspices or Settings o f Historical Events. A fu n d a m e n ta l featui
h isto rical stu d y is th e an aly sis o f th e in te rre latio n sh ip o f a n y given
w ith o th e r p rio r, s im u lta n e o u s, a n d su cceed in g th in g s a n d event.'
general, su ch related fa c to rs in h isto rical s itu a tio n s co n sist o f th e circ
sta n c e u n d e r w h ich ev en ts o ccu r. O fte n th e so u rces o f in fo rm a tio n a
h isto rical events, th e a n n a ls, in scrip tio n s a n d arch aeo lo g ical retrii
w h ich serve as in d ex es to p a s t e v e n ts a lso p o in t to th e au spices o r set
fo r h isto rical situ atio n s.
In n a tio n a l h isto ries th e circ u m sta n c e s a tte n d in g th e policy o r behj
o f a specified c o u n try m ay co n sist o f th e recent o r p rospective in terrela
o f n eig h b o rin g co u n tries. S u c h settin g fa c to rs m ay a p p e a r as th e k
sim ilar s itu a tio n s th a t m ig h t o c c u r in th e fu tu re. In m o d e m tim es go
The Western Political Quarterly. 1 9 5 5 , 8 . 3
54 B e c k e r , C . L . , “ W h a t a r e H i s t o r i c a l F a c t s T
r e p r in te d in The Philosophy o f History in our Time ( H . M e y e r h o f f , e d . ) . G a r d e n C i t y , D o u
1959.

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m en ts em p lo y h isto rical w riters p re su m a b ly to tell w h a t h a s h ap p e n e d in

th e case o f co n flict a n d w ar, b u t p e rh a p s n o t w ith o u t a n in k lin g o f how
su p e rio r th e p a rtic u la r n a tio n is co m p a re d w ith o th e r n atio n s.
F re q u e n tly th e in terre latio n sh ip s o f item s in h isto rical situ a tio n s are
ta k e n to b e ca u ses o r e x p la n a tio n s o f specified ev en ts. T h u s historical
lite ra tu re re co rd s th e faulty c a u sa tio n o f g eo g rap h ical, b iological, clim atic,
o r salu b rity o f localities o n historical events.
P e rtin e n t h ere is th e n o tio n o f “co llig a tio n ” w hich W alsh has b o rro w ed
fro m W hew ell th e h is to ria n o f science. T h e p o in t is th a t different item s o f
h isto ry a p p e a r to be closely related as th ey are o b served to h ap p e n .25
6. Products o f Historical Work. T h e p rim a ry p ro d u c ts o f historical
stu d y m ay b e en v isag ed as m o re o r less c e rta in k n o w led g e o f events
co n sid ered v alu ab le fo r v ario u s p u rp o ses. A n o th e r type o f p ro d u c t consists
o f a u th e n tic a te d articles o r treatises. T o b eg in w ith , s u c h sec o n d ary func­
tio n s m ay serve as m edia o f in fo rm a tio n co n c e rn in g past events. A ssum ing
th a t th e w ritin g s c o n sist o f verifiable references to th e o b jects o r events th at
h isto ria n s h av e w ritten a b o u t, th ey satisfy cu rio sity o r p ro v id e so m e useful
lesson fo r ra tio n a l b e h a v io r in th e fu tu re . T h ere is o n ly o n e restrictio n and
th a t is th a t th e w ritin g s o r re p o rts b ea r as close a re la tio n sh ip to th e original
ev e n t as h a s b e e n p o ssib le u n d e r given c irc u m stan ces. A m o st sin g u lar
p ro d u c t o f h isto rical w ritin g is, ac c o rd in g to T o y n b ee , w h en h isto ry passes
o v er in to th eo lo g y .26

O N TO LO G IC A L A SPECTS O F H ISTORY

A read in g o f a co llectio n o f v ario u s v o lu m es in th e p h ilo so p h y o f H isto ry

suggests th a t th e w riters base them selves u p o n c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilosophical
assu m p tio n s. T ra d itio n a l assu m p tio n s th e n c o n d itio n th eir interests and
h o w th ey c a rry th e m o u t. P ro m in e n t in th e v a rio u s p h ilo so p h ie s o f histo ry
a re p ro b le m s c a te g o riz a b le as o n to lo g ic al a n d ep istem o lo g ical. W e find it
conv en ien t, th e n , to discuss a n u m b e r o f related an d u n re la ted historical
p ro b lem s u n d e r th ese rubrics.
a. Progress and Regress in History. A m o n g th e p o p u la r b u t q u e stio n ­
a b le view s o f h isto rio g ra p h y is th a t o f pro g ress in th e sense th a t history
sh o w s a unified d ire c te d m o v e m e n t to w a rd a final o u tc o m e o r end. O n e of
th e best e x a m p le s o f this so rt o f th eo lo g ical m isin te rp re ta tio n o f histo ry is
” W a ls h , W . H „ A n Introduction to Philosophy o f History, L o n d o n . H u t c h i n s o n U n iv . L i b r a r y ,
1 9 5 8 . p p . 5 9 f.
“ T o y n b e e , A . J ., Civilization on Trial. L o n d o n . O x f o r d U n iv . P r e s s . 1 9 4 9 , p r e f .

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th a t o f H egel.27 T h e tra n s p a re n t fallacy o f this view is seen in the fact th at

H egel, re g ard e d th e situ a tio n in th e G e rm a n y o f his tim e as th e culm ination
o f th e g en eral progressive m o v em en t o f history. W h a t is atro c io u s in this
sty le o f w ritin g is th e a u tistic in v o catio n o f v erb al ab so lu tism an d universal­
ity, th e w hile one’s b ac k is tu rn e d to w a rd th e ac tu a l events th a t are
a p p a re n tly being w ritte n a b o u t. B ut w h a t is m o re a tro c io u s still is th a t so
m a n y w riters o n th e p h ilo so p h y o f h is to ry serio u sly a c c e p t this ty p e o f
fu n d a m e n ta listic religion in defiance o f all rules o f reaso n ab le observ atio n
a n d a u th e n tic inference.
— A m o n g th e p h ilo so p h ers o f h isto ry w h o see in historical events som e so rt
o f th eo lo g ically based ab so lu tism a n d u n iv ersality m ay be listed K arl M arx
( I818-1883)2K, C ro c e (1 866-1952)2’ . a n d m a n y o th ers w h o em phasize the
d e g ra d a tio n o f n a tio n s an d civilizations, as fo r ex am p le, A. T o y n b ee
( 18 8 9 -1975)». O . S p en g ler (1 8 8 0 -19 3 6 ).’1
C o n c e rn in g T o y n b ee . Geyl w rites.
To survey history as a whole, to discover trends in its movement, to seek out its
meaning—Professor Toynbee is not the first to undertake the attempt. He joins the
company of St. Augustine and Bossuet. V'oltaire, Hegel. Marx. Buckle. Wells. Spengler;
nor is he the least among them.'2

In c o n tra s t to th is ex a m p le o f u n iv ersa l h isto ry , scientific philosophy

offers a n effective a n tid o te in its p rin cip le o f specificity. W h e n we co n sid er
a c tu a l h isto rical events great p ro g ress w e find fo r ex am p le in technology, in
th e arts, a n d scientific know ledge. B u t w h e n w e look a t o th e r features o f
h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t we clearly d isc o v e r g re at a n d sm all d e te rio ra tio n s in
th e events o f history. U p o n c o n sid e ra tio n o f th e changes th a t have tak en
p la c e in th e e v o lu tio n jo f m a n k ind, th e re is as m u ch regressiveness as
j>rogressL T h e rise a n d fall o f p a rtic u la r cuiturcs"o?Tiiaficmsforces a co n clu ­
sio n th a t statistical curves o f h u m a n e v o lu tio n show peaks and valleys in
eq u a l n u m b ers an d in eq u a l height.
b. Constancies and Change. F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f scientific p h iloso­
p h y , h isto rical ev en ts in gen eral m ay b e c h a ra c te riz e d as a g ro ss co n tin u ity
b u t w ith m a n y specific a n d p a rtic u la r c h a n g es w ith in th e large fram ew ork.
H isto ria n s w h o ta k e th e p o sitio n th a t h isto ry is m erely so m eth in g th at
h isto ria n s c o n stru c t assu m e fu rth e r th a t h isto rical events a re single u n its o f
27Hegel, G. W. F., The Philosophy o f History (J. Sibree, irs.), New York, Wiley. 1944.
M a r x a n d linnet*: B asil W'tilin g s o n P olitics a n d P h ilo s o p h y ( L . S . F e u e r , e d . ) , G a r d e n C i t y .
D o u b l e d a y . 1 959.
•'‘ C r o c e . B .. History as the Story o f Utterly ( S . S p r i g g e . I r s .) . N e w Y o r k . W . W . N o r t o n , 1 9 1 1 .
“’ l o y n b e e . A .. A S tu d y o f H isto ry. l O v o l s . , O x f o r d , O x f o r d U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 -1 9 5 4 .
" S p e n g l e r . ( ) . . The D ecline o f th e W est < C . F . A t k i n s o n , t r s . ) . N e w Y o r k . K n o p f , 1 9 2 6 .
, J C ic y l, I*.. D eh a tes n i j / i H isto ria n s, G r o n i n g e n . W o l l e r s , 1 9 5 1 , p . 9 1 .

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a u n iq u e s o rt w hich d o n o t re p e a t them selves. B u t fro m th e sta n d p o in t o f

objective p h ilo so p h y , h isto rical events, especially th o se th a t in d icate c o m ­
p arativ ely few ch an g es, d isp lay a definitely c o n tin u o u s p ro cess. T h is is in
k ee p in g w ith fo r e x a m p le , th e ev o lu tio n o f a stro n o m ic a l system s a n d the
o rg a n ic bei ngs th a t p o p u la te th o s e bo d ies fa v o ra b le fo r su ch d ev elo p m en t.
T h e c o n tin u ity o f ev o lu tio n includes n u m e ro u s cycles, all o f w hich are
co n c rete n a tu ra l events a n d n o t p u re c o n stru ctio n s.
T h e c o n tin u ity o f v ariab le ev e n ts stro n g ly s u p p o rts th e view th a t a u th e n ­
tic h isto ry c o n c e rn s p re e x istin g ev e n ts th a t h isto ria n s describe. C learly a n y
scepticism a b o u t th e em p ire s o f o ld , th e P ersian , th e H ittite, th e G reek , the
R o m a n , th e B ritish, o r q u e stio n s o n th e evidence fu rn ish ed by a n n a ls an d
o th e r re c o rd s reveals m e tap h y sica l p re su p p o sitio n s co n c e rn in g kn ow ledge
an d existence.
c. Human and Nonhuman Events Contrasted. A m o n g th e m o st p o p u ­
la r h isto rio g ra p h ic a l th e o rie s is th a t h is to ry to be a n a c c e p ta b le discipline
m u st d istin g u ish b etw een th e so -called e x a ct sciences like physics an d
ch e m istry a n d th e stu d y o f h u m a n affairs. S o m e s tu d e n ts o f h isto ry reg ard
it as a decisive a rg u m e n t th a t h isto ry n o t o n ly m u st d eal w ith d a ta o r
su b ject m a tte r, b u t a lso w ith th e view s o f h isto ria n s as to w h a t th e d a ta
signify.33 T h e p lea is th a t h isto rical ev en ts are u n iq u e a n d u n re p eatab le ,
co n tin g e n t a n d n o t d e te rm in e d . N o w it is o b v io u s th a t th eo rie s o f th is
g en e ral ty p e a re based o n im p ro p e r p rem ises as to th e n a tu re o f th eo ry ,
science, a n d especially psychology.
S tu d e n ts w h o a p p r o a c h ev e n ts w ith o u t m entalistic o r universalistic
prejudices, in d u c e d by tra d itio n a l ep istem o lo gical in stitu tio n s, ca n d escrib e
h u m a n events as they o c c u r a n d c a n be o bserved, in th e sam e w ay as
so-called n a tu ra l scientists d o . F o r e x a m p le , events stu d ied by physicists o r
ch e m ists a re all u n iq u e h a p p e n in g s ju s t as m u c h a s th e ev e n ts o f h u m a n
affairs. I t is o n ly a r b itra ry p reju d ices a b o u t ev en ts th a t m a k e special
p ro b le m s fo r h isto rical ev en ts. T h e p a u c ity o f evidence w hich m ak es
inferences n ecessary ex ists in all d e p a rtm e n ts o f science. C learly it is th e
in v ariab le fu n c tio n o f science to c o n c e rn itself w ith w h a t is originally
u n k n o w n a n d in g en eral it is tru e th a t w h a t is k n o w n by scientists w h e th e r
physicists, ch em ists, b io lo g ists, is o n ly a sm all p a r t o f th e p h e n o m e n a in
w hich th ey a re interested. W h a t scien tists w o rk at a n d try to d isco v er is p a rt
o f a g re a t p len u m , m e ta p h o ric a lly th ey o n ly becom e m asters o f in fo rm a­
tio n a b o u t th e tip s o f icebergs. It c a n n o t be re p eated to o o ften th a t it is only
11 C f . f o r e x a m p l e , L e f f, 0 . . History and Social Theory, A l a b a m a . U n iv . o f A l a b a m a P r e s s
1969, p . 3.

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the persistence o fd u a listic in stitu tio n s th a t helps to instigate futile p ro b lem s

a n d q u e stio n s. O n th e w hole it m ay be said at th is p o in t th a t even th e m ost
sc ru p u lo u s h isto rian s w ritin g a b o u t h u m a n ev ents m ak e a rb itra ry asser­
tio n s b ea rin g o n ly a re m o te c o n n e c tio n w ith ev e n ts th a t are being described
o r ex p lain ed .
d. Cyclisnt in History. A p ro m in e n t sp eculation o f p h ilo so p h ers o f
h isto ry is th a t h isto rical events ta k e n in th eir to tality are cyclic in nature.
P h ilo so p h e rs o f v ario u s n atio n alities, fo r ex am ple, B odin th e F ren c h m a n ,
V ico th e Ita lia n , N ietzsche a n d S p e n g le r th e G erm an s, have assu m ed th at
th e rise a n d fall o f states, n atio n s, an d civilizations d e m o n stra te a n in h eren t
p a tte rn o f h u m a n affairs. C learly th e re is an e scalatio n o f th e p rin cip le o f
univ ersalism an d ab so lu tism . T h e co n sid e ra tio n o f the specificities o f rise
a n d d eclin e o f states o r cu ltu re s serves to a n n u l the iro n law s o f h u m a n
cycles w h e th e r d ra w n from th e biological facts o f b irth an d d e a th o f
o rg a n ism s o r th e co n stan c y o f ch an g es o f all things.
e. Historical Inevitability and Contingency. T h e p eren n ial urges to
generalize a n d ab so lu tize in h isto rio g ra p h ic a l th in k in g have th ro w n up the
c o n tra s tin g a n tin o m y o f in ev itab ility a n d co ntingency. H isto rian s w ho
fa v o r th e idea o f in ev itab ility assu m e th a t h isto rical events rep resen t units
in so m e g ra n d system , p e rh a p s th e w o rk o f a d eity o r the unfo ld in g o f som e
m ystical a n d u n k n o w n force. B ut th o se h isto rian s m o re sensitive to events
a n d m o re a le rt to th e o b se rv a tio n o f th e w o rk o f h isto rian s stress w h at they
th in k o f as chance. In a rg u m e n t th e co n tin g e n tists p o in t to specific events
th a t are a p p a re n tly isolated an d not im m ed iately observed as o rganized
in to a larg er system .
T h e o b jectio n ab le fe atu re o f b o th p a rts o f the present a n tin o m y is the
basic p rem ise o f a n in d e p e n d e n t p ro c e ss o r e n tity called h isto rical fact.
T h e re is how ever n o altern ativ e to th e view th a t historical stu d y is con­
cern ed w ith co n crete things a n d events im b ed ded w ithin specific h u m a n
situ atio n s.
A m o st in tere stin g ex a m p le o f h o w ab so lu te s and generalities c o n ta m i­
n ate h isto rical w ritings co n cern s th e c o n d e m n a to ry attitu d e s to w ard s
R an k e’s fo rm u la o f historical research o f events as th ey actu ally were.
T a k e n in ab stra c t th e fo rm u la a p p e a rs q u ite a reaso n ab le one, certainly in
th e c o n te x t o f scientific history.
B ut a close an aly sis reveals th a t th e R a n k e fo rm u la co m p rises so m e o f
the m o st irra tio n a l features. A s B eard (1874-1948) p o in ts o u t in his article
en title d , “T h a t N oble D re a m ,” R a n k e conceived h isto ry as a “ revelation o f

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g o d ” a n d a s ‘‘d e r g an g G o tte s in d e r W elt.”34 O n this basis, o f course, R an k e

c a n n o t be to o m u c h criticized.
S in c e h is to ria n s a re p re d isp o se d to w a rd u n iv ersa lism a n d a b so lu tism ,
th e a tta c k s o n R a n k e ’s H isto ricism resulted in a n o th e r a b so lu tism called
H isto ric a l R elativ ism . A s in m o st cases a b s o lu te s a re b ased o n inflated
p a rtic u la rs so the o p p o n e n ts o f R a n k e b ased th em selves o n th e fact th a t
ec o n o m ic c o n d itio n s played a decisive role in h isto rical situ atio n s.
f. Causation in History. H isto ria n s, w h e th e r o r n o t believers in co n ti­
n u ity a n d o rd e r in h isto rical events, w restle w ith th e p ro b le m o f cause.
T h o s e w h o believe th a t h isto rical ev e n ts a re sim p ly h a p h a z a rd h a p p e n in g s
Reject c a u s a tio n as a fa c to r in th e p a tte rn in g o f events. T h e ir o p p o n e n ts
w h o a c c e p t in e x o ra b le law as th e g u id e to h isto rical ev en ts insist u p o n
specific d e te rm in e rs o f th e in cid en ts o f th e p ast. B o th c a u sa tio n ists a n d
n o n c a u s a tio n is ts d isp lay in th e ir a rg u m e n ts a n insufficient a p p re c ia tio n o f
th e n a tu re o f c a u s e . E ith e r th ey a re influenced by d u a listic m etap h y sics o r
genera] p h ilo so p h ic a l ab stra c tio n ism , an d so m etim es b o th .
In g e n e ra l c a u sa tio n ists re ach o u t fo r s o m e th in g u ltim a te a n d a b so lu te
fo r th e d e sc rip tio n o r in te rp re ta tio n o f h u m a n events. It is the a b so lu tist's
a ttitu d e w h ic h influences h isto ria n s to p ro m o te p ro b lem s o f inevitability. It
w o u ld b e a c o n sid e ra b le service to h is to rio g ra p h y to d istin g u ish betw een
th e scientific an d m etap h y sica l view s a b o u t cause. C a u se scientifically
en v isag e d refers to th e fo rm a tio n o f a n ev en t field. W h a t is falsely called a
ca u se is th e s im u lta n e o u s p resen ce o f o n e o r sev eral c o m p o n e n ts o f an
even t. F o r ex a m p le , fire o r c o m b u s tio n o cc u rs w h en o x y g en is co p resen t
w ith th e s u rro u n d in g te m p e ra tu re h av in g re a ch e d a c e rta in p o in t. T o say
th a t th e lig h te d m a tc h is th e ca u se o f th e b u rn in g o f th e g as is a v io la tio n o f
th e a c tu a l d e sc rip tio n s o f th e situ atio n . T h is co llig atio n o f fa c to rs in a field
is sim ila r in th e h u m a n o r social s itu a tio n as it is in th e in tera ctio n o f
ch e m ic al c o m p o n e n ts in th e so-called n a tu ra l s itu a tio n . In g en eral it m ay
be safely asse rte d th a t th e n o tio n o f m etap h y sical cau se is d erived o riginally
fro m th eo lo g ic a l d isc u ssio n s a n d th e re fo re d o e s n o t a p p ly to a n y so rt o f
ra tio n a l o r n a tu ra lis tic view a b o u t h isto ric a l ev en ts o r a n y o th e r ty p e .
C a u s a tio n in in tellectu al h isto ry is c e rtain ly d eriv ed from d e sc rip tio n s and
e x p la n a tio n s o f fields as in d icated . T h e y c e rta in ly are n o t o w in g to th e
activities o f a n y d e ity o r m ystical p o w e rs o p e ra tin g in th e realm o f co n c rete
occu rren ces.
M B e a r d , C . A „ “ T h a i N o b l e D r e a m , " in The t'orielies o f History ( F . S l e r n , e d .) . N e w Y o rk .
M e rid ia n , 1957.

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A c o m p a ra b le use o f m etap h y sica l cau se in biology a n d psychology

th ro w s so m e light o n th e cau se p ro b lem . W h e n th e q u e stio n is asked as to
th e re sem b la n ce o f o rg a n ism s a c ro s s g e n e ra tio n s, a c o m m o n , th o u g h
m ista k e n , a n sw e r is given th a t it is h ered ity w h ich causes it. T h e sim ilarity
betw een th e tw o situ a tio n s is strik in g in th e tu rn in g aw ay fro m actu al
ev en ts to w a rd m etap h y sical fa n tasies. O n e is rem in d ed here o f the o p p o s­
ing view s re p resen te d by G enesis as o v e r a g a in st th e o b serv atio n s o f
evolu tio n ists.
g. Objectivity o f Historical Events. A s a fitting co n clu sio n to this section
w e p o in t o u t th e co n fu sio n o f a ttitu d e s b ro u g h t a b o u t by th e co n v e n tio n a l
p h ilo so p h y co n c ern in g objectivity.
P h ilo so p h e rs o f H isto ry th o ro u g h ly e n sc o n c e d in tra d itio n s o f m in d a n d
e x te rn a l reality to ss b a c k a n d fo rth th e ir in d iv id u al views as to th e objectiv­
ity o f h isto rical events. C o n fo u n d in g e p istem o lo g y a n d o n to lo g y they
o ccu p y them selves w ith all s o rts o f a rg u m e n ts as to th e o bjects o f histo ry .
Q u e stio n s a re raised as to th e p rim a c y o f e v e n ts o r o f in te rp re ta tio n s. A n
in tere stin g p ictu re o f th e polem ics c o n c e rn in g o b jectivity in h isto ry is
p ain te d by P a s s m o re 35 in his a rtic le in w h ich he discusses eight criteria for
th e view th a t h isto ry do es o r d o es n o t d e a l w ith reality. In terestin g here are
th e fo u r fa c to rs w h ich W alsh suggests as the basis fo r th e a ssu m p tio n th at
h isto ry m ay be m a d e by th e h isto ria n .36
T o m o v e o n fro m c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y to w ard s a n atu ralistic a tti­
tu d e to w a rd h isto ry a n d its in v e stig a tio n is to liq u id a te th e q u estio n ab le
p ro b le m o f objectivity o f historical events. It is to be n o ted th a t th e q u estio n
o f ob jectiv ity is sim ply o n e o f a h ig h e r d e g ree th a n o b se rv a tio n an d
in te rp re ta tio n o f events. N o c o m p e te n t h is to ria n w o u ld care to stu d y an d
re p o rt u p o n an y th in g but d a ta w h ic h a re clearly p resen t in his intellectual
e n v iro n m e n t. It w o u ld be a c a ric a tu re o f D escartes’ n o tio n o f d o u b t to raise
q u e stio n s a b o u t th e ex isten ce o f H a m m u ra b i, A le x a n d e r, J u liu s C aesa r,
C yru s, th e P elo p o n n e sia n w ar, a n d th e R o m a n em pire. W ith o u t faith in
th e existence o f a n E g y p tian em p ire, a n A ssy rian em pire, o r a n y o f th e
m y riad s o f h isto rical events, th e re c o u ld be n o history. T h e re are to o m an y
arch eo lo g ica l re m a in s to serve as ev id en c e fo r d esc rip tio n a n d in te rp re ta ­
tio n to m a k e plausible serio u s basic d o u b ts . W h at h isto rian s m ay differ
a b o u t a re so m e d etailed re la tio n sh ip s o f th e fa cto rs in th e ev en ts o f long
ago. E v id en ce m a y be lack in g in sufficiency o r clarity b u t in n o case need

" J ’a s s m n r c . V . A ., “ I h e O b j e c t i v i t y o f H i s t o r y ” in Philosophical Analysis anil History (W . H .

D r a y . t d ) , N e w Y o r k . H a r p e r a n d R o w , l% f>
' W a l s h , W . H .. A n In tro d u c tio n to P h ilm o p h t- o f H isto ry . L o n d o n . H u t c h i n s o n . 1 9 5 2 .

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 ASPECTS OF HISTORY

th e q u e stio n o f objectiv ity arise in a n y n a tu ra listic a p p ro a c h to historical

events. A s w e h av e seen it is o n ly by in d u lg in g in fan tasies a b o u t m inds o r
co n sc io u sn e ss w h ich is th e basis fo r p ro b le m s o f objectivity; a n atu ra listic
a p p ro a c h to p sy ch o lo g y m ak es such q u e stio n s co m p letely irrelevant.
T h is sec tio n m a y well b e c o n c lu d e d w ith th e su g g estio n th a t th e a v o id ­
an c e o f e r r o r a n d m is u n d e rsta n d in g in h is to rio g ra p h y c a n be effectively
b ro u g h t a b o u t by e m p h a siz in g c o n c rete h a p p e n in g s in ste a d o f relying o n
a b s tra c tio n s s u p p o rte d o n ly by th e p h ilo s o p h y o f th e h isto ria n a n d th e
pow er o f v en e rab le intellectual institu tio n s.

E PIST E M IC ISSUES IN H IS T O R IO G R A PH Y

P h ilo so p h e rs o f H isto ry in th e ir ep istem o lo g ical reflections p e rh a p s even

m o re th a n in th e ir o n to lo g ic al d iscussions d isp lay a n a lie n a tio n from
co n crete th in g s an d events. W h en they o cc u p y them selves w ith th e p r o b ­
lem s o f m e th o d , d escrip tio n s, in te rp re ta tio n , a n d e x p la n a tio n , th ey o f
co u rse c a n n o t d e p a rt fro m th e ir p a rtic u la r v arie ty o f eth erial g en e raliza­
tion s. T h e p o w e r o f c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s h o ld s p h ilo so p h y o f h isto ry in an
iro n g ra sp . M o stly th e y clin g to relig io u s d o g m a s as th e a x io m s o f th eir
th in k in g . O f co u rse, th ey a sse rt th a t th e y w ish to p reserv e th e ideals o f
m a n k in d , th e u ltim a te values, a n d th e in tere sts o f h u m a n ity . Incid en tally ,
o f co u rse, th e y av o id th e v irtu es o f scientific th in k in g a n d practice, o r try to
assim ila te th e m to th e ir o w n nonscientific o r an tiscientific a ttitu d e s. T h ey
display th e ir loyalties to positivism , idealism , p ra g m a tism , o r realism . S u ch
b a c k g ro u n d in tere sts influence th e a c c e p ta n c e o r rejectio n o f law s in
history, th e verifiability o f p ro p o sitio n s o f h istory.
a. Positivism and Laws in Historiography. E pistem ic issues in histo rio g ­
ra p h y m a rk a shift fro m p ro b le m s a b o u t th e su b ject m a tte r o f h isto ry to
p ro b le m s a b o u t th e c o n s tru c tio n s erected by h isto rian s w ith respect to the
su b ject m a tte r o f h isto ry . D e p e n d in g u p o n th e b a c k g ro u n d a n d th e intel­
lectu al s ta tu s o f p a rtic u la r h isto rian s, v ary in g po lem ical a p p ro a c h e s are
m ad e to w a rd h isto rical events. G en eral q u e stio n s a re raised a b o u t the
possibilities o f d ea lin g w ith a b se n t o b jects an d situ a tio n s, a n d m o re p a rtic ­
u la r o n es a b o u t th e in te n tio n s a n d m o tiv a tin g c o n d itio n s o f p a rtic u la r
in d iv id u a ls a n d th e ir b e h a v io r. F o r e x a m p le , m a n y w riters are n o t c o n ten t
to d esc rib e h o w C ro m w ell, N a p o le o n , o r F re d e ric k the G re a t co n d u c te d
them selv es a n d th e ir n a tio n s, b u t p ersist in search in g fo r u n d erly in g m ys­
teries o f w hy they d id w h at th ey did.

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 H U M A N E V E N T S IN P H I L O S O P H I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E

A m o st im p o rta n t a ttitu d e to w a rd h isto ric a l ev en ts is to believe a n d

a sse rt th a t th e re a re g en eral law s th a t g o v ern th e d etails o f histo rical events.
P o p u la r ex a m p le s a re th e views o f P o p p e r 37 a n d H e m p e l3* th a t all events
a re so in te rre la te d th a t g en eral law s c a n be fo rm u la te d to connect ev en ts in
p a tte rn s as e x p la n a tio n s a n d p red ictio n s.
In his v o lu m e en title d . The Logic o f Scientific Discovery. P o p p e r
illu stra te s th e law s necessary fo r d ealin g w ith ca u sal ex p lan a tio n s. A ctually
h e assu m es th a t tw o ty p es o f law s a re n e c e ssa ry — u n iversal an d sin g u lar
ones. H is view s are sta te d in th e follow ing.
To give a c a u sa l e x p la n a tio n of an event means to deduce a statement which describes it,
using as premises of the deduction one or more u n iv e rsa l la w s , together with certain singular
statements, the in itia l c o n d itio n s . For example, we can say that we have given a causal
explanation of the breaking of a certain piece of thread if we have found that the thread has
a tensile strength of 1 lb. and that a weight of 2 lbs. was put on it. If we analyse this causal
explanation we shall find several constituent parts. On the one hand there is the hypothesis:
‘Whenever a thread is loaded with a weight exceeding that which characterizes the tensile
strength of the thread, then it will break': a statement which has the character of a universal
law of nature. On the other hand we have singular statements (in this case two) which apply
only to the specific event in question: 'The weight characteristic for this thread is 1 lb .’, and
'The weight put on this thread was 2 lb s.’.*

B o th P o p p e r a n d H em p el w rite as lo g ician s b u t differ so m ew h a t as to

specific situ a tio n s . P o p p e r is m o re g en e ral w hile H e m p e l w rites as follow s.
We have tried to show that in history no less than in any other branch of empirical
inquiry, scientific explanation can be achieved only by means of suitable general hypotheses,
or by theories, which are bodies of systematically related hypotheses. This thesis is clearly in
contrast with the familiar view that genuine explanation in history is obtained by a method
which characteristically distinguishes the social from the natural sciences, namely, th e
m e t h o d o f e m p a th e tic u n d e r sta n d in g : the historian, we are told, imagines himself in the
place of the persons involved in the events which he wants to explain; he tries to realize as
completely as possible the circumstances under which they acted, and the motives which
influenced their actions; and by this imaginary self-identification with his heroes, he arrives
at an understanding and thus at an adequate explanation of the events with which he is
concerned.*1

T h e P o p p e r-H e m p e ! co v erin g law th e o ry h as n o t gone w ith o u t criticism .

A n o u ts ta n d in g in stan ce is th e o b jectio n s m a d e by D o n a g a n 41 but th ere are
o th e r criticism s as fo r in stan ce th o se o f D ra y ,42 M a n d e lb a u m ,43 a n d others.

*’ Popper, K. R„ The lo g ic o f Scientific D iscovery, New York, Basic, 1959.

“ Hempel, C. CL, "The Function of General Laws in History,” Journal o f Philosophy. 1942, 39,
35-4K.
w Popper, K. R.. Op. a t., pp. 59 f
*■Hempel, C. G.. Op. a t., p. 44.
41 Donagan. A.. "The Popper-Hempel Theory Reconsidered,'' in Philosophical Analysis a n d
History ( W. It. Dray, ed ). New York. Harper and Row, 1966.

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 A S P E C T S OF H I S T O R Y

E sp ecially in te re stin g a re th e c o m m e n ts o f B erlin w h ich a re prefaced by th e

fo llo w in g critical statem en t.

The notion that history obeys law. whether natural or supernatural, that every event of
human life is an element in a necessary pattern, has deep metaphysical origins: infatuation
with the natural sciences feeds this stream, but is not its sole nor, indeed, its principal source.
In the first place, there is the teleological outlook whose roots reach back to the beginnings
of human thought. It occurs in many versions, but what is common to them all is the belief
that men, and all living creatures and perhaps inanimate things as well, not merely are as
they are, but have functions and pursue purposes. These purposes are either imposed upon
them by a creator who has made every person and thing to serve each a specific goal; or else
these purposes are not, indeed, imposed by a creator but are, as it were, internal to their
possessors, so that every entity has a ‘nature’ and pursues a specific goal which is ‘natural’ to
it, and the measure of its perfection consists in the degree to which it fulfils it.41*44

C le a r it is th a t th e in c lin a tio n to w a rd a b s o lu te co v erin g law s reflects

h isto rical m etap h y sics. It is ev id en t th a t su ch h isto rio g rap h y is ex trem ely
re m o te fro m a c tu a l h isto rical situ a tio n s a n d th e ir investigation.
S cien tific p h ilo so p h y as free fro m th e c o n fu sio n s o f ep istem o lo g y differ­
en tia te s b etw een law s re g ard e d as fa c to rs in th e fields o r processes o f events
a n d as c o n stru c tio n a l featu res. L aw s a re p ro p o sitio n s o r c o n stru c tio n s
d ev e lo p e d as v alid a te d o r co n firm e d d e sc rip tio n s o f events. A u th e n tic laws
a re d eriv ed fro m a n d m irro r precisely th e co m p o sitio n , o p e ra tio n , an d
in te rre la tio n sh ip o f th in g s a n d events. A m o n g th e list o f sp u rio u s law s are
th o se w h ic h reveal th e b ias o f th e c o n s tru c to r, th e g ro u p a m o n g w h ich he
lives, a n d in g en e ral his d ista n c e aw ay fro m th e events h e presu m es to treat.
b. Idealism and Empathy. A po w erfu l view o p p o sin g th e law th e o ry
h o ld s th a t h isto rical ev e n ts c a n n o t be o rg a n iz e d by law principles b u t m u st
be tre a te d as u n re la te d in d iv id u a l co n tin g en cies. S u ch w riters as D ilthey,45
W in d e lb a n d ,46 R ick ert,47 W eb er,48 a n d C o llin g w o o d 49 object to th e im pli­
c a tio n o f u n iv ersal o b jectiv ity b u t also d en y th a t histo rical ev en ts can be

41 Dray, W. H., Philosophy o f History, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1964.

4>Mandelbaum, M., “The Problem of'covering laws,’ " in The Philosophy o f History (P. Gardiner,
ed.), London, Oxford Univ. Press. 1974.
44 Berlin, I., “ Historical Inevitability," in Four Etsays on Liberty, New York, Oxford Univ. Press,
1970, p. 51.
45 Dilthey, W„ “The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Life-Expressions," in Theories o f
History (P. Gardiner, ed.), New York, The Free Press, London. Collier-MacMillan, 1959, pp. 2 13-225.
46 Windelband, W„ “Geschichte und Naturwissenschaft." in Praludien: Aufsatze und Reden zur
Philosophie u nd ihrer Geschichte 5 '11ed., vol. 2, Tubingen, Mohr, 1915, pp. 136-160.
47 Rickert, H„ Die Problemeder Geschichtsphihsophie: Eine Einfiihrung 3rd ed., Heidelberg, Carl
Winters, 1924.
44 Weber, M.. The Theory o f Social and Economic Organization (A. M. Henderson and T. Parsons,
trs.), New York, Oxford Univ. Press, 1947.
4,Collingwood, R. G., The Idea o f History, London, Oxford Univ. Press, 1946.

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tied to g e th e r. T h e y rely o n a p rin cip le o f su b jectiv e e m p a th e tic u n d e rsta n d ­

ing. T h e c o n tra s t o f view s is w ell in d icated by H e m p e l’s statem en t,
. . .Thus, whether the historian is or is not in a position to identify himself with his historical
hero, is irrelevant for the correctness of his explanation; what counts, is the soundness of the
general hypotheses involved, no matter whether they were suggested by empathy or by a
strictly behavioristic procedure.. . . In history as anywhere else in empirical science, the
explanation of a phenomenon consists in subsuming it under general empirical laws; and
the criterion of its soundness is not whether it appeals to our imagination, whether it is
presented in suggestive analogies, or is otherwise made to appear plausible—all this may
occur in pseudo-explanations as well—but exclusively whether it rests on empirically well
confirmed assumptions concerning initial conditions and general laws.50

P ro fe ss o r H e m pel adds,
. . . Much of the appeal of the ‘method of understanding' seems to be due to the fact that it
tends to present the phenomena in question as somehow‘plausible' or‘natural' to us; this is
often done by means of attractively worded metaphors. But the kind of‘understanding’ thus
conveyed must clearly be separated from scientific understanding.51

D ilth e y steep e d in a different m en ta listic view fro m th a t o f H e m p e l

su p p o se s th a t all h isto rical k n o w led g e is d istilled fro m psychic processes o f
u n d e rsta n d in g . A cco rd in g ly h isto rical ev en ts a re in te rn a l to p a rtic u la r
in d iv id u a ls a n d c a n o n ly be o rg a n iz e d th ro u g h a h id d e n p rocess o f in d u c ­
tio n to fo rm a u n ity . B u t w hile th is w o rk o f u n d e rs ta n d in g is c o m m o n to
n a tu ra l science a n d h u m a n stu d ies, th e la tte r differs fro m th e fo rm e r in th a t
no g e n e ra l law is e x tra c te d fro m a n in c o m p le te series o f cases. T h e D ilth ey
d o c trin e is ty p ic a l o f a p h ilo s o p h e r w h o sp e a k s o f S ch ellin g a n d H egel as
“o u r n a tio n s” g reatest th in k e rs.52
C learly ep istem o lo g ical p ro b le m s in h is to rio g ra p h y arise fro m th e fact
th a t h isto ria n s o p e ra te o n th e basis o f a fa lla cio u s psychology. W riters o n
th e p h ilo so p h y o f h isto ry fo llo w a n c ie n t p sy ch o lo g ical d o ctrin es. A n excel­
lent e x a m p le is C o llin g w o o d ’s s ta te m e n t in his b o o k , The Idea o f History.
H e w rites,
Psychology is thought of the first degree; it treats mind in just the same way in which biology
treats life, it does not deal with the relation between thought and its object, it deals directly
with the thought as something quite separate from its object, something that simply
happens in the world, as a special kind of phenomenon, one that can be discussed by itself.53

T o w rite o f h isto ry as reliving, re en ac tin g , re th in k in g , reex p erien cin g

p ast ev e n ts is to a d o p t th e theological m etap h y sics o f soul. It is en tirely
v’ Hempel. Op. Cil.. p. 45.
51 Hempel. Ibid.
!! Dilthey, W„ "The Dream,” in The Philosophy o f History in our 7Jm<>(H. MeyerholT.ed.). Garden
City. Doubleday. 1959.
’’Collingwood, R. G.. Op. cil., p. 2.

i 334
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u n n ec essary in o rd e r to u n d e rs ta n d , in te rp re t, o r ex p la in a n ev en t to h a rk
b a c k to a n c ie n t soul-flesh d o g m as. T h e basic ev e n ts a n d im p licated inten­
tio n s a n d c o rre la te d c o n d itio n s c a n be sa tisfac to rily tre a te d by m ean s o f
su b stitu te stim u li o f v a rio u s sorts.
c. Historiographic Description. T h e ev ents o f h isto ry a n d th e ir stu d y
alm o st in v a ria b ly b rin g up th e p ro b le m o f d e sc rip tio n . S in c e ep istem o lo g i­
cal p ro b le m s in h is to rio g ra p h y arise fro m th e e sp o u sa l o f d u alistic psy­
ch ology, h isto ria n s c o n c e rn them selves w ith q u e stio n s o f c e rta in ty a n d
v alu e o f o b se rv a tio n s. It is generally h eld by p h ilo so p h e rs o f h isto ry th a t
th e g re a t difference b etw een states o f m in d a n d o b serv ed ev en ts m ak es a
m a tc h o f k n o w le d g e w ith th e q u alitie s o r essences o f ev en ts difficult. It
follow s th a t f o r th e m h isto rical d esc rip tio n s a re fairly w ell c o n ta m in a te d
w ith im a g in a ry fa c to rs w hile su ch scep ticism is th e b asis fo r v erb alistic
universals.
T h e situ a tio n in d ic a te d a b o v e is excellently illu stra te d b y th e w itticism s
e x h ib ite d b y h isto ria n s a t th e fa m o u s e x p re ssio n o f R a n k e , “ W ie es eig en t-
lich gew esen.” O f c o u rse d esp ite the a p p a re n t scepticism a b o u t th e cer­
ta in ty o f e x isten c e o f h isto rical events, h is to ria n s h av e to believe th a t th o se
ev e n ts h av e ex isted . In th is c o n n e c tio n L eff asserts th a t, “h isto ry is to
disco v er h o w w h a t h a p p e n e d d id h a p p e n .”54 A ll th e view s fo r a n d ag a in st
th e n o tio n o f th e ex isten ce o f h isto rical ev ents b rin g u p th e p ro b le m o f
d escrip tio n .
F o r th e m o s t p a r t p ro b le m s o f d e sc rip tio n a rc tied in w ith q u e stio n s o f
in te rp re ta tio n a n d e x p la n a tio n , a lth o u g h M a n d e lb a u m 55 refers to P ass­
m o re ’s view th a t m u c h o f th e tim e th e h isto ria n s ta sk is really n o t o n e o f
e x p la in in g a t all, b u t is m erely th e o n e o f d escrib in g , i.e., o f telling “ h o w ,”
n o t e x p lain in g “w hy.”
W h y th e re sh o u ld b e su c h a q u e stio n is clearly ow in g to n o th in g else th a n
th a t ep istem ic q u e stio n s arise fro m th e fact th a t co n v e n tio n a l h isto ry
w ritin g in all its phases b o th as h isto ry a n d as p h ilo so p h y o f h isto ry goes
b a c k to s p u rio u s g en e raliza tio n s a n d false n o tio n s o f psychology. T hese
false n o tio n s c o n stitu te a co m p ellin g influence even th o u g h th e w riters
m e n tio n ed m a y be ig n o ra n t as to th e ir o w n view s a n d th e n a tu re o f
cognitive processes o f a n y so rt.
F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f scientific p h ilo so p h y o f histo ry , w h ich d o es n o t
g o b ey o n d th e p e rfo rm a n c e s o f in teg ral p e rso n s w ith respect to events, no

MLeff, G., History and Social Theory, p. 53.

u Mandelbaum, M., Op. cit., 60 n.

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p ro b le m o f h isto rical d esc rip tio n is d iffe ren t fro m p ro b lem s o f d escrip tio n
in a n y o th e r field. M a n y cases o f precise a n d satisfa c to ry d e sc rip tio n s a re
a v a ila b le th ro u g h th e m e d ia tio n o f re c o rd s a n d d o c u m e n ts o f a credible
so rt. S in c e p sy ch o lo g ical d e sc rip tio n s in g en e ral v a ry w ith different indi­
v id u als, d e sc rip tio n s th a t th e y m a k e o f h isto rical ev en ts differ a n d fo rm a
series, so m e o f w h ich a re m u c h m o re e x a c t a n d m u c h b e tte r th a n o th ers. It
is su c h v a ria tio n s in o b se rv a tio n a n d d esc rip tio n th a t lead to th e p ro b lem o f
in te rp re ta tio n .
d. Historiographical Interpretation. In te rp re ta tio n in h istory is based
on v a ria tio n s in th e o b s e rv a tio n a n d d e s c rip tio n o f h isto rical events.
G en erally in te rp re ta tio n consists o f th e im p o sitio n o f subjective o r p erso n al
view s b o th w h en th ey a re re g ard e d as them selves subjective o r objective.
All co m p lex events lend them selves to leg itim ate in te rp re ta tio n s w hich m ay
v ary w idely. T h a t in d icates v a ria tio n s in a p p r o a c h to th e situ a tio n s u n d e r
d iscu ssio n . N o c o n d e m n a tio n a tta c h e s to su c h v a ria tio n s n o m a tte r how
w idely th ey differ fro m ea ch o th e r. B u t th is c o m m e n t includes th e objective
in te rp re ta tio n s b ased o n th e w o rk o f c o m p e te n t h isto ria n s w ith respect to
sufficiently k n o w n hap p en in g s.
e. Historiographical Evaluations. V a rio u s e v alu atio n s are m a d e by his­
to ria n s co n c e rn in g th e n a tu re o f h isto ry in g en eral, o f h isto ry as a universal
process, a n d h isto rical in v estig atio n . A n e x tre m e in stan ce is th a t it is
n on sen sical. T h e su b ject m a tte r o f h isto ry is ta k e n to be so m eth in g not
a m e n a b le to direct o b se rv a tio n a n d th e re fo re w h a te v er o n e does in th e w ay
o f th e o riz in g a n d e v a lu a tin g th e g lo b a l d o m a in o f h isto ry is o f n o value.
T h e view ju s t m en tio n e d is in d irect c o n tra d ic tio n w ith th e view th a t h isto ry
is a n e x tre m ely im p o rta n t d iscipline. V a rio u s types o f praise are acco rd ed
to h isto ry o n th e basis th a t it is p le a s a n t to c o n te m p la te a n d m ight even
h av e so m e im p o rta n t uses. A d istin c tiv e ju d g m e n t a b o u t h isto ry is th a t it
p ro d u c e s a n en lig h ten in g effect, a re a d e r o f h isto ry becom es kn o w led g e­
ab le, a n d it even p e rfo rm s a m o ra l fu n c tio n in th a t th e c u ltiv a to r o f h isto ry
m ay im p ro v e his o w n b e h a v io r as a co n se q u en ce o f his a c q u a in ta n c e w ith
g o o d ex am p les.
Illogical o r illegitim ate in te rp re ta tio n s are th o se th a t assu m e th a t th ere
a re in te rn a l forces o r co n d itio n s w h ich ad d to a n d en h a n ce th e original d a ta
th a t a re th e h isto rical h ap p e n in g s. T h e y a re b ased p rim arily o n v a ria tio n s
in th e assa y in g o f th e im p o rta n c e o f p a rtic u la r fa c to rs in the co m p lex
h a p p e n in g th a t is being in terp re ted . B asically su ch in te rp re ta tio n s are
fo u n d e d u p o n faulty ax io m s o r h y p o th eses p e rta in in g to so m e aspects o f
th e h isto rio g rap h ica l situ atio n .

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H is to ria n s p o in t o u t h o w d e p lo ra b le it is th a t so m a n y differen t in terp re­

ta tio n s ex ist o f w hy c e rta in o b se rv a b le ev e n ts o cc u r. B u t th ere is so m e
c o n s o la tio n in th e th o u g h t th a t o n e m ay p re su m e th a t all reco g n ize th a t
th e re is so m e ev e n t to differ a b o u t. W h y th e in te rp re ta tio n s v a ry m ay be
o w in g to th e fa ct th a t h is to ria n s select d ifferen t asp e c ts o f ev e n ts a n d sta n d
a t d ifferent p o in ts o f view fro m w h ich to e x a m in e h isto rical events.
f. Historiographical Explanation. C o n v e n tio n a l h isto rian s d ifferentiate
b etw e e n in te rp re ta tio n a n d e x p la n a tio n , a lth o u g h th ere m a y b e very little
basis fo r th e d istin c tio n fro m th e a n g le o f tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y a n d
p sy ch o lo g y . F r o m th e s ta n d p o in t o f scientific p h ilo so p h y , e x p la n a tio n
differs fro m th e o rd in a ry d e sc rip tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n exclusively o n th e
basis o f p a rtic u la r p h ases o f th e h isto rical situ a tio n . T his a m o u n ts to th e
fact th a t p a rtic u la r ev en ts ca n b e o b serv ed to b e in terre lated w ith o th e r
events. I t is th e o b s e rv a tio n o f th is in te rre la tio n sh ip w h ich c o n stitu te s th e
e x p la n a to ry fe a tu re . It m u st be ta k e n in to a c c o u n t th a t a m o n g th e indefi­
n ite n u m b e r o f types o f h isto rical situ a tio n s so m e types a re n o t definitely
in te rre la te d w ith o th e r ty p es, b u t in m a n y o th e r s itu a tio n s th is in te rre la ­
tio n s h ip a d d s c o n sid e ra b ly to th e d e sc rip tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n o f events.
N o w it m u s t b e specified th a t th e re is n o c o n v e n tio n a l cause-effect im p lied
here. T h e ev e n t sy stem is m erely m o re a m p le th a n th e c o m p o n e n t u n its. In
cases w h e re n o o b v io u s in te rre la tio n sh ip is av a ilab le as b etw een u n it events
n o e x p la n a tio n m ay b e necessary o r d e sira b le in d ep ictin g th e situ atio n .
H isto ria n s w h o find g o o d in h isto rical stu d y e m p h asiz e its u sefulness
a n d m a k e o f h isto rical stu d y a d iscip lin e n o t o n ly w ell w o rth c u ltiv atio n o n
its o w n ac co u n t b u t also serv in g useful p u rp o se s fo r th e stu d e n t.36
A m o n g th e in te re stin g ju d g m e n ts a b o u t h isto ry it is in te re stin g to n o te
th e a rtic le by B u rc k h a rd t57 en title d , “O n F o rtu n e a n d M isfo rtu n e in
H isto ry .” H e w rites, “ w e . . . ju d g e as follow s,
It was fortunate that the Greeks conquered Persia, and Rome Carthage;
unfortunate that Athens was defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War;
unfortunate that Caesar was murdered before he had time to consolidate the Roman
Empire in an adequate political form;
unfortunate that in the migrations of the Germanic tribes so many of the highest creations of
the human spirit perished, but fortunate that they refreshed the world with new and
healthy stock;
fortunate that Europe, in the eighth century, on the whole held Islam at bay;
unfortunate that the German Emperors were defeated in their struggle with the Papacy and
that the Church was able to develop its terrible tyranny;

“ Cf. Butterfield, H., Moral Judgments in History and Hum an Relations, London, Collons, 1931.
51Burckhardt, J., “Fortune and Misfortune in History," in Force and Freedom ( J . H. Nickels, ed.),
New York, Pantheon, 1943, p. 274.

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unfortunate that the Reformation triumphed in only half of Europe and that Protestantism
was divided into two setts;
fortunate that first Spain, then Louis XIV were eventually defeated in their plans for world
dominion, etc.

T h e em in en t tw en tieth c e n tu ry h isto ria n M einecke58 ap p ro v es o f the

ev a lu a tio n o f history as a science especially as th a t ev alu atio n is alloted to
h isto ry by R an k e a n d others. H o w ev er he disagrees if scientific is eq u ated
w ith causality exclusively. W h a t M einecke insists is th a t instead o f over­
v alu in g cau satio n , a conspicuous place m u st b e given to values. T h e entire
h isto rical d o m a in is decidedly infiltrated w ith spiritual values. T hey are
inextricably interm ixed w ith causality. “ N o causality w ith o u t values, no
values w ith o u t causalities." “T h e search fo r causalities in h istory is im pos­
sible w ith o u t reference to values.”
A lth o u g h M einecke is m o st o u tsp o k e n in his em p h asis o f values in
history, he is n o t alo n e in this ev alu atio n . It is said th at D ilthey, R ickert,
a n d W e b e r all in th e ir different w ays stressed v alu e an d p u rp o se in o p p o si­
tio n to m ere actions.59
W h a t M einecke w rites indicates clearly th e influence o f spiritistic m eta­
physics u p o n the m o st co m p eten t historians. By “ values” they, o f course,
d o n o t refer to such relations as th e v alu e o f p artic u la r soil and clim ate for
veg etatio n , th e fittingness o f age, h ealth , a n d height fo r m ilitary service.
S p iritu a l values are w o rd s o nly an d n o t d escriptions o r ev alu atio n s o f
events o r objects.

RANGE OF HISTORIOGRAPHY
W ith th e b an ish m en t o f absolutes, universals, an d ficticious psychology
fro m th e p h ilo so p h y o f th e historical d o m ain , th e w ay is o pened to th e
scientific co n sid eratio n o f H isto rio g ra p h y . T h e n a tu re an d processes o f
h isto ry a n d h isto rian s can be analyzed a n d described on the basis o f
observ in g actu al historical events as stim u lu s o bjects w ith w hich h istorians
in teract. W e analyze tw o im p o rta n t issues, th e co n tin u ity principle an d the
ran g e o f history.
a. The Continuity Principle. M an y o f th e p ro b lem s a n d fru stratio n s
connected w ith conventional h isto rio g rap h y arise fro m th e attitu d e th a t the
en tire accep ted subject m atter o f h isto ry is lo cated in a rem o te space-tim e
difficult to observe. T his em phasis o n th e pastness o f events results in a false
5" Meinecke, J.. “ Hisloricism and its Problems.” in The Varieties o f History (F. Stern, ed.) New
York, Meridian. 1957, pp. 268-288,
**LcfT, G., Op. Cit.. p. 32.

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a p p r o a c h to histo ry . O n e o b jectio n to th is a ttitu d e is th a t w hile it is tru e

th a t in so m e h isto rical s itu a tio n s th e h is to ria n d ea ls w ith a relatively
iso la te d p e rs o n o r event, th is is in v a lid a te d b y th e fact th a t even so-called
iso lated th in g s o r ev en ts m u s t b e c o n sid ered in th e light o f copresent events.
-T h e m a in th ru s t o f o u r o b je c tio n is th a t h is to ria n s o v e rlo o k th a t in m an y
cases th e events s tu d ie d a r e c o n tin u o u s th r o u g h tim e a n d m u s t be regarded
a s n o d a l p o in ts in a v ery lo n g lin e a r su ccessio n . W h a t th e h isto ria n
e x a m in e s m ay b e so m e ev e n t th a t re p re se n ts a c h a n g e in a series o f ch an g es
ru n n in g th ro u g h p a st tim e, th e p resen t, a n d w ith in d icatio n s th a t they will
c o n tin u e to a n indefinite p o in t in th e fu tu re . A p p a re n tly , th e n , a tte n tio n
m u st b e d irected to th e specific events stu d ied . T h is is o f co u rse evident
w h e n u n iv ersa l h isto ry o r th e h isto ry o f n a tio n s o r civ ilizations is in
q u e stio n . T h e c o n tin u ity p rin cip le b r o a d e n s in to th e d y n a m ic asp ects o f
n a tio n a l a n d p o litical events.
B asic to th e c o n tin u ity p rin cip le is th e a b a n d o n m e n t o f c o n v e n tio n a l
n o tio n s o f c a u satio n . E v e n ts a n d th e ir ch an g es o c c u r an d ca n o n ly b e
d esc rib ed in te rm s o f th e in terre la tio n sh ip o f u n it events.
In th e close c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e c o n tin u ity p rin cip le it is w ise to co n sid er
th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een h isto ry a n d p re h isto ry . I t m ay b e legitim ately
co n sid ered th a t ju s t as co n v e n tio n a l h isto ry o r lite rary h isto ry follow s an d
m u s t b e b ased u p o n events o c c u rrin g p r io r to literacy , so th e ev en ts a n d
ch a n g es in w ritte n h isto ry in d ic a te less ra d ic a l ch a n g es fro m tim e to tim e.
T h e c o n tin u ity p rin cip le b eco m es c le a r in th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e ra n g e o f
h isto rical su b ject m atte r.
b. The Range o f History. U su ally o n e th in k s o f h isto rio g ra p h y as
lim ited to on e o r few in tere sts o r types o f stu d y . T his d o es n o t c o m p o rt w ith
fact. H isto ric a l ev e n ts c o n s titu te a n e n o rm o u s p le n u m o f th in g s a n d events
a n d th e a d ju s tm e n t o f in d iv id u als a n d g ro u p s t o th e m . H isto rical treatises
m ay b e c a te g o rize d o n th e b asis o f th e p a rtic u la r ty p e o f events fo rm in g th e
su b je c t m a tte r o r stim u lu s o bjects. T o th e te rm s “ h isto ry of,” m ay be
a tta c h e d th e n a m e s o f co u n trie s o r n a tio n s a n d th e ir in terrelatio n s, o r
p a r tic u la r w a rs o r w a rs in g en eral, v arie tie s o f p o litics, in stitu tio n s o r
b e h a v io r o f social life, relig io n , science in g en eral, o r specific disciplines,
a n d so o n . T h u s p a rtic u la r w rite rs iso la te a n d select fo r s tu d y th e speciality
o f th e ir interests. I f th ey a r e p h ilo so p h ers, th e y m ay w rite a b o u t th e to tal
g ra n d p le n u m , a n d p ro p o s e th e ir sp e c u la tiv e id eas a b o u t it. H e re m ay be
cited p ro b le m s a b o u t th e m e a n in g o f h isto ry , th e o rig in o f civilization, th e
v alu e o f h isto ry , a n d so on.

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EPILOGUE

In th e p re fac e to this v o lu m e I h av e fo llo w ed th e c u sto m a ry p ractice o f

in tro d u c in g th e p o stu lates an d su p p o rtin g p ro g ra m o f the p resen t p roject,
w h ich h as occu p ied m e fo r several years. I h av e lo n g en tertain ed th e
a ssu m p tio n th a t co n v en tio n al p h ilo so p h y is seriously defective an d calls
fo r a c o m p lete re co n stru ctio n . 1 s u b m itte d th a t th e v iew p o in t n am ed
In te rb e h a v io ra l P h ilo so p h y co n stitu te s a n a d e q u a te rep lacem en t fo r th e
historical d u alistic a n d ab so lu tistic system s.
N o w th a t th e p ro d u c t o f m y w o rk is a v a ila b le fo r persp ectiv al observa­
tio n a n d ev alu atio n , tw o fu n d a m e n ta l q u estio n s m ay be posed,
1. H o w so u n d are th e fo u n d a tio n s o f In te rb eh av io ra l P hilosophy?
2. H as th e c o n te n t o f the b o o k p ro v id ed sufficient su p p o rt fo r the
prem ises an d conclusions o f th e p ro p o se d In te rb eh av io ra l P hilosophy?
A s to these q u estio n s, I a m satisfied th a t a fa ir co n sid eratio n o f the
v o lu m e w ill d e m o n s tra te th e p e ren n ial necessity fo r re co n stru ctio n in
p h ilo so p h y , a n d also th e re aso n ab len e ss o f th e p ro p o sa ls offered fo r th e
im p ro v e m e n t o f p h ilo so p h ical situ atio n s. S o g re at is th e n eed fo r the
e m e n d a tio n o f p h ilo so p h ical th in k in g th a t th e h uge p roblem lo o m s o f h o w
to b ec o m e em a n c ip a te d fro m th e au tistic th in k in g w hich developed o v er
th e ce n tu ries fo llo w in g th e G re c o -R o m a n p erio d o f W estern E u ro p e a n
history.
O U TSTA N D IN G FAULTS O F C O N V EN TIONA L PHILO SO PH Y
T h e critical fa u lts o f c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y m a y be su m m ed u p in th e
tw o follow ing o b jectio n ab le items:
1. T h e b ifu rc atio n o f th e u n iv erse in to th e d u alism o f reality a n d
ap p e a ra n c e , m a tte r an d spirit, a n d in g en eral p ro p a g a tin g a cosm ic m eta­
physics c o n sistin g m ainly o f v erb al u tte ra n c e s a n d v en erab le scrip tu re. In
co n seq u en ce th ere is th e preclu sio n o f th e ac tu al n a tu re an d d escrip tio n o f
things a n d events.
2. T h e second fallacious aspect o f tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y is th e division
o f h u m a n beings in to m ind, soul, consciousness, plus m aterial body.
It is these a u tistic perversions o f th e th in k in g o f tra d itio n a l philosophies
th a t h ave effectively fo rm e d a sp ec u la tiv e b a rrie r b etw een th in k ers a n d th e
w orlds b o th o f n a tu re an d o f culture.

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TH E F L IG H T FRO M T H E TR U E, T H E BEAUTIFUL, A N D TH E GOO D

In th e p e rio d o f classioal p h ilo so p h y , th e o u ts ta n d in g sym bols fo r

reflection a n d e v a lu a tio n w ere th e tru e, th e b eautiful, a n d th e good.
P h ilo so p h y w as cultivated by elite th in k ers w h o selected th e know ledge o f
n a tu ra l th in g s a n d ev en ts, th e beauties o f n atu re , a n d th e virtues o f h u m a n
b e h a v io r f o r th e ir stu d y an d ev a lu a tio n o f th e ir w ay o f existence. B u t since
th e d e stru c tio n o f th e glories o f G reece a n d th e g ra n d e u r o f R o m e the
clerics re p la ced th em by th e in v en tio n o f a m o n o th eistic o r trin ita ria n
c reato r, a n d a p ale reflection called soul. W ith these aid s th ey su p p lied a
h ereafte r a n d a heaven to co m p e n sa te fo r th e evils suffered in th e only
a c tu a l w o rld o f th e present. T h e system s th e clerics b u ilt ignored the
actualities o f th in g s a n d events, th e reality o f fa c tu al re la tio n s o f th in g s an d
events, th e b e a u ty o f p erso n s, anim als, p la n ts a n d scenery, as well as the
g o o d n ess o f h u m a n b e h a v io r a n d h u m a n in terrelations. T h e philosophical
system s th e clerics created w ith th e e m b ra su re o f tran sc en d en tal ideas
co n stitu te a flight fro m th e a c tu a l objects a n d ev ents m et w ith in the n atu ra l
w orld. P ro b ab ilitie s, erro rs, o r evils they a tte m p te d to co m p en sa te fo r by
au tistic verbalism s.
T h e g oal o f in terb e h av io ral p h ilo so p h y is to achieve a p ro p e r o rien tatio n
w ith respect to th ing s a n d ev en ts as they a p p e a r in p u rv iew a n d as th ey ca n
be revealed by relevant inferences fro m o b serv atio n . H en ce th e philosophi­
cal sy m b o ls m ay still b e th e tru e , th e b eau tifu l, a n d th e g o o d alth o u g h th e y
are k n o w n to b e only p a rts o f a lo g o sim ilar to th e cad u ceo u s th at identifies
a physician. It is th e q u ality o f effectiveness o f th e o rien ta tio n o f an observer
o r th in k e r th a t gives th e p o w e r to p redict o r c o n tro l events.
It is evident th a t p h ilo so p h y zin g in general a n d th e p ro b lem o f type an d
traits o f all p h ilo so p h ical p ro p o sitio n s cen ter a ro u n d psychology. In terb e­
h av io ra l p h ilo so p h y is b ased u p o n in terb e h av io ral psychology w hich
eschew s all s p irit-m a tte r d u alism an d is co n cerned exclusively w ith th e
in terb e h a v io r o f org an ism s w ith o th e r org an ism s, things, a n d conditions.
S u ch a re a so n a b le a n d factu al psychology c a n b e useful in dealing w ith all
th e p ro b lem s o f tru th , beauty, a n d goodness.

B EN EFIT C LA IM S O F IN TERBEH A V IO RAL PH ILO SO PH Y

P h ilo so p h y to be v alid a n d useful should b e analyzed a n d ev alu ated o n
th e basis o f av a ila b le evidence. T h ro u g h o u t th is w o rk th e valid ity o f th e
basic p ro p o sitio n s w as g u a ra n te e d by a strict lim itatio n to th in g s an d
events a c tu a lly m e t w ith in n o rm a l ex perience, an d in scientific research

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a n d d isco v ery . N o p lace w as giv en t o tra n s c e n d e n t o r su p e rn a tu ra l entities.

B asically th e in tere st is k n o w led g e a n d in telle ctu al o rie n ta tio n n o t fa ith o r
relig io u s sa lv a tio n . N o g en u in e v alu e o r u tility c a n be claim ed fo r n o n n a tu -
ralistic p h ilo so p h y . T h e fo llo w in g ite m s a re p ro p o se d as su p p o rtin g
benefits claim ed fo r in te rb e h a v io ra l p h ilo so p h y .

Fig, 13. Reciprocal Influence of Culture upon Individuals and Vice Versa.

1. Interbehavioral Philosophy a Complete Reconstruction. O f th e

re c e n t a tte m p ts to re c o n s tru c t p h ilo s o p h y n o n e h a v e g o n e b e y o n d so m e
d o c trin a l ch a n g es w ith o u t m o d ify in g th e b asic a b s tra c tio n a l a n d d u alistic
fo u n d a tio n s. F o r ex a m p le , m an y ab le p h ilo so p h e rs h av e tu rn e d a w a y fro m
m etap h y sica l co sm o lo g y a n d e p istem o lo g y to tu rn to p ro b lem s o f lan g u ag e
su itab le fo r th e a d v a n cem en t o f th in k in g . O th e rs h av e em ployed m a th e m a t­
ical m o d els fo r th e im p ro v e m e n t o f p h ilo so p h ic a l d iscussion. B ut th ese
strateg ies d id n o t b rin g a b o u t m u c h c h a n g e in th e basic a ssu m p tio n s o f
p h ilo so p h ic a l th in k in g . T h e re is n o d o u b t th a t th e succession o f p h ilo so p h ­
ical sy stem s th ro u g h o u t th e ages clearly sh o w s im p ro v e m e n ts o v e r p re ­
v io u s system s. H o w ev er, th e p h ilo so p h ic al succession did n o t u sh e r in an y
p ro c ess by w h ic h p h ilo so p h e rs d esc rib e a n d e v a lu a te th in g s an d ev e n ts in

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th e ir respective am b ian ces. T h e sam e m ay b e said co n cern in g the n atu re

a n d b e h a v io r o f th e p h ilo so p h ers them selves a n d th e ir rela tio n to o th er
th in k ers a n d to th e c o m m o n culture.
T h ro u g h o u t this volum e th e view has been em p h asized th a t th e required
re c o n stru c tio n o f p h ilo so p h y is n o t a m ere m a tte r o f m odifying and
co rrectin g d o ctrin e s b u t a co m p lete ch an g e o f intellectual culture. T he
p rim ary intellectual assu m p tio n s re q u ire rad ical change.
T h a t m ean s rebuilding the fo u n d a tio n s o f th in k in g a n d r e a s o n i n g -
ch an g in g th e system o f postu lates w ith respect to m an a n d his relatio n s to
th e cu ltu ra l m ilieu in w hich he finds him self. T h e positive accep tan c e o f th e
trad itio n al institutions m ust be given u p fo r the critical u n d ersta n d in g and
ev a lu a tio n o f th e h eritag e o f beliefs a n d practices e x ta n t, an d by w hich
p aren ts insist u p o n th eir children’s in d o ctrin atio n a n d fidelity.
T h e process o f cu ltu ra liza tio n suggested here is indicated by th e acco m ­
pan y in g d iag ram , (Fig. 13).
As th e d iag ra m indicates, th e intellectual d ev elo p m en t o f a n individual is
th e final result o f having been culturalized by co n tact w ith in stitutions
developed o n th e basis o f general civilizational co n d itio n s localized in
p a rtic u la r co u n tries o r n atio n s. H ence intellectuals a re basically o f reli­
gious, political, econom ic, a n d o th e r p ersu asio n s ac co rd in g to th e general
o r specific cu ltu ral system s in w hich th ey a re b o rn a n d live. S o ingrained are
th e tra its o f p erso n s a s to m a rk th e ir e n tire lives a n d even w illingness to die
fo r th eir ab so lu te principles.
2. Philosophy: A Human Enterprise. P h ilo so p h y zin g is the w ork o f
h u m a n individuals. A ccordingly th e th in k in g a n d reaso n in g o f p artic u la r
p h ilo so p h ers o r schools o f p h ilo so p h ers will be influenced by th e cu ltu re o r
civilization in w hich th ey live, th e results th ey achieve will b e a r the s ta m p o f
th e econom ic, political, a n d religious atm o sp h eres o f th e ir cu ltu ra liza tio n
a n d technical train in g . Individual p h ilo so p h ers m ay be con cern ed w ith
ob serv atio n s o f things a n d events c o n fro n ted by ratio n a l and scientific
th in k ers, o r sp ec u la tio n s a b o u t th e u n k n o w a b le, th e c re a to r o f th e uni­
verse, o r a n afterlife. In th e latte r case, o f course, p h ilo so p h y consists o f
v erb ig e ratio n a n d th e fa n ta sy w hich co rru p ts attitu d e s a n d th e functions o f
language.
P h ilo so p h y zin g as a ttitu d e fo rm u latio n by p erso n s w ith respect to their
su rro u n d in g s an d ex perience ca n be w idely sp re ad th ro u g h o u t a given
p o p u latio n , b u t o f co u rse little can be said a b o u t th e low er levels th a t lack
co m plexities o f a d ju stm en t. H ow ever, such p ro b lem s as th o se a b o u t the
existence a n d efficacies o f gods o r ab so lu tes as a re c u rren tly d eb a te d by

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p ro fessio n al p h ilo so p h e rs c a n n o t b e g ra d e d h ig h e r th a n th e th in k in g o f
u n e d u c a te d a n d u n in fo rm e d p erso n s.
By c o n tra s t th e view s a n d p ro p o sitio n s o f p ro fessio n al p h ilo so p h ers
p re su m a b ly co v e r th e ra n g e o f all k n o w led g e a n d research. In tran sc en d en ­
ta l p e rio d s th e view receives c u rren c y th a t p h ilo so p h y , as o v e r ag a in st th e
special sciences, h as n o su b ject m a tte r o f its o w n . T h is is clearly false fro m
th e s ta n d p o in t o f n atu ra listic p h ilo so p h y ev e n if th e view tru ly ev alu ates all
tra n sc e n d e n ta l su b ject m a tte rs as zero.
In te rb e h a v io ra l p h ilo so p h y , a s n a tu ra listic a ttitu d e s, articu lates w ith all
th e re so u rces o f th e special sciences a lo n g w ith g en eral experience. T h e
difference b etw een p h ilo so p h y a n d science, th e n , as w e h av e in d icated in
c h a p te r 11 is sim p ly a m a tte r o f o rg an izin g all k n o w led g e, th e p h ilo so p h ical
c o m p o n e n ts te n d in g to w a rd m o re a d e q u a te criticism a n d ev alu atio n . T h is
o rg a n iz a tio n in clu d es th e c o o rd in a tio n o f th e findings o f th e v ario u s special
sciences b y w ay o f p erfectin g one’s g en eral p h ilo so p h ic al positio n .
3. Constructions and Events. O n e o f th e o u ts ta n d in g m erits o f interbe­
h a v io ra l p h ilo s o p h y is its em p h a sis o f th e d iv e rsity b etw een (1) o b jects a n d
events, a n d (2) co n stru c tio n s (d escrip tio n s a n d ev alu atio n s) m ad e a b o u t
th em . E x am p le, a n in d iv id u al is o b serv ed to diffe ren tiate betw een a red ripe
stra w b e rry an d a n u n rip e g reen o n e b u t tra d itio n a l p h ilo so p h y w o u ld h ave
it th a t th e respective co lo rs a re in a n o n e x is te n t m in d in stead o f bein g based
o n th e c h e m istry o f th e berries in th e ir v a rio u s stag es o f biolo g ical m a tu ra ­
tio n . S u c h a tr a d u c tio n o f events, co n sistin g o f p erso n s in tera ctin g w ith
o bjects, o th e r p erso n s, a n d e n v iro n in g c o n d itio n s, is a c e n tra l fe a tu re o f th e
subjectiv e a n d sp iritistic p h ilo so p h ie s in w h ic h so-called e x te rn a l o b jects
in clu d in g p e rso n s a re c re a tio n s o f g o d s, a b so lu te s, a n d p erso n a l spirits.
V a ria n ts o f c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h ic al sy stem s co n ceal th e grossness o f
su ch th in k in g b u t still re ta in th e false in te rp re ta tio n o f ex istin g events
co n c e rn in g w h ich they sp ecu late a b o u t.
4. Philosophy: A Constructional Product. P h ilo so p h ic a l system s a re
alw ay s th e c o n stru c tio n a l p ro d u c t o f p e rso n s w ith g re a te r o r lesser cap acity
to ob serv e freely a n d e v a lu a te th e th in g s a n d e v en ts th a t h a p p e n in th e ir
su rro u n d in g s , a n d h a v e c o m e to th e ir n o tice. T h u s a critical o b serv er c a n
readily d ifferen tiate b etw een (1) p h ilo so p h ic a l system s w h ich depict th in g s
a n d e v e n ts a s th e y a re o b serv ed to h a p p e n , o r in fe rre d fro m relev an t ev en ts
a n d (2) v erb al system s au tistically in v en ted b y a n a lo g y a n d legend. In te r-
b eh a v io ra l p h ilo so p h y obv io u sly belongs t o th e g ro u p d escribed in (1).
5. The Specificity Principle. By c o n tra s t w ith c o n v e n tio n a l p h ilo so p h y
w hich im plies ab so lu tes, to talities, a n d u n iv erses, scientific p h ilo so p h y is

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co n cern ed w ith p artic u la r events a n d p artic u la r issues. H ere is th e safest

m eans o f co m in g in to co n ta c t w ith things, events, an d co n d itio n s, an d
av o id in g verbal ab so lu tes as well as souls, m inds, reason, universals,
ultim ate reality, etern al tru th s, an d infinities.
A ll c o n fro n te d a n d actually kn o w n things an d events consist o f m ultiple
p articu lar p articip atin g interacting units. Invariably, then, com plexities o f
every so rt should be analyzed as to th e ir actu al com ponents. Even chemical
p u rity includes traces o f c o n tam in atin g elem ents. In terb eh av io ral philos­
o p h y advises th a t w hen q u estio n s arise as to th e identity and quality o f
persons, institu tio n s, religions, universities, answ ers sh ould be based on
specific details. All p ersons com prise v aria n t traits based o n specific situa­
tions. U niversities ca n only be pro p erly ju d g e d by d ep artm en ts o r even
p artic u la r professors. In general the o rd erin g an d classifying of things and
events are p ro p e r o r im p ro p e r in the m easure o f th e specific details o f which
use is m ade. W hen learn in g o r b eh av io ral d ev elopm ent is studied, acco u n t
m u st be tak en o f (1) th e observed organism , (2) th e objects with w hich it
interacts, an d (3) th e specific circum stances u n d e r w hich the interactions
tak e place.
T h e significance o f th e specificity principle is exhibited w hen o n e consid­
ers its im p o rtan ce in an aly zin g th e basic c o n stru c ts o f p hilosophical sys­
tem s, fo r exam ple, logic. In stead o f b lan d ly accepti ng th e vie w th a t logic is
a m o d e o f re aso n in g o n e n o tices th a t logic is a m ode o f system building
w hich results in a p ro d u c t o f a specific s o rt.1 T h e system s p ro d u ced vary
fro m m ath em atical a b stra ctio n s, verbal p ro p o sitio n s, o r an y o th er type o f
m anageable object.

SPECIALIZATION PROBLEMS IN PHILOSOPHY

A unique problem o f one an d m an y is presented in naturalistic philos­
ophy. Specialization in every discipline is inevitable. A ccordingly, philos­
o p h y is specialized in to p artic u la r studies such as ethics, aesthetics, politics,
logic, an d so on. B ut still th ere is a ce rta in ph ilosophical unity, th ere are
basic postulates, p ro p o sitio n s, rules, a n d conclusions. A s a specialized
unity philosophy is a discipline co rresp o n d ing to th e specialization o f
science.
T h e a p p a re n t p a ra d o x is easily resolved. T h e validity a n d ap p ro v al of
natu ralistic p h ilo so p h y certainly result fro m th e ex p lo ratio n o f the various
special fields o f ph ilo so p h y su ch as aesthetics, econom ics, politics, science,

'< 3 . K a n t o r , J . R „ Psychology and Logic. C h ic a g o , P r in c ip ia . 1 9 4 5 -1 9 5 0 .

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an d so on. T h e re is a definite reciprocal re la tio n sh ip here, o n one h an d

au th en tic philosophical p ro p o sitio n s are developed fro m th e observation
o f w h a t h ap p e n s w ith in th e specialized fields o f science an d g eneral e x p e­
rience, w hile o n th e o th e r th e fo rm u la tio n o f attitu d es, view points, and
th eo ries dev elo p ed o n th e basis o f such e x p lo ra tio n ca n be used as theories
an d p o stu lates f o r th e investigation o f th e v ario u s special philosophical
fields. A strik in g ex am p le is th e g reat im p ro v em en t in physics, chem istry,
a n d psychology by th e a b a n d o n m e n t o f tran sc en d en tal factors.

CAN CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS BE CHANGED?

G ra n tin g th e need to erase trad itio n al philo so p hical institutions, c a n this
be accom plished? T h e an sw er is co m p lex a n d am bivalent. C o n sid erin g th e
c o n sta n t superficial cu ltu ra l m odifications, ch anges o f styles, seasonal
variatio n s, an d tra d e cycles, th e an sw er is o f co urse affirm ative. But w ith
respect to fu n d a m e n tal intellectual in stitu tio n s only a qualified affirm ative
is possible. T h a t is to say, w hile every in s titu tio n is sub ject to ch an g e in
principle, in p ractice com prehensive changes a re difficult
W ith respect to philosophy, how ever, a n o p tim istic view m ay be possible
if th e follow ing co n d itio n s are m et. (1) P ro p e r a p p reciatio n o f th e value o f
tra d itio n a l system s, a n d th e ir avoidance, (2) a v iable differentiation
betw een events a n d co n stru ctio n s, an d (3) th e dev elo p m en t o f a critical
attitu d e . W ith o u t these co n d itio n s th ere c a n b e n o a u th en tic p h ilo so p h y a t
all. A n d w ith th em a p h ilo so p h y w o rth y o f th e n am e is possible.
A careful d istin ctio n m u st b e m ad e here betw een th e philosophy o f a n
indiv id u al a n d o f a co m m u n ity . E a c h h as p ro b lem s o f its ow n. F o r th e
individual, ch an g es in general a ttitu d e a re sim p ler a n d m o re easily b ro u g h t
a b o u t th a n th e im p ro v em en t o f c o m m u n ity cu ltures. T h e individual p ro b ­
lem is clearly a m a tte r o f p erso n al intelligence a n d ed u c atio n th o u g h th ere
is alw ays th e fact o f b ein g o u t o f step w ith one’s class o f colleagues.
S ocietal rev o lu tio n s a re m o st difficult b u t n o t im possible. T h e changes
needed m ay re q u ire g en e ratio n s an d reso lu te individual th in k ers to set
them selves a g o al an d to w o rk persisten tly to w a rd it. In th is case, to o , th e
basic p ro b lem is th e m odification o f individual intelligence b y educatio n al
m eans. T h e longevity o f social o r c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s d ep en d s u p o n the
b e h a v io r o f persons. It is this fact th a t s u p p o rts th e hope o f attain in g a
natu ralistic philosophy.
W h a t m akes p lau sib le a fu n d a m e n tal re co n stru ctio n o f p h ilosophy is
th a t reflection a n d speculation are acts o f m a tu re beings w ith respect to

346
 EPILOGUE

th e ir n a tu ra l su rro u n d in g s. F allacious p h ilo so p h y is th e n m isin terp retatio n

o f self a n d o th e r th in g s a n d events. A w areness o f objects en co u n tered is
m isin te rp re te d as consciousness, a n d soul, called m in d , is accepted from
relig io u s so u rc es as a sto reh o u se o f m em o ries a n d o th e r m en tal entities.
Insp ectio n o r o b serv atio n o f one's b eh a v io r is spiritized to becom e in tro ­
spection. S cientific psychology does n o t have ro o m fo r this verbalization
p ro c e d u re w h ich violates th e above described d eriv atio n o f co n stru cts from
events. A s a fitting co n clu sio n to this epilogue I claim th a t this treatise has
a t th e very least m a d e av ailab le a d o c u m e n t fo r a c o m p a riso n o f (I) a
scientific m o d e o f ph ilo so p h y zin g , w ith (2) v ario u s h isto rical system s co m ­
p risin g tran sc en d en tal thinking.

347
 SU B JE C T IN D E X
Absolute first cause. 39
Absolute idea or spirit. 180. 319: in aesthetics.
240; in history. 318; in law, 299. 304
Absolutes, in philosophy, viii
Absolutistic laws. 299,304
Abstractions. 31.33.160; verbal, 156; as ampli­
fications of linguistic capacity. 288
Aesthetic beauty identified. 250 ff.
Aesthetic data, indefinability of, 242
Aesthetic enjoyment. 243
Aesthetic fields, analysis of. 254 f.
Aesthetic judgment and evaluations. 253
Aesthetic preferences. 253
Aesthetic qualities in nature and in art. 244
Aesthetic reality. 236.242
Aesthetics, absoluteness in. 240; abstractionism
in. 240; expressionism in. 241; evolution of.
233; informal. 233: modern formal. 233 ff.;
philosophy of. ch. 18; settings or auspices in.
258 f.; the interbehavioral object in. 258; the
problem of abstraction in, 260
Ambiguity. 152. 317
Analysis of aesthetic fields, 254 f.
Anarchists, 184
Anthropology, cultural, contribution to educa­
tion. 276 f.
Appreciator. the, or observer. 257
Art. aesthetic qualities in. 244; and aesthetic qual­
ities. inlrinsicality of, 236: and aesthetics. 233;
and craft. 242; and emotion. 242; and philos­
ophy of aesthetics, ch. 18; as illusion. 238 f.;
crude or primitive. 243: fine or sophisticated.
243; objective versus nonobjective. 245;
through the ages. 232
Artist, the. 256
Authority, 188
Autistic philosophy. 4
Axioms, problem of. in aesthetics. 259. 276
Beauty. 240.247.249; aesthetic, identified. 250 IT.;
as perfectibility of phenomenal appearance.
234; as spiritual quality. 240; universal ap­
plique. 249 f.
Bifurcation of universe. 340
Brain, specious views of. 276
Categories. 19.22.23.25.27.29.30.3 1. 3 4 . 35.36.
37. 38. 155; of Aristotle. 34 fi; of Kanl. 34
Categorization. 21. 22. 23
Causation in history, 329, 332. 339
349
Church Fathers. 5. 45
City of God. 175
Colligation in history. 325
Communist manifesto, 319
Compact philosophy of Locke. 177
Comparative philosophies of religion. 288 ff.
Confrontation interval, ch. 3
Constancies and changes in history, 326
Contract, the social. 175
Conventional and naturalistic attitudes in his­
tory. 330
Conventional philosophy, as autistic verbalisms.
341; as bifurcation of organisms and persons
into mind and body. 340; faults of. 340
Crude or primitive art. 243
Cultural anthropology, contribution to educa­
tion. 276 f.
Cultural institutions, can they be changed?. 346
Culturalization. 104
Cyclism in history. 328
Destiny. 296
Dualism, mind and body. vii. viii. ix, 5. 16; of
society. 183
Dualistic systems. 5
Econometrics. 214. 227
Economic determinism. 182
Economics, excessive abstractionism in. 196; idi­
osyncrasies in. 200: institutional. 219; obsoles­
cence and seasonality in. 200; philosophy and,
ch. 17; welfare. 217
Education. 9; and human maturation. 263; as
personality evolution. 264; contribution to. of
cultural anthropology. 276 f.; conventional
theories of. 263; described. 266 f.; direct in­
fluences. 267 f.; goals in. 273; in philosophical
perspective, ch. 19; in simple and complex cul­
tures. 273: peripheral influences of. 268; versus
training. 272 f.
Educational development, sequential order.
270 f.
Educational goals and values. 273
Educational processes, continuity of. 271
Education situations, problems of. 271
Ego. 154, 165
Empathy. 237; and idealism. 333
Equality, 190
Epistemic events and underlying mysteries of his­
tory. 331
 I N T E R B E H A V I O R A L
Epistemic issues in historiography. 331
Ethical behavior, psychological model of. 167
Ethical events and constructs. 160
Ethical problems as linguistic analyses, 167
Ethical standards. 169
Ethical theory, misconceptions in. 163
Ethics. 8; and morality, absolute and relative.
16 1; and morality and legality. 171; and moral-
ity, public and private, 170: and morals and
values. 168; isolation and identification of
moral situations. 139; philosophy of, 139
Excessive abstractionism in economics, 196
Existence. 31
Experience and theology, 283
Expressionism in aesthetics, 241
Fine or sophisticated art, 243
Fortune and misfortune in history, 337
Freedom. 6, 189; from absolutes. 96: from meta­
physical institutions, 93; from universalism, 96;
of the will, 164
Functions, abstractive and relational. 133; con­
structive and ratiocinative, 153; preservative
and continuity, 153; righting and regulating.
153
Goals in education. 273
God. City of, 173; freedom and immortality. 6,
235
God(s), vii, 6,35.39.42,95.154,153, ch. 20.292 f.
Grammar. 148
Greek philosophy. 16
Grotesque, the, and the ugly. 248
Historical enterprise analyzed, 321-325
Historical inevitability and contingency, 328
Historical products, 325
Historical psychology, 192
Historiographical evaluations. 336
Historiographical explanations, 337
Historiographical interpretations. 336
Historiography, emended, 317; epistemic issues
in. 331
History, absolute idea or spirit in. 318; absolutism
in. 318; as events and as constructs. 318; as
noble dream, 328; as objective study, 321; as
science. 320; as subjective and individual, 320;
as the play of the contingent and the unfore­
seen, 319; causation in, 329, 332. 339; colliga­
tion in. 325; constancies and changes in. 326;
contradictions in philosophy of. 317; conven­
tional and naturalistic attitude in. 333; cychsm
in. 328; essential for philosophy. 317; fortune
and misfortune in. 337; independent of philos­
ophy. 317; philosophical aspects of. 3 17; philos­
ophy of. based on certainties and absolutes.
317; universalism in. 318; values in, 338
350
P H I L O S O P H Y
Humanity, as colonial organisms, 172
Hum an nature, 101
Idealism and empathy, 333
Idiosyncrasies in economics, 200
Illusions as interactions. 239 f.
Immortality, 6. 155. 235
Indefinability of aesthetic data. 242
Infallible philosophy. 163
Inference. 33
Infinite, the, 53. 154
Institutional economics. 219
Institutionalization, 104
lnterbehavioral linguistics, 148
Intcrbehavioral object, the. in aesthetics, 258
lnterbehavioral philosophy, how sound?, 340
Intcrbehavioral psychology in aesthetics, 254
Intrinsically, of art and aesthetic qualities. 236;
of ethics, 166
Invention versus imitation. 246
Judicial review and modification of law. 311
Jurisprudence, as interdisciplinary philosophy,
315
Justice, 189
Keynesian revolution. 221
Knowing. SI f.
Knowledge, as adaptation, and as orientation.
120
Language. 157, ch. 14
Law. absolutism in. 299,304; and semantics. 308;
common and statute. 307; its uncertainty and
indefiniteness. 305; modification of. and judi­
cial review. 311; national and international.
314; theories, metaphysical roots. 301; theories,
philosophical roots. 301; theories, scientific
philosophy of, 302
Laws, absolutistic.299.333;and morals, 3 15; and
psychology, 316; as societal institutions. 304;
codified and uncodified. 309; enactments and
encroachments. 307; in historiography. 331; in
philosophical perspective. 298; in scientific phi­
losophy, 302; natural or functional. 308; nature
of, in scientific contexts, 300; of events, 302; of
explanation, 303; of investigation. 303; of na­
ture and of society, 298, 300 If., 3 13; of origin
and evolution, 302; of scientific cooperation,
304; paradoxy and orthodoxy in, 312; scien­
tific. 299; societal, and customs. 306; societal,
and scientific psychology. 306; societal, nature
of. 304; societal, sources of. 306; universal. 332
Legal philosophy, extremely abstractionistic. 304
Legal realism. 305
Leviathan, Hobbes'. 175
Liberty. 190.191
 SUBJ ECT
Linguistic analysis, ch. 8
Linguistic influences on philosophyzing. 154
Linguistics, interhchavioral. 148; valid. 98
Linguistic, the. problem in aesthetics and philos­
ophy. 261
Literacy, advent of. 147
Logos. 154
Macroeconomics, 198
Marbury versus Madison. 311.312
Marginal utility. 211
Marx's, Karl, theses on Feuerbach. 182
Materialism, nature of. 54;, .radox of. 54; sym­
bol of enlightenment. 55
Materialistic interval, ch. 6; significance of. 65
Mathematics. 8. 125
Meaning, 149, ISO. 158
Mercantilism. 209
Metaphors. 16. 288; of mind, consciousness as
religious products. 288
Metaphysics. Greek. 29. 30. 31,39
Microeconomics. 198
Middle Ages. 5
Mind. 16; and body, dualism, vii. viii, ix, 5
Mona Lisa. 237
Morality, public and private. 170
Morals and values. 168
Moral situations, isolation and identification of.
159
Moral standards. 169 f.
Mysticism, 289
Natural rights and positive law. 311
Nonfigurative painting. 245
Objective versus nonobjective art. 245
Objectivity of historical events. 330
Observational aspects of philosophy. 4
Obsolescence and seasonality in economics. 200
Ordinary, the, and the elite in educational situa­
tions. 271
Orientation problem in philosophy. 259
Paradoxes in legal philosophy. 312
Paradoxy and orthodoxy in law. 312
Paraesthetic behavior. 252
Personality development, two phases of. 264 f.
Pctites perceptiones. 234
Philosophical intervals. 18
Philosophical systems, informal interval. 15;
formal and systematic interval. 16
Philosophies of science, valid and invalid. 8
Philosophy. 158; absolutes in. viii. a human en­
terprise, 343; as queen of the sciences. 3; as
religion. 3; as stage in intellectual evolution. 3;
as systems of assumptions or beliefs. 3; as web
spinning. 3; autistic. 4 f.; conventional. 9. 340.
341; Greek. 16; handmaiden of theology. 3;
351
INDEX
history of. 5; human and divine. 176; identity
of. 3: infallible. 163; interbehavioral. 3; legal,
paradoxes in. 312: observational. 4; of an and
aesthetics, ch. 18; of ethics. 159; of history,
contradictions of. 317; of history, based on
certainties and absolutes. 317; scientific. 5
Philosophyring. 3.4. 16. 95; eight specifications
for, ch. 9; linguistic influences on. 154; signi­
ficant, specifications for. 95
Physics. 8
Physiocratism. 209
Physis. 20.21
Political systems, variety in. 175
Political utility philosophy. 178
Politics, and humanity as colonial organisms.
172; and hierarchy of human groups, 172: of
Aristotle, 175; philosophical aspects of, 172;
philosophy of. 178: problems of. 186: speci­
mens of. 175
Polysemy. 152
Positivistic interval, ch. 7
Postulation(s). 156; definite. 23: naive. 19
Price, as dogma, 201
Primum mobile. 39
Problem, of abstraction inaesthclics. 260; of axi­
oms in aesthetics. 259; of orientation in philos­
ophy. 259; of politics of specificity in philos­
ophy. 259 f.; subjective-objective, in aesthetics
and in philosophy, 261; the linguistic, in aes­
thetics and philosophy, 261
Problems, of educational situations. 271; specific
political. 186: unity-plurality, in aesthetics and
philosophy. 261 f.
Proletariat, the. 182
Proliferation, of human groups. 172
Psyche. 155. 288
Psychic atoms. 48
Psychic distance. 237
Psychic faculties. 234
Psychic powers. 16
Psychic research. 289
Psychic synthesis. 49
Psychological aspects of political philosophy. 192
Psychological model of ethical behavior. 167
Psychological problems in philosophy. 260
Psychology. 102. 104, 105. 157. 192; and psycho­
logical behavior, 285; historical. 192; inlerbe-
havioral. in aesthetics. 254; scientific. 105. 192;
valid. 98
Reality. 7. 154; and religion. 284; of knowledge
and thinking. 50
Relativistic laws. 299
Religion. 16. 76; and morals. 295; and politics.
296 f.; and reality. 284; and science. 286: and
theology. 283; and truth. 2831; and values. 293
IT.: as contention. 282; as creation. 2XI. as criti-
 I N T E R B E H A V I O R A L
Religion (Continued)
cism, 282; as cntrepreneurism. 282 f.; a par­
apet of defense. 281; as unification of expe­
rience. 281; behavior, various types, 282;
comparative philosophies of. 288; comparative
psychologies of. 289 ff.; definitions of. 278;
Greek. 37. 38. 39; in anthropological perspec­
tive. 284; isolation and identification. 278; of
Plato. 28; philosphv of. ch 20; plurality of. 280;
public and private. 279; sacred and secular.
279 f.
Saintliness. 289
Scholastics. S
Science, and religion. 286 f.; intrudes upon faith.
ch. 5; philosophies of. 8
Scientific laws, 299
Scientific philosophy. S
Scientific psychology. 105. 192. 288
Seeing versus knowing. 245 f.
Self. 6. 154. 165
Semantics. 7; and the law. 308
Settings or auspices in aesthetics. 258 f.
Significant philosophvzing. 95; specifications for.
95
Slavery. 187
Social contract, the. 175
Societal laws, and customs. 306: and scientific
philosophy. 306; nature of. 304; not laws of
nature. 313; sources of. 306
Soul. 4. 16, 28; sick. 289. 341; source of knowl­
edge. 48
Sovereignty. 187
Specificity, principle. 344; the. problem in philos­
ophy. 259 f.
Specific political problems. 186
Spirit. 6. 7, 154; absolute and universal, 180
Spirit-matter dualism. 341
Spiritistic culture, dominance of. 291
352
P H I L O S O P H Y
Spiritistic variants in conventional philosophy. 6
Spiritual life. 288
Spurious laws. 333
Sialism versus freedom. 185
Subjective-objective, problem in aesthetics and in
philosophy. 261
Sublimity. 243. 247
Substances in psychic synthesis. 49
Supernaturalism. 287
Superstition. 288
Supply and demand. 197
Syllogism. 33
Synonymity. 151
Tastc(s). aesthetic, 252: standard of, 243
Technology and engineering in education. 274 f.
Theology, 5; and experience. 283; and religion.
283
Transcendences, withdrawal from. 97
Transcendental interval, ch. 4
Transcendentalism, 41; ch. 4
True. the. beautiful, and the good. 341
Truth. 154; and religion. 283 f.
Unity-plurality, problem inaesthetiesand philos­
ophy. 261 f.
Univcrsalism in history. 318
Universalistic attitude. 16
Universal spirit. 180
Valid, linguistics. 98; psychology, 98; thinking. 95
Value(s). 16. 211: and tiie valuable. 212, 293; and
virtues, as transcendental abstractions, 7; in
education. 273: in history. 338; subjective. 211
Welfare economics. 217
Words, domination of linguistics by. 147
Zoon Politikon. 172
 N A M E INDEX

Alexander, S„ 239, 251 Bridgman, P. W„ 69, 72, 106, 138

Altenburg, M„ 32 Briggs. W„ 135
Ames, H, S., 278 Buckie, H. R„ 326
Ames, J. B., 313 Buchner, L., 64
Ames, V. M„ 251 Bullough, E„ 237
Anaxagoras, 23 Burke, E., 253
Anaximander, 20 Burkhardt, J„ 337
Anaximenes, 20 Burnet, J„ 20
Apell, O., 30, 34, 35 Bum, E. A„ 127
Aristotle, 16 ,17 ,19,24,25,26,28.42,54,160.175 Bum, E. G„ 213
Amau, F., 256 Bum, E. J„ 222, 230
Atkinson, R. F„ 318, 326 Bury. J. B„ 230, 320
Attiyeh, R„ 205 Butteifield. H . 337
Augustine, St„ 43, 44. 110. 114. 175, 326
Ayer, A. J„ 78, 160, 167 Cabanis. P. J. G„ 60. 61
Ayres, C. E„ 225, 226,231 Caesar, J., 321, 330
Cahn. E„ 311, 312
Bakunin, M. A., 184, 185 Campbell, N. R„ 300
Banister, H„ 111 Cantillon, R„ 226, 227
Barker, S„ 189 Cardoro, B. N., 312
Baumgarten, A. G„ 233, 234 Carlyle, T„ 320
Beard, C. A.. 320, 328, 329 Carnap, R„ 7, 74
Beardsley, M. C., 248 Carr, G„ 56
Beck. G. H„ 205 Carritt, E. F„ 240
Becker, C. L„ 324 Cassirer, E„ 26
Bell, Charles, 250. 251 Cezanne, P„ 244
Bell, Clive. 258 Chagall, M„ 248
Bell, E. T„ 125 Clarendon, E. H„ 320
Bell, G. J„ 250 Clark. J, B . 230
Benditt, T. M„ 305 Clifford. W. K„ 73
Benedict, R.. 309 Cohen, F. S„ 305. 306
Bentham, J.. 160, 218, 224. 227 Cohen, H„ 22
Berkeley, G„ 52,54,70,72,107,108,137,210.222 Cohen, M. R„ 250, 305, 308, 309. 317
Berlin, 1„ 333 Collingwood. R„ 241, 320. 333, 334
Bernoulli, D.. 230 Commons, J. R„ 231
Bingham. J. W„ 309 Compton, A. H„ 6. 258
Blackham, H. F„ 230 Comte, A.. 67, 68, 69
Blackstone, W„ 305, 310 Condillac, E. B. de, 56
Blanqui, A„ 184, 185 Conford, F. M„ 21,23. 26
Bloomfield, L., 149, ISO Cooper, D. C„ 162
Blunt. A.. 244. 252 Copernicus, N„ 6, 138, 208
Bodenheimer, E.. 304 Courant, R„ 249
Bohm-Bawerk, E. von, 211, 212.227 Croce, B„ 241, 326
Bohr. N„ 106, 138, 250 Cromwell, O., 331
Boole. G„ 85 Cushman, H. E„ 26
Born, M„ 106 Cuvier. G. L. C. F. D.. 17
Bossuet, J. B„ 60. 326
Botticelli, S„ 244 Dali. S.. 248
Bottomorc, T. B„ 215 Darwin. C.. 17
Bowen. J„ 265 Darwin. C. G„ 250
Braithwaile. R. B„ 295 Davenport. H. V„ 224

353
 i n t e r b e h a v i o h a l p h i l o s o p h y

Davis, H.. Ill Hamlet, 147, 293

Davis, H. T., 250 Hammurabi, 330
Democritus, 54 Hampshire, S., 191
Descartes, R., 48,107, 176 Hardy, G. H„ 249
Dewey, J., 92,236,295, 296 Harris, S. E., 222
Dickie, G„ 241,242 Harrod, R. F., 222
Diels, H„ 21 Han. H. L. A„ 191,314,315
Dillard, D„ 222 Hanley, D., 135
Dilthey, W., 333,338 Hanmann, E., 39
Dingle, H., 69 Hartmann, E. von, 20
Dodds, E. R., 16 Hanmann, N., 160, 169
Donagan, A., 332 Harvey, W„ 137
Dossena, A., 256 Heckscher, E. F., 209,210
Dray, W. H„ 320,332, 333 Hegel, 63,180 f.. 182,183,215,235,241,278,291.
Ducasse, C. J., 251 318,319, 326
Duhem, P.. 86 Heisenberg, W„ 6. 106, 138
Helmholtz. H„ 108
Ebbinghaus, H., 108 Hempel, C. G., 332, 334
Eddington, A., 6,106 Henkin, L.,314
Einstein, A., 8,9 Hepburn, R. W„ 244
Elias, H., 276 Heracleitus, 22, 26
Elton, G. R., 317,321, 323 Herbart, J. F„ 51. 108, 235
Elton, W., 239 Herbertz, R., 21
Engels, F„ 182, 183, 203,216,217,319, 326 Herodotus, 322
Euclid, 8 Hertz, H., 67
Eve, A. S„ 250 Hesiod, 20
Hippocrates, 54
Faraday, M., 250 Hobbes, T„ 54, 175, 176,208
Fetter, F. A., 224 Hobson, J. A., 217,218.219,227
Feuerbach, L., 63, 278 Holbach, P. H. T., 55
Fischer, I., 224, 227 Holmes, O. W., 305,306,315
Fisher, H. A. L., 319 Holstein, F. von, 188
Frank, J., 305, 310, 316 Homer, 20
Frederick, The Great, 331 Hume, D„ 52,54,70,72,107,108,178,179, 180,
Frege, G., 85 210, 243
French, P. A., 162
Frisch, R., 227 James, W„ 289
Fry, R., 258 Jeans, 106
Fustel de Coulanges, N. D., 320 Jerome, 42
Jevons, 224, 227, 228, 230.250
Galiani, F., 230 Johnson, E. A. J., 208
Galileo, G .,6 ,4 7 ,5 0 ,128,129, 138 Johnston, M., 6
Gardiner, P., 333 Jones, H. W., 313
Geertz, G , 285 Jourdain, P. E. B., 250
Gelb, I. J., 146 Justi, J. H. G„ 227
Geyl, P„ 326
Godwin, W., 184 Kant, 6,9,27,30,34,39,49,51,54, 85,108,160,
Goethe, J. W., 197, 248 161, 162, 210, 211, 234,235, 241, 247,300
Goldman, E., 184, 185 Kantor, J. R„ 7, 80, 84, 87, 136, 143, 148, 150,
Gombrich, E. H., 238 271,315, 321,322
Gray. J. C.,310 Kauder, E., 212
Greenough, H., 251 Kaufman, W., 282
Gregory, 42 Kelsen, H.,313
Kent, E. A., 305
Hadamard, J., 250 Kepler, J., 47,129, 138,208
Hamilton, W., 52 Keynes. J. M., 212,221 ff, 226,227, 230

354
 NAME INDEX

Kipnis, K., 314 Moore, G. E„ 160, 166, 219, 221, 252, 299
KirshofT, G. R.. 67 Moore, T. V., 292
Klein, L. R„ 221, 222 Most, J., 184, 185
Knight, F. H., 194 Muller, M„ 278
Knight. R. P.. 252 Mun. A. A. M.. 227
Kovach, F. J.. 237, 251 Munro, T„ 251
Kropotkin. P„ 184, 185 Murray, G„ 43
Kiilpe. O., 108
Nagel, E., 74
La Mettrie. J. O., 58 f„ 64 Namier, L. B.. 320, 323
Langdell, 313 Napoleon, 321, 331
Lange, F. A., 54.63 Natorp, P„ 22. 27, 28
Laplace, P. S.. 6 Newton. 6,47.49.50, 53.113, 130,131.132, 133,
Lask, E„ 35 134, 135, 136, 137, 138,208
Lauderdale, J. M., 228
Leif, G.. 327, 335, 338 Ogden. C. K.. 149
Leibniz, G. W.. 48. 53. 54, 107, 210, 222, 233 Ogle. \V„ 17
Lenin, N„ 227 Oman. J. W.. 278, 281
Levy-Bruhl, L., 60 Osborne. H.. 238. 251
Lewis. C. ]., 232 Ostwald, W„ 70
Liebig, J., 63
Linnaeus. C„ 17 Parker, D. H„ 244
Lipps, T„ 237 Parmenides, 22, 26
Livingstone, R. W., 37. 38 Passmore, J. A., 80, 91. 330, 335
Llewellyn, K., 306 Paul. St., 43
Pea no, 85
Locke, J., 48. 54, 70, 72. 107, 108, 177. 210, 222
Lucretius, T„ 19, 54 Pearson, K., 69, 71, 72
Lunsden, R.. 205 Petrie. H. G„ 265
Petty, W.. 208. 219. 227
McCulloch. J. R„ 211,228,229 Picasso, P., 248
McDonald, L. C., 175 Pigou. A. C . 215, 217,219
McTaggart, J. M. E„ 279 Planck, M„ 6, 70
Macaulay, T. B., 320 Plato. 16, 19, 24. 25. 26, 28. 29. 39.41. 160. 175,
Mach, E., 67, 71, 72, 86 189
Malthus. T. R.. 210. 227. 228, 229 Plotinus, 42, 114
Mandelbaum, M., 333, 335 Poincare, H„ 86
Marshall, A., 213. 214, 227 Pollock. F.. 308
Marshall. J-, 311 Popper, K. R.. 332
Marx. K., 182 L. 203,215.216.217.227.278.319, Pound, R., 316
326 Prall, D. W„ 236
Mead, G. H„ 38 Proudhon, P. V., 184
Meinecke, J., 338 Pythagoras, 19, 21, 22, 26
Menger, C., 211. 212, 227, 228. 229, 230
Quesnay, F., 209, 226
Mengs, A. R„ 251
Mersenne, M„ 176 Radin, P„ 15
Meyershoff, H.. 324 Ramsey, 1. T., 291
Michelangelo, 244, 252 Ranke. L. von, 328, 329, 335. 338
Mill. J., 210,211 Ranson, S. W., 112
Mill. J. S„ 160, 210, 211,213,219,222,224,228, Rawls. J., 189
229 Reichenbach, H„ 249
Millikan, R. A.. 288 Reid, T.. 51, 52. 53, 109, 115. 135. 136. 137
Minucius, Felix, 42 Renan, E„ 278
Mitchell, W. C„ 203, 217, 218.224, 227.231 Ricardo. D.. 210. 213. 219. 224. 227.228, 229
Moleschott, J., 63 Richards, I. A., 149
Momigliano. A. O., 321 Rickert, H., 333
Moore. C. N„ 249 Robbins, H., 249

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 I N T E R B E H A V I O R A L P H I L O S O P H Y

Romancll. P., 296 Thales, 20

Roschcr, W„ 208 Thomas, St., 44
Ross. W. D„ 251 Thompson, J. J„ 321
Rousseau, 55, 175, 176, 177. 178 Thompson, W., 249
Rubel. M.. 215 Thrasymascus. 189
Russell, B.. 77, 126, 188, 221, 249 Thucydides, 322
Rust, E. C.. 287 Tinbergen. 227
Rutherford, E„ 250 Torrens, C. R.. 228. 229
Ryle, G., 94, 240 Toynbee, A. J., 325. 326
Trevelian, G. M., 320
Santayana. G„ 237 Trevor-Roper, H.. 320
Saussure, F. de, 142 Tucker, T. G.. 38
Say, J. B„ 212, 228. 229 Tugwell, R. G.. 203, 231
Schelling, F. W. V., 63 Turgot, R. J„ 209, 227
Schleirmacher, F„ 278
Schoen. M„ 248 Uebcling, T. E., 162
Scholastics, 89 Ullmann, S„ 149, 152
Schopenhauer. A., 7
Schroeder, E„ 85
Veach, H. B., 78
Schrodingcr. E..7, 18, 106. 138
Veblen, T„ 203, 221, 227
Schumpeter, J. A„ 222, 226 Vermeer, J„ 256
Senior. N. W.,211 Vivas, E., 236
Shakespear, 147, 189,248
Vogt, K. C.. 63, 64
Sherrington, C. S., 6, 112 Voltaire, F. M. A„ 326
Sibley, M. Q„ 175 Vossler, K„ 249
Sidgwick, H„ 222
Sigcrist, H. E„ 249
Sismondi, J. C. L„ 229 Walras, L„ 230
Smith, A., 209 f.. 213, 219, 227, 228, 229, 230 Walsh, W. H., 325, 330
Smith. N. W„ 1,87, 150 Waters. F. W„ 283, 284, 291
Socrates, 19, 24, 25 Weber, M.. 333
Sophists, 19 Wertheimer, M., 250
Sophocles, 43 Wettstein, H. K„ 162
Sorel, G„ 184 Whitehead, A. N„ 112, 221, 279
Spencer, H„ 186, 278 Whittaker. W. H„ 288
Spengler. O., 326 Wieser, F. von, 211, 212
Sperry, R. W„ 301 Wilhelm II, 188
Spiegel, H. W„ 209, 211. 222 Winckelmann, J. J., 251
Winckler, W„ 248
Spinoza, B„ 46, 54
Windclband, W„ 22,25, 26, 29. 333
Stephenson. C. L„ 160, 167
Wisdom, J„ 78
Stem, F„ 320
Stewart, J. A., 27 Wittgenstein, L„ 77
Slirner, M., 184 Wolff, J. C„ 233
Storch, H. F. von, 228, 229 Wollheim, R„ 238, 239
Sullivan, J. W. N., 249 Woodbridge, F. J. E„ 23
Sumner, W. G., 170 Wundt, W„ 108
Wynne, J. P., 263
Tail, P. G„ 249
Tawney, R. H„ 203 Xenophanes, 110
Taylor, A. E., 33, 36
Taylor, L. W„ 130, 250 Zeller, E., 29, 37, 40
Temple, W„ 279 Ziff. P„ 239
Tertullian, Q. S. F„ 42, 284 Zimmermann. F., 236

356