Introduction to Anthropology and Sociology

We can say that the study of human beings can be the study of a lifetime. Great thinkers have spent years getting some
answers to questions about human behavior. Today, there are many fields and sub-fields of study that engage in trying
to understand humankind. In this lesson, we will discuss the nature and beginnings of sociology and anthropology. At
the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Articulate observations on human cultural variation, social differences,
social change and political identities 2. Recognize the common concerns or intersections of anthropology, sociology and
political science with respect to the phenomenon of change. 3. Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology
and sociology

Definitions of Sociology and Anthropology Sociology “is a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure, function
and direction.” Anthropology “is a social science that is concerned with human culture as well as the physical and social
characteristics that create that culture. Often it will compare one group of humans to another or even compare humans
with animals.”

History of Sociology and Anthropology In Anthropology, the behavior of others had been observed and recorded by men
since the birth of civilization. Examples of these great men who did the observations and recordings are Herodotus and
Tacitus. However, it was only in the 18th century that a codified study of cultures began. The study of culture of other
people has been done by Westerners that brought forth to the racist theories about the overall advancement of
different groups. Sociology has been practiced by the Greeks also, when they studied their surrounding society. It was in
the 19th century when sociology was recognized as an academic discipline and became a part of the university
curriculum. The word Sociology was taken from two foreign words: Socius, a Latin term which means companion or
associate

Logos, a Greek term for study

Nature of Sociology The nature of sociology is identified by the following characteristics as enlisted by Robert Bierstadt
in his book “Social Order.” 1. Sociology is a social science not a physical science. It concentrates on man, his social
behavior, social activities and social life. 2. Sociology is categorical not a normative discipline. As a categorical discipline,
it is a body of knowledge about human society, and not a system of ideas and values. 3. It is a pure science. It aims to
provide knowledge about human society, not the utilization of that knowledge 4. Sociology is the generalizing and not a
particularizing or individualizing science. Sociology tries to find out general laws or principles about human interaction
and association, about the nature, form, content and structure of human groups and societies. 5. Sociology is a general
science not a special science. It is concerned with human interaction and human life in general. It only studies human
activities in a general way. 6. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science. There are two broad ways of
approach to scientific knowledge. Empiricism is the approach that emphasizes experience and the facts that result from
observation and experimentation. Rationalism is a stressed reason and the theories that result from logical inference.

Nature of Anthropology 1. Anthropology is the study of humankind in all times and places. 2. It involves the careful and
systematic study of humankind using facts, hypothesis, and theories. 3. It is concerned with other culture’s languages,
values, and achievements in the arts and literature. 4. Anthropology is committed to experiencing other cultures.

Focus of Anthropology and Sociology Anthropology “is interested in the overall culture of a group of people. This
includes social institutions, art, history, mythology, and common mores, among other traits. Anthropologies now study
societies all over the world, but look for overarching themes that are reinforced through case studies. It also includes
archeology, and due to a great amount of substantive speculation is thought to be a softer science than sociology.”
statistical analysis, sampling, and large collections of life histories. Sociologists strive to be as impartial and scientific as
possible as they gather

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data. The data analyzed by sociologists is often used by government officials and market researchers alike.” Summary: 1.
Anthropology and sociology are both fields of social science that study the behavior of humans within their societies. 2.
Traditionally anthropology dealt with the study of cultures of other people, while sociology was used to understand own
society. 3. Today, anthropology tends to look at the big picture of human culture while sociology spends more time
analyzing data from a specific study. Anthropology is considered to be a softer science than sociology as its conclusions
are based on case studies than hard data.

Introduction to Sociology Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human social life. Sociologists study people
as they form groups and interact with one another. The groups they study may be small, such as married couples, or
large, such as a subculture of suburban teenagers. Sociology places special emphasis on studying societies, both as
individual entities and as elements of a global perspective.

Sociology as a Social Science Sociology “is a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure, function and
direction.” It studies the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior. It also seeks to understand the
ways in which people interact and shape society.

The Origins of Sociology Sociology is a relatively young science, beginning in late nineteenth-century Europe during a
time of great social upheaval. Intellectuals such as Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Emile Durkheim, and others
began to explore ideas for regaining a sense of community and restoring order. After World War II, however, the
greatest development of sociology has taken place in the United States. Two early contributors were activists Jane
Addams and W.E.B. DuBois, who helped focus people's attention on social issues. Pioneers in the Study of Sociology The
early scholars who contributed significantly for the development of Sociology as a young science are listed below:
Auguste Comte (1778 - 1857) - He was born after the French revolution of 1789

- He proposed the Philosophical position of Positivism. He theorized that the methods of physical science are regarded
as the accurate means of obtaining knowledge and therefore, social science should adhere to the same. - He developed
the idea and coined the term “sociology” - He was the founder of Sociology. Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876) - She
translated Comte’s work in English - She spoke out in favor of the rights of women, the emancipation of the slaves, and
religious tolerance. - Her book, “Society in America” examines religion, politics, child rearing, and immigration in the
young nation. - She emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, and population could have on the social
problems of contemporary society. - She said that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of
social conditions, but they should act upon their conditions in a manner that will benefit society. Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
- He is considered as one of the thinkers of the modern times - He was a native German and later exiled in England - He
said that the sociologist’s task is to explain conflict - That conflict is shaped by the means of production - He said that
industrialization resulted in two classes: owners and laborers Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) - He grew up in England - He
proposed that there is the parallelism between how society evolves in the same manner as animal species do - This
principle is attributed to “Darwin’s Theory of Evolution” - Through Spencer’s theory, it could be further said that, man as
a member of society is in a never ending competition and the name of the game is to win. Emile Durkheim (1858 - 1917)
- He was the only person who studied the discipline in the school of higher learning thoroughly - He provided insights
into the social forces that contributed to the rise of the global village - He proposed four types of suicide, based on the
degrees of imbalance of two social forces: social integration and moral regulation - He concluded that suicide is not an
ordinary phenomenon

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Max Weber (1864 – 1920) - He focused on how industrial revolution changed thoughts and action and how it brought
about a process called rationalization - Rationalization refers to the way daily life is organized so as to accommodate
large groups of people.

Other sociologists: Albion Small - founder of the department of sociology at the University of Chicago - he established
the American Journal of Sociology W.E.B Du Bois - a black American who conducted research on race relations in the
U.S. Wright Mills - urged sociologists to get back to social reform Robert K. Merton - he stressed that sociologists need to
develop middle-range theories as explanations of human behavior that go beyond the particular observation or research
but avoid sweeping generalizations that attempt to account for everything The Development of Sociology in the
Philippines Serfin M. Macaraig - the first Filipino to acquire a doctorate degree in Sociology and published a book
entitled “An Introduction to Sociology” in 1938. Fr. Valentin Marin - he introduced Sociology in the Philippines with the
opening of criminology program at University of Santo Tomas in 1950 Conrado Benitez and Luis Rivers - among the first
teachers of sociology in the Philippines In 1952, Filipino pioneers in Sociology organized the Philippine Sociological
Society which main trust is to collect, interpret and proposed possible solutions to different Philippine sociological
phenomena. In 1957, the Community Development Research Council was created to conduct and support social science
researchers. In 1960, Fr. Frank Lynch, SJ, founded the Institute of the Philippines Culture at the Ateneo de Manila
University. In 1972, Xavier University was given credit as the first school, which opened a program in PhD in sociology.

It was the University of the Philippines that offered a bachelor degree in sociology.

Three Major Perspectives in Sociology Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different
perspectives. Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective,
the functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms
for explaining how society influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social
forces, and human behavior.

Sociological Perspectives

Sociological Perspective Level of Analysis Focus

1. Symbolic Interactionism

Micro (small social patterns)

Use of symbols; Face-toface Interactions

2. Functionalism Macro (large patterns)

Relationship between the parts of society; How aspects of society are functional (adaptive)

3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce resources; How the elite control the poor and weak.

Symbolic Interaction The founding father is Mead (1863-1931), an American philosopher. The theoretical perspective
supports that: People attach meaning to symbols, then they act according to the subject interpretations Individual,
social groups meaning to experience of life: we negotiate meaning Meanings can change or be modified through
interaction and through time. Structure Functionalism Two words can give an idea of this approach: structure and
function. The founding fathers of this perspective are Comte, Spencer and Durkheim.

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This theoretical perspective says that society is stable, ordered system of interrelated part of the structures. Each
structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability or equilibrium of the whole. Structures are
explained as social institutions like the family, the educational system, politics, religion, mass media systems, and the
economy Structures meet the need of society by performing different functions: What would be the functions of
above mentioned social institutions? (in terms of manifest* vs. latent** functions, Robert Merton, b. 1910)
Dysfunction: a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect of the social system Harmony & stability
Manifest: the obvious intended functions of a social institution (or social system) Latent: the less obvious, perhaps
unintended functions of a social structure Cultural Theory The founding father is Karl Marx. The principles embodied in
this theory are: A materialistic view of society (focused on labor practices and economic reality, we play by the rules
(roles and functions) of these social systems Unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agenda causing them
to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis of the ever changing
nature of society.

Sociological Imagination Sociological imagination is a new concept to social sciences introduced by C. Wright Mills in
1959 in his book titled ‘Sociological Imagination’. This coined phrase is used throughout sociology today. This
‘sociological imagination’ is the concept of being able to “think ourselves away” from the familiar routines of our daily
lives in order to look at them anew. Mills defined sociological imagination as “the vivid awareness of the relationship
between experience and wider society.” It is the ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence each
other. To have a sociological imagination, a person must be able to pull away from the situation and think from an
alternative point of view. It is also the willingness to view the social world from the perspective of others. It involves
moving away from thinking in terms of you and your problems (private issues), but focusing rather on the social
circumstances that produce social problems (public issues).

In short, sociological imagination is all about determining the relationship between your ordinary lives and the wider
social forces. It is turning your private troubles into ‘public issues”.

Example of Sociological Imagination We will see a common example. Suppose, there is a boy who is unable to find
employment and he is worried about a loan that he needs to pay back. He tries very hard to get a job, but he fails. Now,
he joins a group and engages in illegal and criminal activities. If you analyze this case individually, then you may say that
this boy did not try hard enough to get a job and resorted to illegal activities to gain easy money. We analyze the issue:
Issue – Unemployment Private Trouble – When one person is unemployed that is a private trouble Public Issue – When 5
million people are unemployed, that is a public issue If you see this case in the social imagination perspective, then you
would see that the larger forces such as economic meltdown, unemployment, the lack of regulation in the subprime
mortgage industry, etc., had a direct impact on the life of this guy. We could have blamed the personal character of the
individual if very few guys went through the similar situation. But when there is a significant number of youth facing the
same problem, then it becomes a social or public problem where government policies about employment and banking
needs to be looked at. In the above example, you can analyze the problem by tracing the root cause of the problem in
society and find how this particular issue developed. It is clear from the example of sociological imagination that this
concept tries to study how large social forces influence individual behavior and actions of people living in that society.
So, the next time you are confronted with a personal problem or situation, you know how to connect it to the wider
social happenings. This process would help you find out long-term, permanent solutions to some of the grave individual
problems.

References

Acton, Ashton Q. (2014. Issues in international sociology and social work research

People of the same society share aspects of their culture, such as language or beliefs. In this lesson, we will discuss
culture, which refers to our language, values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that constitute our way of life.
Culture is a defining element of society. At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Articulate observations on
human cultural variation, social differences, social change, and political identities 2. Demonstrate curiosity and an
openness to explore the origins and dynamics of culture and society, and political identities.

Definition of Culture Culture is everything that is made, learned, or shared by the members of a society, including values,
beliefs, behaviors, and material objects. Two parts of Culture 1. Material culture is the visible part. It may be the food we
eat, your cars, your houses or anything that members of society make, use and share. 2. Non-material culture is
intangible but this influences our behavior like our language, beliefs, values, rules of behavior, family patterns and
political system Five Components of Culture 1. Technology is one component that makes our life easier. We can have
volume production of goods that can be used by us through this component. 2. Symbols are cultural representations of
reality. They give meanings to events and things like a statue, handshake, college ring, flag etc. 3. Language is the most
powerful of all human symbols as it allows us to communicate with one another. It also conveys our beliefs and culture.
4. Values are ideas. They determine our character. They are the standards by which we assess goodness, acceptability,
beauty or desirability. 5. The fifth component is norm. Norm is a rule that guides our behavior. It gives concrete terms
how we should behave – what we should do and what we should not do.

Classification of Norms: 1. Mores distinguish right from wrong. 2. Folkways distinguish between right and rude. They
are referred as customs. They are measurements of behavior but not approved by society. 3. Laws are written rules of
conduct enacted and enforced by government. 4. Taboo is an activity that is forbidden or sacred based on religious
beliefs or morals. Breaking a taboo is extremely objectionable in society as a whole. Around the world, an act may be
taboo in one culture and not in another. Examples are: 1. Mores laws: child abuse, rape, carnapping, etc. 2. Folkway
laws: jaywalking, counterflowing, etc. 3. Law: Driving while drunk, theft, murder, and trespassing are all examples of
laws. If violated, the person violating the law could get reprimanded, pay a fine, or go to jail. 4. Taboos: abortion,
addiction, cannibalism, offensive language, slavery, etc.
Difference between Culture and Society Society – consists of people who interact to share a common culture Culture –
consists of beliefs, behaviors, objects and other characteristics common to a particular group or society. Where did
culture originate? Biological or Societal? Nature or nurture? Nature refers to your innate qualities or nativism while
nurture is your personal experiences. Nature is your genes, the physical and personality traits determined by your genes
which stays with you wherever you were born or raised. Nurture refers to your childhood, or how you were brought up.
Nature is built from your biological and family factors while nurture from your societal or environmental factor.

Cultural Change

We can say that culture is learned – from our families, peers, institutions and media. As we absorb other’s culture, we
change ours. It is shared as we share it with our group members. It is based on symbols because these symbols give
meaning to people either to agree or not on their use. Culture is integrated because if we learn culture, we should be
ready to relate all of the aspects, not only a part or a few. It is also dynamic because of interaction and change. These
changes may be in the form of discoveries, inventions or cultural borrowings.

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However, cultural diversity is also present in society. Because of the existence of multiple cultures, it creates differences
within the society. Sub-cultures You must also be informed about subcultures. Subcultures exist in small cultural groups
but differ in some way. Examples of subcultures include: “heavy metal” music devotees, tattoo enthusiasts, gangs,
skinheads, etc. When you oppose to the norms and values of a dominant culture, you possess a counterculture.
Examples of this are: protest groups, hippies, etc. When your culture is dominant, and it absorbs subcultural and
countercultural groups, the process is called assimilation. If culture respects cultural variations, we call this
multiculturalism. To end this session, we add ethnocentrism which involves judging other cultures against the standards
of one’s culture; and cultural relativism which says that a culture should be sociologically evaluated according to its
standards, and not those of any other culture. This lesson might have presented you with important concepts to
improve your behavior and ways of dealing with other people like your parents, siblings, peers and play groups.

Social Groups and Organization This lesson deals with how man needs other members of society to survive and to enjoy
life. The issue here is how to organize ourselves to for alliance into groups and organizations. Classification of People
“No man is an island” goes the saying. Man can not thrive without the presence of other men. There is a natural
tendency for man to live with others in a group, to look for a companion or group of companions in order to fulfill the
need to belong and to experience some form of comfort. People are usually classified based on the group he or she is an
aggregate of. This group may be something he consciously chose for himself or something he was born into. GROUP A
group serves many functions like giving an individual a sense of identity as well as emotional intimacy. It consists of two
or more people who are distinct in the following three ways: a. Interact overtime b. Have a sense of identity or
belonging

c. Have norms that non-members don’t have. For example: A class of students is a group who meet a few times in a
week for an entire semester and identify themselves on the basis of what classes they are taking. Students in a class
must follow their professor’s class and test schedule, as well as rules for behavior and contribution in class. AGGREGATE
An aggregate is a collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time but who have no other
connection to one another. An example: the people in a restaurant on a particular evening are an example of an
aggregate, not a group. Those people do not know one another, and they will likely never see again in the same place
and the same time. CATEGORY Third classification is category, which is a collection of people who share a particular
characteristic. They do not necessarily interact with one another and have nothing else in common. Examples of
categories may include people who have green eyes, or people who were born in the Philippines, or women who gave
birth to twins. One important characteristic of a group is for group members interact on a regular basis through
communication.

Social Group

Those who interact with one another and share similar characteristics and possess a sense of unity is called a social
group. These groups may be families, companies, circles of friends, fraternities and sororities and local religious
congregations Nature of Social Group ➢ The group provides specific form as to the nature of interaction in the society.
➢ Members should develop a structure where each member assumes a specific status and adopts a particular role. ➢
Certain orderly procedures and values are agreed upon. ➢ The members of the group feel a sense of identity. Types of
Social Group 1. Social Group according to Ties (This is considered a primary group) It is the most fundamental unit of
human society A long-lasting group characterized by strong ties of love and affection Do’s and don’ts of behavior are
learned in this group Examples: families, gangs, cliques, play groups, friendship groups 2. Social Group according to Ties
(A Secondary Group) Group with which the individual comes in contact later in life

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Characterized by impersonal business-like, contractual, formal and casual relationship. Usually large in size, not very
enduring and limited relationships. People needed other people for the satisfaction of their complex needs. Examples:
Industrial Workers, business associates. Faculty staff, Company employees 3. Social Group to Form of Organization
(Informal Group) Arises spontaneously out of the interactions of two or more persons It is unplanned Has no
explicit rules for membership and does not have specific objectives to be attained members are bound by emotion and
sentiments 1. Social Group according to Form of Organization (Formal Group) Social organization Deliberately
formed and their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined. Their goals are clearly stated and the division of labor is
based on member’s ability or merit 1. Social Group according to Self identification (In-Group) It is a social unit in which
individuals feel at home and with which they identify themselves 1. Social Group according to Self identification (Out-
Group) It is a social unit to which individuals do not belong due to differences in social categories and with which they do
not identify. 1. Social Group according to Purpose (Special Interest Group) A group which is organized to meet the
special interest of the members 1. Social Group according to Purpose (Task Force) A group is assigned to accomplish jobs
which cannot be done by one person. 1. Social Group according to Geographical Location and Degree of Relationship
(Gemeinschaft) A social system in which most relationships are personal and traditional It is a community of
intimate, private and exclusive living and familism Culture is homogeneous and traditional-bound 2. Social Group
according to Geographical Location and Degree of Relationship (Gesselschaft)

A social system in which most relationships are impersonal, formal, contractual or bargain-like Relationship is
individualistic, business-like, secondary and rationalized Culture is heterogeneous and more advanced

Social Organization Social organization The type of collectivity established for the pursuit of specific aims or goods
Characterized by a formal structure of rules, authority relations, a division of labor and limited membership or admission
Organization is an orderly relationship or arrangement of parts. It is used to refer the interdependence and inter-related
of parts in groups Examples of social organization: Family, church, college, factory, a play group, a political party, a
community Types of Social Organization a. Political Organization: State (Government) b. Economic Organization: Factory
c. Religious Organization: Church d. Financial organization: Bank e. Educational organization: School and Colleges Goal of
Social organization That members of an organization are interrelated to each other for the pursuit of a common goal.
Preparedness to accept one’s role and status: Organization is an arrangement of persons and parts By arrangement,
it is meant that every member of the organization has an assigned role, a positon and a status Norms and Mores of
Social Organization: Every organization has its norms and mores which control its members, as a result, an organization
can function smoothly if its members follow the organization norms. Sanctions: If a member does not follow the norms
he is compelled to follow them through sanctions (conditions) which may range from warning to physical punishment.
For example; a member may be expelled, or dismissed. To end our discussion on Social Groups and Organization,
remember that a group is a major source of solidarity and cohesion in society.

The study of society is challenging and confusing. In this lesson, you

will find out what society is, what sociocultural evolution means and

how it happens and types of societies.

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Trace the biological and cultural evolution of early to modern

humans

2. Explore the significance of human material remains and

artefactual evidence in interpreting cultural and social,

including political and economic processes

3. Recognize national, local and specialized museums and

archaeological and historical sites as venues to appreciate and

reflect on the complexities of biocultural and social evolution

as part of being and becoming human.

Definition of Society

Society is a group of people living together in a particular place or at a

particular time and having many things in common.

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What does society look like?

Society looks like an object itself (sui generis or unique)

Then, if society is an object, we can examine it closely and

analyze it like any other subject (We break it into pieces and

explore each piece carefully)

What a biologist does to a living organism, or a geologist does

to a rock, so as a sociologist does to a society.

Society becomes something scientifically weighted, measured

and dissected

If we analyze society, we determine what it is made up. It is composed

of culture, working class and ethnicity. These components appear on

their own but they can be broken down into pieces that makes the

study of society more challenging and confusing.

Visions of Society that account for Social Change and Societal

Evolution

Four Diverse Perspectives:

Karl Marx

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- He looked at society that is in conflict (social conflict). This is

a struggle between segments of society over valued resources.

o The capitalists are the people who own and operate

factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits

o Proletariat are people who sell their productive labor for

wages

o Social institutions include all the major spheres of

social life, or societal subsystems organized to meet

human needs

Infrastructure – society’s economic system

Superstructure – other social institutions:

family, religion, political institution

o Marx rejected false consciousness or explanation of

social problems as the shortcomings of individuals

rather than the flaws of society

- He believed that the history of all existing society is the history

of class struggle (or class conflict) – conflict between entire

classes over the distribution of a society’s wealth and power

- Marx believed that worker must replace false consciousness

with class consciousness – workers’ recognition of themselves

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as a class unified in opposition to capitalists and, ultimately, to

capitalism itself. Workers would then rise up and destroy

capitalism in a socialist revolution.

Marx’s Model of Society

Alienation – the experience of isolation and misery

resulting from powerlessness

Capitalism alienates workers in four specific ways:

Form the act of working

Workers have no say in production, work is tedious and

repetitive
 Form the products of work

Workers have no ownership in the product that is

merely sold for profit

Form other workers

Work has become competitive rather than cooperative

From human potential

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Workers deny, not fulfill themselves in their work

Max Weber

- Rationalization of Society. This is the historical change from

tradition – sentiments and beliefs passed from one generation

to another to rationality – deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation

of the cost effective means to accomplish a task as a dominant

mode of human thought.

- Weber also believes in predestination and God’s favor,

religious ethic and transformed to work ethic.

Weber’s Rational Social Organization. It has seven characteristics:

Distinctive social institutions

Large scale organization

Specialized tasks

Personal discipline

Awareness of time

Technical competence

Impersonality
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They are expressed in bureaucracy and capitalism

Emile Durkheim

- He describes society as more than individuals. Society has a

life of its own – beyond our personal experiences

- He also said that social facts, any patterns rooted in society

rather than the experience of individuals.

o Society has an “objective reality” beyond our own

subjective perceptions of the world. Examples are

norms, values, religious beliefs, and rituals

o Society has the power to guide our thoughts and actions

- Warned that modern society creates anomie - a condition in

which society provides little moral guidance to individuals

o He said that change is from mechanical solidarity.

Social bonds are based on common sentiment and

shared moral value that are strong among members of

industrial societies

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o To Organic solidarity, social bonds are based on

specialization and interdependence that are strong

among members of industrial societies.

o He said that key to change is an expanding division of

labor – a specialization of economic activity.

Gerhard Lenski

- He said that sociocultural evolution is the change that occurs as

a society acquires new technology

- Societies range from simple to the technologically complex

- Societies that are simple in technology tend to resemble one

another

- More complex societies reveal striking cultural diversity.

Socio-cultural evolution

It is the change that occurs as a society acquires new

technology

Technology shapes other cultural patterns and that simple

technology can only support small numbers of people who live

simple lives

The greater amount of technology a society has within its

grasp, the faster cultural change will take place

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High-tech societies are capable of sustaining large numbers of

people who are engaged in a diverse division of labor.

Types of Society

The society we live in did not spring up overnight. Human societies

have evolved slowly over millions of years. However, throughout

history, technological developments have sometimes brought about

dramatic change that has boosted human society into its next age.

Hunting and Gathering stage

o During this stage, man used simple tools to hunt

animals and vegetation. The hunting and gathering

societies characteristics are:

a. The primary institution is the family, which

decides how food is to be shared and how

children are to be socialized, and which

provides for the protection of its members.

b. Number of families in this society tend to be

small with fewer than fifty members

c. They were nomadic in search of food

d. Society members have very high level of

interdependence

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e. Division of labor is based on sex: men hunt,

women gather

Horticultural and Pastoral Societies

o Horticultural societies use hand tools to raise crops.

People started to stay in one place and grow their own

food.

o Pastoral societies started the domestication and

breeding of animals for food.

Agricultural Societies

The invention of the plow led to the establishment of

agricultural societies. Members of these societies tend crops

with an animal harnessed to a plow. The use of animals to pull

a plow eventually led to the creation of cities and formed the

basic structure of modern societies.

The development of agricultural societies followed this general

sequence.

a. Animals are used to pull plow

b. Lager areas of land can then be cultivated

c. More crops were yielded for longer periods of time

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d. Productivity increased and people did not move to another place

with abundant supply of food for them

e. Towns form and then cities

f. When yields increased, members engaged in some other forms of

farming, thus developing other skills. Job specialization increased

g. When fewer people are directly involved with production of food,

the economy became more complex

Industrial Societies

Use advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to

run large machinery. Industrialization started in the mid-1700s, when

the steam engine was first used in Great Britain as a means of running

other machines. In the 20th century, industrialized societies had

changed dramatically.

o People and goods traversed much longer distances because of

innovations in transportation such as train and steamship

o Rural areas lost population because people move to the cities as

factory workers

o Societies became urbanized, which means that the majority of

population lived within commuting distance of a major city

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Manual Title 11
o Suburbs grew up around cities to provide city-dwellers with

alternative places to live

Postindustrial Societies

This type of society that has developed over the past few decades,

features an economy based on services and technology, not

production. There are three major characteristics of postindustrial

economy:

o These societies focus on ideas as tangible goods no longer

drive the economy

o There has been a need for higher education for the

postindustrial societies because the new focus on information

and technology means that people must pursue higher

education

o There was a shift in working place from cities to homes

because new communications technology allows work to be

performed from a variety of locations.

history