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Amalgamation (names)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An amalgamated name is a name that is formed by combining several previously existing names.
These may take the form of an acronym (where only one letter of each name is taken) or a blend
(where a large part of each name is taken, such as the first syllable).

Amalgamated names are most commonly used for amalgamated businesses, characters and places.
Newly arising partnerships may also choose to name themselves by amalgamating their names.

Examples
Grevan Spiridellis, screen name crediting both Greg and Evan Spiridellis
DHL, originally meaning Dalsey, Hillblom and Lynn
Grant Naylor, a production company founded by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor
ABC region, area in Greater São Paulo named after Santo André, São Bernardo do Campo,
and São Caetano do Sul. This is also used for Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao in ABC islands
(Lesser Antilles) and for Admiralty Island, Baranof Island and Chichagof Island in ABC
islands (Alaska).
ExxonMobil, a combination of the companies Exxon and Mobil created when the two oil
companies merged in 1999.
Goldwyn Pictures, a motion picture production company founded by Samuel Goldfish (later
Goldwyn) in partnership with Edgar and Archibald Selwyn
TriBeCa, a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York in the United States. Its name is an
acronym composed of the words "Triangle below Canal Street". Also in Manhattan are SoHo
(from "South of Houston street"), NoHo (North of Houston Street), NoLIta (North of Little
Italy, Manhattan) and NoMad (North of Madison Square); on the other hand, DUMBO (Down
Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass) is in Brooklyn.
Stockard Channing, stage and screen name of Susan Stockard and her married name of
Channing (the first, from 1963 to 1967, of four marriages)
AZ, a Dutch football club that was formed in 1967 with the merger of two other clubs,
Alkmaar '54 and FC Zaanstreek
1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours, a 1991 compilation album by Green Day, combining their
debut album, 39/Smooth, their 1990 EP Slappy and their 1989 EP 1000 Hours. This is often
regarded as Green Day's debut album.
Brangelina, a celebrity supercouple consisting of American actors Brad Pitt and Angelina
Jolie, combining part of their names, Brad and Angelina.
Renesmee Cullen, is the name given to Twilight Saga protagonist Bella Swan's daughter. It is
the blend of Bella's mother name Renee and her husband Edward Cullen's adoptive mother,
Esme.

Linguistics
Amalgamation is also a term used in linguistics when a compound contains roots from several
languages, without it being part of a blended language. For example, a word with an English and a
Spanish root would not be an amalgam, if part of Spanglish, while an English word with a Greek and
a Latin root would. This is also known as a hybrid word.

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Essentialism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism

Essentialism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Essentialism is the view that every entity has a set of attributes that are necessary to its identity and
function.[1] In early Western thought Plato's idealism held that all things have such an "essence," an
"Idea" or "Form". Likewise, in Categories Aristotle proposed that all objects have a substance that,
as George Lakoff put it "... make the thing what it is, and without which it would be not that kind of
thing".[2] The contrary view, non-essentialism, denies the need to posit such an "essence'".

Essentialism has been controversial from its beginning. Plato's Socrates already questions the notion
by suggesting, in the Parmenides, that if we accept the idea every beautiful thing or just action
partakes of an essence in order to be beautiful or just, then we must also accept the "existence of
separate essences for hair, mud, and dirt".[3] In biology and other natural sciences, essentialism
provided the rationale for taxonomy at least until the time of Charles Darwin;[4] the role and
importance of essentialism in biology is still a matter of debate.[5] In gender studies the essentialist
idea that men and women are fundamentally different continues to be a matter of contention.

French structuralist feminism was often accused of subscribing to an essentialism, in contrast to

gender constructionism.[6]

Contents
1 In philosophy
1.1 Metaphysical essentialism
2 In mathematics
3 In psychology
3.1 In developmental psychology
4 In ethics
5 In biology
6 Society and politics
7 Gender essentialism
7.1 Disrupting gender essentialism
7.1.1 Judith Butler and gender performativity
7.1.2 Poststructuralism and gender essentialism
7.2 Gender essentialism and exclusion in feminist theory
7.2.1 Intersectionality
7.2.2 Mothering
7.2.3 Transfeminism
7.3 Gender Essentialism and Child Development
8 In historiography
9 See also
10 References
10.1 Notes
10.2 Bibliography
11 Further reading
12 External links

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In philosophy
An essence characterizes a substance or a form, in the sense of the Forms or Ideas in Platonic
idealism. It is permanent, unalterable, and eternal; and present in every possible world. Classical
humanism has an essentialist conception of the human being, which means that it believes in an
eternal and unchangeable human nature. The idea of an unchangeable human nature has been
criticized by Kierkegaard, Marx, Heidegger, Sartre, and many other existential thinkers.

In Plato's philosophy (in particular, the Timaeus and the Philebus), things were said to come into
being in this world by the action of a demiurge who works to form chaos into ordered entities. Many
definitions of essence hark back to the ancient Greek hylomorphic understanding of the formation of
the things of this world. According to that account, the structure and real existence of any thing can
be understood by analogy to an artifact produced by a craftsman. The craftsman requires hyle (timber
or wood) and a model, plan or idea in his own mind according to which the wood is worked to give it
the indicated contour or form (morphe). Aristotle was the first to use the terms hyle and morphe.
According to his explanation, all entities have two aspects, "matter" and "form". It is the particular
form imposed that gives some matter its identity, its quiddity or "whatness" (i.e., its "what it is").

Plato was one of the first essentialists, believing in the concept of ideal forms, an abstract entity of
which individual objects are mere facsimiles. To give an example; the ideal form of a circle is a
perfect circle, something that is physically impossible to make manifest, yet the circles that we draw
and observe clearly have some idea in common — this idea is the ideal form. Plato believed that
these ideas are eternal and vastly superior to their manifestations in the world, and that we
understand these manifestations in the material world by comparing and relating them to their
respective ideal form. Plato's forms are regarded as patriarchs to essentialist dogma simply because
they are a case of what is intrinsic and a-contextual of objects — the abstract properties that makes
them what they are. For more on forms, read Plato's parable of the cave.

Karl Popper splits the ambiguous term realism into essentialism and realism. He uses essentialism
whenever he means the opposite of nominalism, and realism only as opposed to idealism. Popper
himself is a realist as opposed to an idealist, but a methodological nominalist as opposed to an
essentialist. For example, statements like "a puppy is a young dog" should be read from right to left,
as an answer to "What shall we call a young dog"; never from left to right as an answer to "What is a
puppy?"[7]

Metaphysical essentialism

Essentialism, in its broadest sense, is any philosophy that acknowledges the primacy of Essence.
Unlike Existentialism, which posits "being" as the fundamental reality, the essentialist ontology must
be approached from a metaphysical perspective. Empirical knowledge is developed from experience
of a relational universe whose components and attributes are defined and measured in terms of
intellectually constructed laws. Thus, for the scientist, reality is explored as an evolutionary system
of diverse entities, the order of which is determined by the principle of causality.

Plato believed that the universe was perfect and that its observed imperfections came from man's
limited perception of it. For Plato, there were two realities: the "essential" or ideal and the
"perceived". Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) applied the term "essence" to that which things in a category
have in common and without which they cannot be members of that category (for example,
rationality is the essence of man; without rationality a creature cannot be a man). In his critique of
Aristotle's philosophy, Bertrand Russell said that his concept of essence transferred to metaphysics

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what was only a verbal convenience and that it confused the properties of language with the
properties of the world. In fact, a thing's "essence" consisted in those defining properties without
which we could not use the name for it.[8] Although the concept of essence was "hopelessly
muddled" it became part of every philosophy until modern times.[8]

The Egyptian-born philosopher Plotinus [204–270 CE] brought Idealism to the Roman Empire as
Neo-Platonism, and with it the concept that not only do all existents emanate from a "primary
essence" but that the mind plays an active role in shaping or ordering the objects of perception, rather
than passively receiving empirical data.

Despite the metaphysical basis for the term, academics in science, aesthetics, heuristics, psychology,
and gender-based sociological studies have advanced their causes under the banner of Essentialism.
Possibly the clearest definition for this philosophy was offered by gay/lesbian rights advocate Diana
Fuss, who wrote: "Essentialism is most commonly understood as a belief in the real, true essence of
things, the invariable and fixed properties which define the 'whatness' of a given entity."[9]
Metaphysical essentialism stands diametrically opposed to existential realism in that finite existence
is only differentiated appearance, whereas "ultimate reality" is held to be absolute essence.

Among contemporary essentialists, what all existing things have in common is the power to exist,
which defines their "uncreated" Essence.[10]

In mathematics
In 2010, an article by Gerald B. Folland in the Notices of the American Mathematical Society stated,
"It is a truth universally acknowledged that almost all mathematicians are Platonists, at least when
they are actually doing mathematics …" This refers to their implicit embrace of essentialism, which
he finds revealed in mathematicians peculiar use of language. Whereas physicists define Lie algebra
as a rule they can apply to facts, mathematicians define it as an essence of a structure, independent of
any circumstance.[11]

In psychology
There is a difference between metaphysical essentialism (see above) and psychological essentialism,
the latter referring not to an actual claim about the world but a claim about a way of representing
entities in cognitions[13] (Medin, 1989). Influential in this area is Susan Gelman, who has outlined
many domains in which children and adults construe classes of entities, particularly biological
entities, in essentialist terms—i.e., as if they had an immutable underlying essence which can be used
to predict unobserved similarities between members of that class.[14][15] (Toosi & Ambady, 2011).
This causal relationship is unidirectional; an observable feature of an entity does not define the
underlying essence[16] (Dar-Nimrod & Heine, 2011).

In developmental psychology

Essentialism has emerged as an important concept in psychology, particularly developmental

psychology.[14][17] Gelman and Kremer (1991) studied the extent to which children from 4–7 years
old demonstrate essentialism. Children were able to identify the cause of behaviour in living and
non-living objects. Children understood that underlying essences predicted observable behaviours.
Participants could correctly describe living objects' behaviour as self-perpetuated and non-living

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objects as a result of an adult influencing the object's actions.

This is a biological way of representing essential features in
cognitions. Understanding the underlying causal mechanism
for behaviour suggests essentialist thinking[18] (Rangel and
Keller, 2011). Younger children were unable to identify
causal mechanisms of behaviour whereas older children were
able to. This suggests that essentialism is rooted in cognitive
development. It can be argued that there is a shift in the way
that children represent entities, from not understanding the
causal mechanism of the underlying essence to showing Paul Bloom attempts to explain why
sufficient understanding[19] (Demoulin, Leyens & Yzerbyt, people will pay more in an auction
2006). for the clothing of celebrities if the
clothing is unwashed. He believes the
There are four key criteria which constitute essentialist
answer to this and many other
thinking. The first facet is the aforementioned individual
questions is that people cannot help
causal mechanisms (del Rio & Strasser, 2011). The second is
but think of objects as containing a
innate potential: the assumption that an object will fulfill its
sort of "essence" that can be
predetermined course of development[20] (Kanovsky, 2007).
influenced.[12]
According to this criterion, essences predict developments in
entities that will occur throughout its lifespan. The third is
immutability[21] (Holtz & Wagner, 2009). Despite altering the superficial appearance of an object it
does not remove its essence. Observable changes in features of an entity are not salient enough to
alter its essential characteristics. The fourth is inductive potential[22] (Birnbaum, Deeb, Segall,
Ben-Aliyahu & Diesendruck, 2010). This suggests that entities may share common features but are
essentially different. However similar two beings may be, their characteristics will be at most
analogous, differing most importantly in essences.

The implications of psychological essentialism are numerous. Prejudiced individuals have been
found to endorse exceptionally essential ways of thinking, suggesting that essentialism may
perpetuate exclusion among social groups[23] (Morton, Hornsey & Postmes, 2009). This may be due
to an over-extension of an essential-biological mode of thinking stemming from cognitive
development.[24] Paul Bloom of Yale University has stated that "one of the most exciting ideas in
cognitive science is the theory that people have a default assumption that things, people and events
have invisible essences that make them what they are. Experimental psychologists have argued that
essentialism underlies our understanding of the physical and social worlds, and developmental and
cross-cultural psychologists have proposed that it is instinctive and universal. We are natural-born
essentialists."[25] Scholars suggest that the categorical nature of essentialist thinking predicts the use
of stereotypes and can be targeted in the application of stereotype prevention[26] (Bastian & Haslam,
2006).

In ethics
Classical essentialists claim that some things are wrong in an absolute sense, for example murder
breaks a universal, objective and natural moral law and not merely an advantageous, socially or
ethically constructed one.

Many modern essentialists claim that right and wrong are moral boundaries which are individually
constructed. In other words, things that are ethically right or wrong are actions that the individual
deems to be beneficial or harmful, respectively.

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In biology
It is often held that before evolution was developed as a scientific theory, there existed an essentialist
view of biology that posited all species to be unchanging throughout time. Some religious opponents
of evolution continue to maintain this view of biology (see creation-evolution controversy).

Recent work by historians of systematics has, however, cast doubt upon this view. Mary P. Winsor,
Ron Amundson and Staffan Müller-Wille have each argued that in fact the usual suspects (such as
Linnaeus and the Ideal Morphologists) were very far from being essentialists, and it appears that the
so-called "essentialism story" (or "myth") in biology is a result of conflating the views expressed by
philosophers from Aristotle onwards through to John Stuart Mill and William Whewell in the
immediately pre-Darwinian period, using biological examples, with the use of terms in biology like
species.[27][28][29]

Society and politics

In social and political debate, the critique of essentialism arose from post-modernist theory,
according to which the essentialist view on gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity, or other group
characteristics is that they are fixed traits, discounting variation among group members as secondary.

In "The 'Authentic, Essentialist, Deeply Spiritual' Other" Linda Smith (2011) writes that
"Pedagogically, essentialism was attacked because of its assumption that, because of this essence, it
was necessary to be a woman and to experience life as a woman before one could analyse or
understand women's oppression" (p76).

Contemporary proponents of identity politics, including feminism, gay rights, and/or racial equality
activists, generally take (supposedly) constructionist viewpoints that may still rest on an essential
assumption that a preconceived historical 'fact' is 'truth'. For example, they (may) agree with Simone
de Beauvoir that "one is not born, but becomes a woman".[30] As 'essence' may imply permanence,
some argue that essentialist thinking tends towards political conservatism and therefore opposes
social change. Following Rosi Braidotti, Timothy Laurie suggests that 'the "female feminist subject"
is not a default partisan perspective inherent in "woman" but an intersection of complex desires and
social transformations that exceed any single ideological formulation or identitarian alliance', and
that being a feminist 'can only make sense as a relational and social practice'.[31] Nevertheless,
essentialist claims have provided useful rallying-points for radical politics, including feminist,
anti-racist, and anti-colonial struggles.

Examples of books that seek to question various theories and claims of gender essentialism include:

The Daddy Shift, by Jeremy Adam Smith; Pink Brain/Blue Brain by Dr. Lise Eliot; and Delusions of
Gender by Cordelia Fine

In social thought, metaphysical essentialism is often conflated with biological reductionism. Most
sociologists, for example, employ a distinction between biological sex and gender role. Similar
distinctions across disciplines generally fall under the division of "nature versus nurture".

However, this has been contested by Monique Wittig, who argued that even biological sex is not an
essence, and that the body's physiology is "caught up" in processes of social construction.[32]

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Gender essentialism
In feminist theory and gender studies, Gender essentialism refers to the attribution of a fixed essence
to women.[33] Women's essence is assumed to be universal and is generally identified with those
characteristics viewed as being specifically feminine.[33] These ideas of femininity are usually
biologized are often preoccupied with psychological characteristics, such as nurturance, empathy,
support, non-competitiveness, etc.[33] Feminist theorist Elizabeth Grosz states in her 1995
publication, Space, time and perversion: essays on the politics of bodies, that essentialism "entails
the belief that those characteristics defined as women's essence are shared in common by all women
at all times. It implies a limit of the variations and possibilities of change—it is not possible for a
subject to act in a manner contrary to her essence. Her essence underlies all the apparent variations
differentiating women from each other. Essentialism thus refers to the existence of fixed
characteristic, given attributes, and ahistorical functions that limit the possibilities of change and thus
of social reorganization."[33]

Furthermore, biologism is a particular form of essentialism that defines women's essence in terms of
biological capacities.[33] This form of essentialism is based on a form of reductionism, meaning that
social and cultural factors are the effects of biological causes.[33] Biological reductivism "claim[s]
that anatomical and physiological differences—especially reproductive differences—characteristic of
human males and females determine both the meaning of masculinity and femininity and the
appropriately different positions of men and women in society".[34] Biologism uses the functions of
reproduction, nurturance, neurology, neurophysiology, and endocrinology to limit women's social
and psychological possibilities according to biologically established limits.[33] It asserts the science
of biology to constitute an unalterable definition of identity, which inevitably "amounts to a
permanent form of social containment for women".[33] Naturalism is also a part of the system of
essentialism where a fixed nature is postulated for women through the means of theological or
ontological rather than biological grounds. An example of this would be the claim that women's
nature is a God-given attribute, or the ontological invariants in Sartrean existentialism or Freudian
psychoanalysis that distinguish the sexes in the "claim that the human subject is somehow free or
that the subjects social position is a function of his or her genital morphology".[33] These systems are
used to homogenize women into one singular category and to strengthen a binary between men and
women.[33]

Disrupting gender essentialism

Judith Butler and gender performativity

Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity can be seen as a means to show "the ways in which
reified and naturalized conceptions of gender might be understood as constituted and, hence, capable
of being constituted differently".[35] Butler utilizes the phenomenological theory of acts which has
been espoused by Edmund Husserl, Maurice Merleau-Ponty and George Herbert Mead, which seeks
to explain the mundane way in which "social agents constitute social reality through language
gesture and all manner of symbolic social sign", to create her conception of gender
performativity.[35] She begins by quoting Simone de Beauvoir's claim:

"...one is not born, but, rather, becomes a woman."[36]

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This statement distinguishes sex from gender suggesting that gender is an aspect of identity that is
gradually acquired.[37] This distinction between sex, as the anatomical and factic aspects of the
female body, and gender, as the cultural meaning that forms the body and the various modes of
bodily articulation, means that it is "no longer possible to attribute the values or social functions of
women to biological necessity".[37] Butler interprets this claim as an appropriation of the doctrine of
constituting acts from the tradition of phenomenology.[35] Through this understanding Butler
concludes that "gender is in no way a stable identity or locus of agency from which various acts
proceed; rather, it is an identity tenuously constituted in time—an identity instituted through the
stylization of the body and, hence, must be understood as the mundane way in which bodily gestures,
movements and enactments of various kinds constitute the illusion of an abiding gendered self".[35]
Candace West and Sarah Fenstermaker also conceptualize gender "as a routine, methodical, and
ongoing accomplishment, which involves a complex of perceptual, interactional and micropolitical
activities that cast particular pursuits as expressions of manly and womanly 'natures'" in their 1995
text Doing Difference.[38]

This does not mean that the material nature of the human body is denied, instead, it is
re-comprehended as separate from the process by which "the body comes to bear cultural
meanings".[35] Therefore, the essence of gender is not natural because gender itself is not a natural
fact.[35][37] Gender is the outcome of the sedimentation of specific corporeal acts that have been
inscribed through repetition and rearticulation over time onto the body.[35] "If the reality of gender is
constituted by the performance itself, then there is no recourse to an essential and unrealized 'sex' or
'gender' which gender performances ostensibly express".[35]

Poststructuralism and gender essentialism

Poststructuralism indicates "a field of critical practices that cannot be totalized and that, therefore,
interrogate the formative and exclusionary power of sexual difference", says Butler.[39] Therefore,
through lens of poststructuralism, the critique of gender essentialism is possible because these
poststructuralist theory generates analyses, critiques, and political interventions, and opens up a
political imaginary for feminism that otherwise has been constrained.[39] A feminist
poststructuralism does not designate a position from which one operates, but instead it offers a set of
tools and terms to be "reused and rethought, exposed as strategic instruments and effects, and
subjected to a critical reinscription and redeployment".[39]

Gender essentialism and exclusion in feminist theory

Intersectionality

Analyzing gender has been a concern of feminist theory, thus there have been many modes of
understanding how gender addresses meaning.[34] However, developing such theories of gender can
obscure the significance of other aspects of women's identities, such as race, class, and sexual
orientation, which marginalizes the experiences and voices of women of colour, non-Western
women, working-class women, queer women, and trans women.[34] As a challenge to feminist
theory, essentialism refers to the problem of theorizing gender as both an identity and a mark of
difference. This refers to a problem for the concept of subjectivity presupposed by feminist theories
of gender.[34] There are arguments primarily by black and lesbian feminists that feminist theory has
capitalized on the idea of gender essentialism by using the category of gender to appeal to "women's
experience" as a whole.[34] By doing this, feminist theory makes universalizing and normalizing

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claims for and about women, which are only true of white, Western, heterosexual, cisgender, middle-
or upper-class women,[34] but which it implies are situations, perspectives and experiences true to all
women. Patrice DiQuinzio discusses "how critics of exclusion see this as a function of feminist
theory's commitment to theorizing gender exclusively and articulating women's experiences in terms
of gender alone".[34] Instead one must theorize feminism in a way that takes the interlocking
category of experiences between race, class, gender, and sexuality into consideration; an
intersectional model of thinking.[38]

Mothering

DiQuinzio goes on to discuss how essentialism and exclusion work in relation to motherhood.
Feminist theory which has used the idea of woman's essence to link gender socialization with
exclusively female mothering, such as Nancy Chodorow's work, can be exclusionary and essentialist
in the ways that it involves making universalizing and normalizing claims about mothers without
taking social, historical, or cultural context into account.[34] Judith Butler claims that "the effort to
characterize a feminine specificity through recourse to maternity, whether biological or social,
produce[s] a factionalization and even a disavowal of feminism altogether".[39] Not all women are
mothers; "some cannot be some are too young or too old to be, some choose not to be, and for some
who are mothers, that is not necessarily the rallying point of their politicization in feminism".[39]

Transfeminism

Furthermore, the essentialism of gender in feminist theory presents a problem when understanding
transfeminism. Instead of understanding trans studies as another subsection or subjectivity to be
subsumed under the category of "woman", we understand the task of trans studies to be "the breaking
apart of this category, particularly if that breaking requires a new articulation of the relation between
sex and gender, male and female".[40] Trans subjectivity challenges the binary of gender essentialism
as it disrupts the "fixed taxonomies of gender" and this creates a resistance in women's studies,
which as a discipline has historically depended upon the fixedness of gender.[40] The expressions that
exist in trans identities break down the very possibility of gender essentialism by queering the binary
of gender, gender roles and expectations.[41] In recent years through the written work of
transfeminists like Sandy Stone, the theory around trans women and their inclusion into feminist
spaces has opened, just like it has opened in respect to race, class, sexuality and ability historically.

Gender Essentialism and Child Development

Social categories such as gender is often essentialized by not only adults but also children, as young
children are recorded to display essentialist beliefs about gender preferences and indications.[42]
Proponents of gender essentialism propose that young children from the age of 4 to 10 show the
tendency to endorse the role of nature in determining gender-stereotyped properties, an "early bias to
view gender categories as predictive of essential" which gradually declines as they pass elementary
school years.[43] Another indicator of gender essentialism in child development is how they begin the
employ essentialist manifestation as a tool for reasoning and perceiving gender stereotyping from as
young as 24 months.[44]

In historiography

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Essentialism in history as a field of study entails discerning and listing essential cultural
characteristics of a particular nation or culture, in the belief that a people or culture can be
understood in this way. Sometimes such essentialism leads to claims of a praiseworthy national or
cultural identity, or to its opposite, the condemnation of a culture based on presumed essential
characteristics. Herodotus, for example, claims that Egyptian culture is essentially feminized and
possesses a "softness" which has made Egypt easy to conquer.[45] To what extent Herodotus was an
essentialist is a matter of debate; he is also credited with not essentializing the concept of the
Athenian identity,[46] or differences between the Greeks and the Persians that are the subject of his
Histories.[47]

Essentialism had been operative in colonialism as well as in critiques of colonialism.

Post-colonial theorists such as Edward Said insisted that essentialism was the "defining mode" of
"Western" historiography and ethnography until the nineteenth century and even after, according to
Touraj Atabaki, manifesting itself in the historiography of the Middle East and Central Asia as
Eurocentrism, over-generalization, and reductionism.[48]

Most historians reject essentialism because it "dehistoricizes the process of social and cultural
changes" and tends to see non-Western societies as historically unchanging; in India this led to the
anti-essentialist (even anti-historiographical) school of Subaltern Studies.[49]

See also
Educational essentialism
Moral panic
Nature vs. nurture
Pleasure
Poststructuralism
Social constructionism
Structuralism
Traditionalist School
Vitalism

References
Notes

1. Cartwright, Richard L. (1968). "Some Remarks on Essentialism". The Journal of Philosophy. 65 (20):
615–626. doi:10.2307/2024315. JSTOR 2024315.
2. Janicki (2003), p. 274
3. "Plato's Parmenides". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 30 July 2015.
4. Ereshefsky (2007), p. 8
5. Hull (2007)
6. Fuss (2013), pp. 2-6
7. The Open Society and its Enemies, passim.
8. Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, London: Routledge, 1991
9. Fuss (2013), p. xi
10. Levina, Tatiana (Moscow 2013) Realism in Metaphysics: Analytic Questions and Continental Answers
(p. 23)

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11. Gerald B. Folland, October 2010, Notices of the AMS, p. 1121 "Speaking with the Natives: Reflections
on Mathematical Communication" (http://www.ams.org/notices/201009/rtx100901121p.pdf)
12. Paul Bloom, July 2011 Ted talk, "The Origins of Pleasure" (http://www.ted.com/talks
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Bibliography

Atabaki, Touraj (2003). Beyond Essentialism: Who Writes Whose Past in the Middle East and
Central Asia? Inaugural lecture, 13 December 2002 (PDF). Amsterdam.
DeLapp, Kevin (2011). "Ancient Egypt as Europe's 'Intimate Stranger' ". In Helen Vella
Bonavita. Negotiating Identities: Constructed Selves and Others. Rodopi. pp. 171–92.
ISBN 9789401206877. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
Ereshefsky, Marc (2007). "Philosophy of Biological Classification". In Roberts, Keith.
Handbook of Plant Science. Volume 2. Wiley. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-0-470-05723-0.
Fuss, Diana (11 January 2013). Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature and Difference.
Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-20112-8.
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Hull, David (2007). "Essentialism in Taxonomy: Four Decades Later". In Wisseman, Volker.
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Janicki, Karol (2003). "The Ever-Stifling Essentialism: Language and Conflict in Poland
(1991-1993)". In Hubert Cuyckens. Motivation in Language: Studies in Honor of Günter
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Cambridge UP. ISBN 9781139484121.
Regnier, Denis (2015). Clean people, unclean people: the essentialisation of 'slaves' among the
southern Betsileo of Madagascar (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1469-8676.12107
/abstract). Social Anthropology, 23, Vol. 2, 152-168.
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Beacon Press. ISBN 9780807079171.

Further reading
Runes, Dagobert D. (1972) Dictionary of Philosophy (Littlefield, Adams & Co.). See for
instance the articles on "Essence", pg.97; "Quiddity", pg.262; "Form", pg.110;
"Hylomorphism", pg.133; "Individuation", pg.145; and "Matter", pg.191.

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Essentialism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism

Barrett, H. C. (2001). On the functional origins of essentialism (http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu

/anthro/faculty/barrett/essentialism.pdf). Mind and Society, 3, Vol. 2, 1–30.
Sayer, Andrew (August 1997) "Essentialism, Social Constructionism, and Beyond",
Sociological Review 45 : 456.
Oderberg, David S. (2007) Real Essentialism New York, Routledge.

External links
Essentialism (http://philpapers.org/browse
Wikiquote has quotations
/essentialism) at PhilPapers related to: Essentialism
Essentialism (https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy
/2269) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
Cliff, Brian (Spring 1996). "Essentialism". Emory University. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
McKeown, Greg (April, 2014). "Essentialism - the disciplined pursuit of less"
(http://gregmckeown.com/essentialism-the-disciplined-pursuit-of-less/)

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