Heat Flow in Welding: Subjects of Interest

9/23/2017
Heat flow in welding

Subjects of Interest
• Heat sources
• Heat source and melting efficiency
• Analysis of heat flow in welding
• Effects of welding parameter
• Weld thermal simulator
Objectives
• This chapter provides information of heat flow during

welding, which can strongly affect phase transformation,
microstructure, and properties of the welds.
• Students are required to indicate heat source and power
density used in different welding methods, which affect the
melting efficiency.
Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 1

9/23/2017
For manufacturing…
Materials Joining & Welding Productions
Most of productions need

joining & welding in manufacturing
634 m
56 m
72 m
Titanic
10
H2B Tokyo Sky Tree;

Rocket broadcasting
73 m
269 m
345 m
Open cover…
0.1 m
0.001 m
iPhone

9/23/2017
Joining & Welding in Industries
How to welding of a metal to a metal

Local melting of metals is necessary.
Fe Al
specific gravity 7.9 2.7
Melting point (℃) 1536 660
Tensile strength 23 11
(kgf/mm2)

9/23/2017
Welding processes
Plasma beam Hybrid energy system Laser beam
Hybrid system
Plasma Laser
Heat source for melting metals locally is necessary in

joining & welding process.
Short break…”What is a plasma?”

Ionization
If water is heated gradually…
(at atmospheric pressure)
Hydrogen atom Hydrogen ion & free-electron
Plasma Irving Langmuir

(USA, 1881~1957)
Langmuir advanced several basic fields of
physics and chemistry, invented the gas-
filled lamp, the plasma welding technique,
and was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in
Gas Chemistry for his work in surface chemistry.

Plasma was named by him.
Plasma
is
Liquid
the fourth state of matter
(ionized gas)
Solid due to
electric conductor of gas.
提井: 現代のプラズマ工学, ブルーバックス B-1158, 講談社, (1997)

9/23/2017
Let’s study the arc which is one of

heat sources for welding!
Electric circuit & discharge

A few electrons exist in the air at room
temperature.
1~100 electrons/cm3
A large electric field is applied.
(5~10 kV/cm)
Electrons are heated by the electric
If a resistance is replaced by a gas… field and then are able to create a large
number of ions through collisions with
Anode Cathode molecules in the gas.
Glass tube electron
Gas
ion
From insulators to conductors

Battery (Breakdown)
It’s discharge!

9/23/2017
Arc is like an artificial sun?!

Cathode
Plasma
Anode
8
UV IR
Intensity 6
4 Arc radiation
2
Sunshine
Visible
0
500 1,000 1,500
Wavelength（nm）
Arc radiation & Sunshine
Electromagnetic pinch effect & plasma jet
Current
Electromagnetic force
Electrode
Current
Current Induced
magnetic field
Pinching force
Electromagnetic
force
Wire
electrode
Plasma jet
Current
Molten
metal Base metal
Plasma jet
Electromagnetic pinching force Velocity: 100-300 m/sec.

9/23/2017
Electromagnetic pinch effect & plasma jet
Current
Electromagnetic force
Plasma jet
プラズマ気流
Current 電極
Electrode
Electromagnetic I Electromagnetic
電流
Current 電磁力force 電磁力
force
Pinching force
磁界
B
Wire
electrode アーク力
Arc force
溶融池
Weld pool
Molten
metal
Plasma jet
Electromagnetic pinching force
Stiffness of arc due to plasma jet
TIG arc
Stiffness of arc
The arc tends to direct along the

extended path of electrode due to
the effect of the plasma jet.
Faltering arc at
lower arc current

9/23/2017
Welding heat sources

Electrical sources Mechanical sources
• Arc welding • Friction (stir) welding

• Resistance welding Heat intensity ~ 104 -106 Wm-2
• Electroslag
Heat intensity ~ 106-108 Wm-2 • Ultrasonic welding (15-75 KHz)
• Explosion welding (EXW)
Chemical sources
• Oxyfuel gas welding Other sources

• Thermit welding
• Diffusion welding
Heat intensity ~ 106 -108 Wm-2
High energy sources

• Laser beam welding
• Electron beam welding
Heat intensity ~ 1010-1012 Wm-2
Welding Arc
Characteristics • A welding arc consists of a sustained electrical discharge
through a high temperature, conducting plasma, producing
(ionic gas or plasma sufficient thermal energy as to be useful for the joining of metal by
with electric current
fusion.
passing through)
• Gaseous conductor changes electrical energy into heat.
• Arc produces sources of heat + radiation (careful  required
proper protection)
bell shaped arc
Welding arc Gas metal arc welding

9/23/2017
Emission of electron at cathode

Emission of electrons at cathode occurs when an amount
of energy required to remove the electron from a material
(liquid or solid). This amount of energy per electron is
called ‘work function’. (analogous to ionization potential)
Material Work function, eV

Emission occurs mainly by two processes;
Al 3.8-4.3
Cu 1.1-1.7 1) Cold cathode
Fe 3.5-4
At low pressure, high voltage
Mg 3.1-3.7 conditions, positive ions are accelerated
W 4.3-5.3 toward the cathode and bombard the
BaO, SrO 0.95 cathode with relatively high energy.
Thoria 2.5 2) Thermal emission
CsO 0.75
At high temperature some electrons
Al2 O3 <2.5
acquire enough thermal energy to
overcome the work function and
become free electrons.
Plasma formation
www.fronius.com
States of matter
Solid
Melting
• Plasma consists of ionized state of a
Liquid gas composed of nearly equal
numbers of electrons and ions, which
Vaporization can react to electric or magnetic fields.
Gas (neutral • Electrons, which support most of the
atoms/molecules) current conduction, flow from cathode
Ionization terminal (-) to anode terminal (+).
Plasma (negative charges • Neutral plasma can be established
and positive ions) by thermal means  by collision
process, which requires the attainment
of equilibrium temperature according to
ionization potential of the materials.

9/23/2017
Ionization potential
Energy
Ionization potential, Vi, required to strip an

electron from an outer shell of and atom or M+.
Plasma temperature = Ionization potential x 1000 K
Power in arc
•The electrical power is dissipated in three
regions of the arc: anode, cathode and plasma
column.
•The area at cathode and anode has strong Cathode -
effects on arc configuration, the flow of the
heat energy to the terminal  affecting shape
and depth of the fusion zone.
Arc area is mainly divided into three Power (Parc) Pc Heat
zones;
1) Anode
Pa = IEa Pa
Anode +
2) Cathode Energy dissipation in the arc
Pc = IEc
Note: Most heat goes to the
3) Plasma arc column anode/cathode and most is lost
radially from the arc
Parc = I (dEarc / dl )l

9/23/2017
Temperature in the arc and heat loss

www.geocities.com
• The arc temperature ~ 5000-30,000 K
depending on the nature of plasma and
current.
• The arc temperature is determined by
measuring the spectral radiation
emitted.
Heat losses in the arc
• Energy losses by heat conduction

and convection, radiation and
diffusion. Plasma temperature contour in the arc
• In Ar gas, radiation loss ~ 20%
while in other welding gas, radiation Temp Radiation loss
loss <10%.
Heat loss
Note: The use of fluxing reduces radiation lost
Classification of Welding Power Sources

9/23/2017
Examples
GMAW Power
Supply with DCRP
Comparison between AC & DC Power Source

9/23/2017
History of Welding Power Source
Transformer (TRAFO)

9/23/2017
Transformer (TRAVO) & Its Controller
Transformer (TRAVO) & Silicon Control Rectifier (SCR)

9/23/2017
INVERTER TYPES
Movable-shunt type

9/23/2017
Output control with voltage reducing device
Voltage reducing device for AC arc welding machines (JIS C 9311)

This device reduces, when the arc is halted, the voltage between the
electrode holder and base metal to be 25V or less.
The purpose of equipping this device is for the safety of welders to
prevent an electric shock.
( < 95V)
DC welding power source

9/23/2017
Thyristor-type DC welding power source
Advantage of inverter-type arc welding power source

9/23/2017
Appearance & weight of welding power source

Smaller & lighter
Duty cycle of welding power sources

9/23/2017
DUTY CYCLE OF WELDING MACHINE
NEMA (The National Electrical Manufacture Association)

are classified welding machine according to duty cycle
1. Welding machine with NEMA

CLASS I with Duty Cycle 60, 80
and 100 %
CLASS II with Duty Cycle 30, 40
& 50 %
CLASS III with Duty Cycle 20 %
CALCULATION ON DUTY CYCLE
DUTY CYCLE EQUATIONS:
100 % DUTY CYCLE = Period of welding operation with using

maximum current capacity in 10 minutes.

9/23/2017
EXAMPLE OF DUTY CYCLE

CALCULATION
Example 1. Welding power source have capacity of 200A with 60 % duty cycle
where it is operated for welding current of 250A, How long does the weldng
machine allow for welding.
From the equation above, the alowable time for welding with 250 A is not more
than 3,8 menutes.
Example 2. What the maximum current can be used if the machine operated
continuously (without idle), where the capacity of machine is 200A with 60 %
duty cycle .
Polarity of Welding Power Source

9/23/2017
Relation between Polarity & Electrodes
Polarity vs Weld Penetration for

Consumable Electrodes
 In SMAW & MIG Welding Machine, Electrodes melted and transferred via
electric arc into base metal to be welded.
 Arc length must be kept between electrode wire and base metal by
feeding the electrode wire, while at the same time the electrode wire
melted.
 In SMAW, Arc temperature depends on the chemical composition of
covered flux.
 The maximum arc heat is generally occurred in the negative polarity or
Cathode pole.
 Welding with direct polarity (DCSP) using E6012 (DCEN), where the
electrode put in negative polarity, hence the melting rate become higher.
Therefore, it produces the narrow weld penetration.
 When the welding operated with reversed polarity (DCRP) using E6010
(DCEP), the maximum heat of arc will be in negative polarity (cathode),
but the base metal is as cathode, hence the penetration becomes deeper.

9/23/2017
DC POLARITY vs PENETRATION in
SMAW PROCESS
DC POLARITY ON NON-CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE

(for TIG or PAW)
 When using the non-consumable electrodes such

as tungsten/wolfram electrode, the maximum arc
heat occurred on Positive Pole (Anode).
 Wolfram Electrode is generally operated with
straight polarity-DCEN, hence the maximum arc
heat is on base metal (anode). This produces the
deeper penetration of weld.
 When Tungsten electrode operated with
alternating current (AC), the amount of arc heat
may produce in balance between anode and
cathode.

9/23/2017
Polarity
There are three different types of current used in arc welding
1) Direct-Current Electrode Negative (DCEN)
2) Direct-Current Electrode Positive (DCEP)
3) Alternating current (AC)
Direct-Current Electrode Negative (DCEN)
• Also called straight polarity.

• Electrons are emitted from the negative
tungsten electrode and accelerated while
travelling through the arc.
• Most commonly used in GTAW.
• Relatively narrow and deep weld pool is
produced due to high energy.
• DCEN in GMAW makes the arc unstable
and causes excessive spatter, large droplet
size of metal and the arcs forces the droplets
away from the work piece.  This is due to a
low rate of electron emission from the negative
electrode.

9/23/2017
Direct-Current Electrode Positive (DCEP)

• Also called reverse polarity.
• The electrode is connected to the positive
terminal of the power source, therefore the
heating affect is now at the tungsten electrode
rather than the work piece.  shallow weld  for
welding thin sheets.
• At low current in Ar, the size of the droplet ~ the
size of the electrode  Globular transfer.
• The droplet size is inversely proportional to the
current and the droplets are released at the rate
of a few per second.
• At above the critical current  the droplets are
released at the rate of hundreds per second
(spray mode).
• Positive irons clean off the oxide surface.
Surface cleaning action
DCEP can be employed to clean the surface of the work piece by knocking
off oxide films by the positive ions of the shielding gas.
Ex: cleaning of Al2O3 oxide film

(Tm ~2054oC) on aluminum to
make melting of the metal
underneath the oxide film easier.
Surface cleaning action in GTAW with

DC electrode positive.

9/23/2017
Alternating Current (AC)
• Reasonably good penetration and

oxide cleaning action can be both
obtained.
• Often used for welding aluminum
alloys.
DC POLARITY ON TIG

9/23/2017
POLARITY ON TIG
ENERGY of ELECTRIC ARC
IxU
QB = x 60( J / mm)
v
Where : I = Welding Current (Ampere)
U = Welding Voltage (Volt)
v = Welding Speed (mm/minute)
Transfer Energy to the workpiece, QM, depending on arc efficiency, ,

and the calculation of Net Heat Input are as follows:
QM = QB x

9/23/2017
HEAT EFFICIENCY FOR VARIOUS

WELDING PROCESS
Heat source efficiency

In the case of arc welding, having a constant voltage E and a
constant current I, the arc efficiency can be expressed as;
Qt weld Qt weld Q
η= = = Eq.2
Qno min al t weld EIt weld EI
Where Q is the rate of heat transfer
Qnominal is the heat input
tweld is the welding time
In cases of electron beam and laser beam welding, Qnominal is the power
heat source of the electron beam and laser beam respectively.
The term, heat input per unit length of weld often refers to
Qno min al EI
, or Eq.3
V V
Where Qnominal or EI is the heat input
V is the welding speed
Qnominal / V is heat input per unit length of weld

9/23/2017
Heat source efficiency measurement

• Heat source efficiency can be measured using
a calorimeter (by measuring the heat transfer
from the heat source to the work-piece and then to
the calorimeter).
• The temperature rise in the cooling water
(Tout-Tin) can be measured using thermocouples
or thermistor. Heat transfer from the work piece
to the calorimeter is given by
Eq.4
Where W is the mass flow rate of water

C is the specific heat of water
Tout is the outlet water temperature
is the inlet water temperature Note: This integral corresponds
Tin to the shaded area, and can be used
t is time
to calculated the arc efficiency - η

• The arc efficiency can also be measured
using Seebeck envelope calorimeter. This
technique utilises thermocouple junctions for
sensing temperature difference.
• The heat transfer from the workpiece to
the calorimeter can be determined by
measuring the temperature different T and
hence gradient across a gradient layer of
material of known thermal conductivity k
and thickness L.
Eq.5
Where A is the area for heat flow

T/L is temperature gradient Layer of temperature gradient for heat
source efficiency measurement.
Note: this type of calorimeter is used to determine the arc

efficiencies in PAW, GMAW, and SAW.

9/23/2017

• In GMAW the arc, metal droplets, and the
cathode heating contribute to the efficiency
of the heat source.
• Lu and Kou used a combination of three
calorimeters to estimate the amounts of
heat transfer from the arc, filler metal
droplets and the cathode heating to the
workpiece in GMAW of aluminum.
(a) Measured results, (b) breakdown of power inputs. (a) Heat transfer from metal droplets
(b) Total heat inputs
(c) Heat inputs from arc and metal droplets.
Heat source efficiency in various

welding processes
Heat source efficiency is low
LBW because of the high
reflectivity.
Heat source efficiency is
PAW much higher than LBW (no
reflectivity).
Heat source efficiency is

SAW
higher than GTAW or SMAW
since the arc is covered with
thermally insulating blanket of
molten slag and granular flux.
Heat source efficiency is high

EBW
due to the keyhole acting like
Heat source efficiencies in several a black body trapping the
welding processes.
energy from electron beam.
Sep-Dec 2007

9/23/2017
Melting efficiency Aweld = Afiller +Abase
Melting efficiency is the ability of the heat source to

melt the base metal (as well as the filler metal).
Cross section of weld

The melting efficiency of the arc  can be defined as follows
(AbaseVtweld ) Hbase + (Afiller Vtweld ) Hfiller
ηm =
Where ηEIt weld
Eq.7 V
V is the welding speed ηm
Hbase is the energy required to raise a unit volume of
tweld
base metal to the melting point and melt it.
Hfiller is the energy required to raise a unit volume of
filler metal to the melting point and melt it.
tweld is the welding time.
Note: the quantity inside the parentheses represents the volume of
material melted while the denominator represents the heat transfer from
the heat source to the work piece.
Melting efficiency
(a) shallow welds of

lower melting
efficiency,
(b) deeper weld of
higher melting
efficiency.
Low heat input High heat input

Low welding speed High welding speed
Aweld = Afiller +Abase

9/23/2017
Power density distribution of heat source

Power density distribution is influenced by
1) Electrode tip angle
2) Electrode tip geometry
Sharp electrode
• Arc diameter
• Power density distribution
Blunter electrode
• Arc diameter
• Power density distribution
Effect of electrode tip angle on shape and power
density distribution of gas-tungsten arc.
Effect of electrode tip angle on shape of

gas tungsten arc and power density
Conical angle of The arc becomes

electrode tip more constricted

9/23/2017
Analysis of heat flow in welding

Heat or temperature distribution occurring during welding greatly affect
microstructure of the weld, hence, the weld properties
•The temperature-distance profile

shows that the heat source travels
along the weld in the direction A-A’ at
a constant speed.
• As the heat source moves on, the
cooling rates around the weld are very
high.
• A more intense heat source will give
a steeper profile and the HAZ, which
will be confined to a narrower region.
Temperature distribution round a typical weld
Effect of temperature gradient on

weld microstructure
The temperature gradients in the liquid weld material are substantially higher
than in most casting processes. This leads to high solidification rates which
produce a finer dendritic structure than that observed in most castings.
Microstructures occurring in a weld and its HAZ.

9/23/2017
Effect of welding parameters
• Effect of heat input Q and welding

speed V on the weld pool.
• Effect of heat input on cooling rate.
• Effect of the power density
distribution of the heat source on the
weld shape.
• Heat sink effect of work piece.
Effect of heat input and welding

speed on the weld pool
• The shape and size of the weld pool is significantly

affected by heat input Q and the welding speed V.
Heat input The weld pool

becomes more
Welding speed elongated.
Note: the cross indicates the

position of the electrode.

9/23/2017
Effect of heat input on cooling rate
The cooling rate in ESW (high Q/V)

is much smaller than that in arc
welding.
Heat input per Cooling rate

unit length EI/V
Effect of power density distribution

on weld shape
Power density
Weld penetration

9/23/2017
Heat sink effect of the workpiece
• The cooling rate increases with the

thickness of the work-piece due to
the heat sink effect.
• Thicker work-piece acts as a better
heat sink to cool the weld down.
Brass with a higher melting point than

that of aluminum is used as a heat sink
to increase the cooling rate in
aluminum welding.
Blass heat sink is clamped behind

aluminum to be welded.
References
• Kou, S., Welding metallurgy, 2nd edition, 2003, John Willey and
Sons, Inc., USA, ISBN 0-471-43491-4.
• Gourd, L.M., Principles of welding technology, 3rd edition, 1995,
Edward Arnold, ISBN 0 340 61399 8.

Heat Flow in Welding: Subjects of Interest

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Heat Flow in Welding: Subjects of Interest

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

9/23/2017

Heat flow in welding

• This chapter provides information of heat flow during

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 1

Materials Joining & Welding Productions

Most of productions need

H2B Tokyo Sky Tree;

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 2

Joining & Welding in Industries

How to welding of a metal to a metal

specific gravity 7.9 2.7

Melting point (℃) 1536 660

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 3

Heat source for melting metals locally is necessary in

Short break…”What is a plasma?”

Plasma Irving Langmuir

Gas Chemistry for his work in surface chemistry.

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 4

Let’s study the arc which is one of

Electric circuit & discharge

From insulators to conductors

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 5

Arc is like an artificial sun?!

Electromagnetic pinch effect & plasma jet

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 6

Electromagnetic pinch effect & plasma jet

Stiffness of arc due to plasma jet

The arc tends to direct along the

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 7

Welding heat sources

• Arc welding • Friction (stir) welding

• Oxyfuel gas welding Other sources

High energy sources

bell shaped arc

Welding arc Gas metal arc welding

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 8

Emission of electron at cathode

Material Work function, eV

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 9

Ionization potential, Vi, required to strip an

Plasma temperature = Ionization potential x 1000 K

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 10

Temperature in the arc and heat loss

Heat losses in the arc

• Energy losses by heat conduction

Classification of Welding Power Sources

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 11

Comparison between AC & DC Power Source

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 12

History of Welding Power Source

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 13

Transformer (TRAVO) & Its Controller

Transformer (TRAVO) & Silicon Control Rectifier (SCR)

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 14

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 15

Output control with voltage reducing device

Voltage reducing device for AC arc welding machines (JIS C 9311)

DC welding power source

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 16

Thyristor-type DC welding power source

Advantage of inverter-type arc welding power source

Prof. Dr. Ir. Winarto, M.Sc. 17

Appearance & weight of welding power source