INTERNET-BASED

Global Citizenship and Global Governance

Caecilia Johanna van Peski, defined global governance as the
whole array of inter-governmental organizations (e.g. United Nations, World
Bank), international NGOs (e.g. Greenpeace,
Amnesty International), and the many citizen
initiatives and community action groups that reach
above the nation-state level (e.g. World Social
Forum, Occupy Movement). Additionally, she argues
that Global citizenship can be defined as a moral
and ethical disposition that can guide the
understanding of individuals or groups of local and
global contexts, and remind them of their relative
responsibilities within various communities. She said
that “global citizens might be a new type of people
Caecilia Johanna
that can travel within these various boundaries and van Peski
somehow still make sense of the world”.
https://cisv.org/resources/educational-content-research/research/what-is-global-
citizenship/
Realist Perspective: A Minimal Role for Global Citizenship
According to Antunes and Camisão, realism is
a school of thought that emphasizes the competitive
and conflictual side of international relations.
Realism’s roots are often said to be found in some of
humankind’s earliest historical writings, particularly
Thucydides’ history of the Peloponnesian War, which
raged between 431 and 404 BCE. Thucydides, writing
over two thousand years ago, was not a ‘realist’
because IR theory did not exist in named form until the
twentieth century. However,
Sandrina Antunes
when looking back from a
contemporary vantage point, theorists detected
many similarities in the thought patterns and
behaviors of the ancient world and the modern
world. They then drew on his writings, and that of
others, to lend weight to the idea that there was a
timeless theory spanning all recorded human history.
That theory was named ‘realism’. The first
assumption of realism is that the nation-state is the
principle actor in international relations. Other Isabel Camisão

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bodies exist, such as individuals and organizations, but their power is limited.
Second, the state is a unitary actor. National interests, especially in times
of war, lead the state to speak and act with one voice. Third, decision-
makers are rational actors in the sense that rational decision-making leads
to the pursuit of the national interest. Here, taking actions that would make
your state weak or vulnerable would not be rational. Realism suggests that
all leaders, no matter what their political persuasion, recognize this as they
attempt to manage their state’s affairs in order to survive in a competitive
environment. Finally, states live in a context of anarchy - in the absence of
anyone being in charge internationally.
https://www.e-ir.info/2018/02/27/introducing-realism-in-international-relations-theory/

Alternative Liberal Perspective and Global Citizenship

According to Bell, Liberalism is a defining feature
of modern democracy, illustrated by the prevalence
of the term ‘liberal democracy’ as a way to describe
countries with free and fair elections, rule of law and
protected civil liberties. However, liberalism has
evolved into a distinct entity of its own. Liberalism
contains a variety of concepts and arguments about
how institutions, behaviors and economic
connections contain and mitigate the violent power
of states. In liberalism, there is a consideration of
Duncan Bell
citizens and international organizations. Most notably,
liberalism offers a more optimistic world view, grounded in a different
reading of history to that found in realist scholarship. Liberalism is based on
the moral argument that ensuring the right of an individual person to life,
liberty and property is the highest goal of government. Consequently,
liberals emphasize the wellbeing of the individual as the fundamental
building block of a just political system. A political system characterized by
unchecked power, such as a monarchy or a dictatorship, cannot protect
the life and liberty of its citizens. Therefore, the main concern of liberalism is
to construct institutions that protect individual freedom by limiting and
checking political power. While these are issues of domestic politics, the
realm of IR is also important to liberals because a state’s activities abroad
can have a strong influence on liberty at home. Liberals are particularly
troubled by militaristic foreign policies. The primary concern is that war
requires states to build up military power. This power can be used for fighting
foreign states, but it can also be used to oppress its own citizens. For this

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reason, political systems rooted in liberalism often limit military power by
such means as ensuring civilian control over the military.
https://www.e-ir.info/2018/02/18/introducing-liberalism-in-international-relations-theory/

Difference of Realism and Liberalism

The ‘state of nature’ is a central assumption in realist theory, holding
that anarchy is a defined condition of the international system, as well as
postulating that statecraft and subsequently, foreign policy, is largely
devoted to ensuring national survival and the pursuit of national interests.
Realism is, therefore, primarily concerned with states and their actions in the
international system, as driven by competitive self-interest. Thus, realism
holds that international organizations and other trans-state or sub-state
actors hold little real influence, in the face of states as unitary actors looking
after themselves.
Liberalism, in stark contrast to realism, believes in the measurement
of power through state economies, the possibility of peace and
cooperation, as well as the concepts of political freedoms, rights and the
like. Liberalism offers the possibility of peace even as states accumulate
power, on the basis that power has now taken a less destructive form, from
guns to bank notes and exports. Furthermore, liberals argue for the progress
and perfectibility of the human condition as well as a degree of confidence
in the removal of the stain of war from human experience (Gardner,
1990/Hoffmann, 1995/Zacher and Matthew, 1995; taken from Burchill :
Theories of International Relations 3/E, 2005).
https://www.e-ir.info/2011/07/02/realism-and-liberalism-in-modern-international-relations/
An Emerging Cosmopolitan Order and its Implications for Global
Citizenship
Cosmopolitanism
According to Benning, in terms of international
relations, cosmopolitanism is a school of thought in
which the essence of international society is defined
in terms of social bonds that link people,
communities, and societies. The term
cosmopolitanism is derived from the Greek
cosmopolis. It refers to a cluster of ideas and schools
of thought that sees a natural order in the universe
(the cosmos) reflected in human society, particularly
in the polis, or city-state.
Joseph Benning

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 More broadly, it presents a political-moral philosophy that posits
people as citizens of the world rather than of a particular nation-state. In
this regard, cosmopolitanism represents a spirited challenge to more
traditional views that focus on age-old attachments of people to a place,
customs, and culture. Cosmopolitan emphasis on social bonds rather than
nation-states lays the foundation for its view of society ultimately evolving
toward harmony and away from conflict. This relatively benign outlook
stands in stark contrast to the analytic framework used by the dominant
schools of thought in world politics: realism and liberalism.
Cosmopolitanism differs from realism and liberalism in its resistance to
the idea of the semiautonomous sovereign state, with an exclusive right of
self-government. In the realist view, states are locked in a struggle for
survival. Conflict is inevitable because states have differing interests and
there is no external sovereign to constrain behaviour or mediate disputes.
Not only do cosmopolitan theorists reject the conception of world
politics as necessarily rooted in interstate conflict. They argue that states
are bound by rules, norms, and the imperatives of law. Relations between
people are not always and everywhere subsumed by interstate conflict.
Cosmopolitanism moves beyond liberalism. Cosmopolitans,
international institutions are steps down the evolutionary road toward
vesting full sovereignty in people rather than in states. Over time, the society
of states will evolve into societies of people. States are not the law; they are
bound by it. Politics and law are thus denationalized.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/cosmopolitanism-international-relations

Constructivist Approach
Constructivist approach refers to an epistemological position in
which knowledge is regarded as constructed. These approaches
concentrate on the analysis of single processes or functions. They are based
on the assumption that knowledge is the result of constructive processes;
and the consequence of this for the analysis of person-situation-interaction
is that these are constructed on the basis of experiences.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/constructivist-approach

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Liberal Internationalism
As defined by Miriam Dornan, liberal
internationalism can be defined as an approach to
international relations aiming to spread liberal
democracy throughout the world in order to bring
an end to conflicts. It may be viewed as a
convincing approach to international relations as it
is possible to argue that this approach has been
relatively successful in creating and sustaining
stability.
To conclude, liberal internationalism can be Miriam Dornan
seen as a more convincing approach to international
relations than its class-based rivals as not only has it experienced success in
reaching its aims to spreading democracy, protecting human rights and
promoting economic free trade in order to maintain peace, it has also
continued to be a dominant force in international relations while class-
based approaches have failed to make any lasting and significant impact
(Doyle, 1986).
https://www.e-ir.info/2011/08/02/liberal-internationalism/

Global Democracy
Global democracy is a controversial issue that involves several
theories posit by different personalities, from authors to political theorists. It
is likewise a field of political activism and academic study. It has become
the focus of inquiry of different published writings such as sociology,
international law, international relations and political philosophy. From the
points of view of different groups, from scholars of global justice to global
democrats, global democracy is related to how decision-making among
different nations can be rationalized, and who would be chosen to
participate in the creation of global laws, regulations and rules.
https://www.daytranslations.com/blog/what-is-global-democracy/

Federal World Government

FWG is simply an extension of the idea of democratic federation to
the global level. In most ways, its operation should resemble the operation
of existing federal governments, with the exception that no military force
would be needed to protect the global citizenship against external
societies.
https://worldcitizen.fandom.com/wiki/World_Federal_Government

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 Liberal Reform of Existing International Institutions

• From 1987 to 1990, Julius K. Nyerere served as the Chairman of the

South Commission, a commission of independent high-level experts
from the South set up by developing countries to review the South’s
development experience and make recommendations on the
development strategy for developing countries in the post-Cold War
arena. He then became the first Chairman of the Board of the South
Centre, the intergovernmental policy research organization of
developing countries which succeeded the South Commission
https://www.southcentre.int/board-members/mwalimu-julius-k-nyerere/

• Commission on Global Governance, international commission of 28

individuals established in 1992 to suggest new ways in which the
international community might cooperate to further an agenda of
global security. The commission’s understanding of security was
based on a broad definition that included human and planet well-
being. Among the commission’s self-declared aims were securing
peace, sustainable development, and universal democracy.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Commission-on-Global Governance

Is World Federalism still on the Agenda?

• The World Federalist Movement (WFM) is a global citizens movement

that advocates the establishment of a global federal system of
strengthened and democratic global institutions subjected to the
principles of subsidiarity, solidarity and democracy. Famous
advocates of world federalism include Albert Einstein, Mahatma
Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Rosika Schwimmer, Garry Davis, Emery
Reves and Lola Maverick Lloyd. The organization was created in 1947
by those concerned that the structure of the new United Nations was
too similar to the League of Nations which had failed to prevent
World War II, both being loosely structured associations of sovereign
nation-states, with few autonomous powers. The WFM International
Secretariat is based in New York City, across from the headquarters
of the United Nations, and has member and associate organizations
around the world. The Movement has had Special Consultative
Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC) since 1970 and is affiliated with the UN Department of

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 Public Information (DPI) and a current board member of the
Conference of NGOs (CONGO). It currently counts 30,000 to 50,000
supporters.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AM6-4PW5HKE

• Dr Keith Suter is considered to be one of Australia's most influential

Global futurists and media commentators in national and foreign
affairs. He has also held many strategic leadership roles. Dr Suter is an
experienced, professional and awarded presenter renowned for
explaining complex global and business issues in a way his audiences
can digest and understand. He is in demand as an MC and
conference facilitator. Keith's tailored keynotes, workshops,
facilitated sessions are entertaining, highly compelling and always
captivating.
http://www.keithsuter.com/dr-keith-bio

Cosmopolitan Democracy

• Cosmopolitan democracy is a political theory which explores the

application of norms and values of democracy at the transnational
and global sphere. It argues that global governance of the people,
by the people, for the people is possible and needed. Writers
advocating cosmopolitan democracy include Immanuel Kant,
David Held, Daniele Archibugi, Richard Falk, and Mary Kaldor. In the
cosmopolitan democracy model, decisions are made by those
affected, avoiding a single hierarchical form of authority. According
to the nature of the issues at stake, democratic practice should be
reinvented to take into account the will of stakeholders. This can be
done either through direct participation or through elected
representatives. The model advocated by cosmopolitan democrats
is confederal and decentralized—global governance without world
government—unlike those models of global governance supported
by classic World Federalism thinkers, such as Albert Einstein. The
victory of Western liberal states ending the Cold War inspired the
hope that international relations could be guided by the ideals of
democracy and the rule of law. In the early 1990s, a group of thinkers
developed the political project of cosmopolitan democracy with the
aim of providing intellectual arguments in favour of an expansion of
democracy, both within states and at the global level. While some

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 significant successes have been achieved in terms of
democratization within states, much less has been attained in
democratizing the global system. In different forms, the necessity to
expand democratic procedures beyond the nation-state has been
supported by political philosopher Jürgen Habermas, and sociologist
Ulrich Beck.

• Criticisms of cosmopolitan democracy have come from realist,

marxist, communitarian and multicultural perspectives. Democratic
theorist Robert Dahl has expressed his doubts about the possibility of
expanding democracy in international organizations to any
significant degree, as he believes that democracy diminishes with
size. Opponents of Dahl's approach point to the fact that bigger
countries are not necessarily less democratic. For example, there is
no correlation between voters' turnout and population size; in fact it
is smallest in countries with fewer than 100,000 citizens. The idea of
cosmopolitan democracy has been advocated with reference to
the reform of international organizations. This includes the institution
of the International Criminal Court, a directly elected World
Parliament or world assembly of governments, and more widely the
democratization of international organizations. Supporters of
cosmopolitan democracy have been sceptical about the
effectiveness of military interventions, even when they are
apparently motivated by humanitarian intentions. They have instead
suggested popular diplomacy and arms control.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ezi2HQRR1C8

• David Held is a master at University College, Durham, and a professor

of politics and international relations at Durham University. His main
research interests include the study of globalization, changing forms
of democracy and the prospects of regional and global
governance.

David is a director of Polity Press, which he co-founded in 1984, and

is the general editor of Global Policy. Among his most recent
publications are “Gridlock: Why Global Cooperation is Failing”
(2013), “Cosmopolitanism: Ideals and Realities” (2010),
“Globalisation/Anti-Globalisation” (2007), “Models of Democracy”
(2006) and “Global Transformations” (1999).
https://www.theglobalist.com/contributors/david-held/

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 • John Dryzek is Professor of Political Science and
Australian Research Council Federation Fellow at the
Australian National University. He is a Fellow of the
Academy of Social Sciences in Australia, former Head
of the Departments of Political Science at the
Universities of Oregon and Melbourne and the Social
and Political Theory program at ANU, and former editor
of the Australian Journal of Political Science.
https://www.humansandnature.org/john-dryzek

• Alexander Wendt, (born 1958, Mainz, West Germany), German-born

American political scientist and educator, one of the most-influential
theorists of the social-constructivist approach to the study
of international relations.

Wendt was a graduate of Macalester College (B.A. 1982) and

obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota in 1989. He taught
at Yale University (1989–97), Dartmouth College (1997–99), and
the University of Chicago (1999–2005) before joining the political
science faculty of the Ohio State University in 2004 as Mershon
Professor of International Security.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-Wendt/images-videos

Liberal Reform, Cosmopolitan Democracy and Global Capitalism

Friedrich Hayek
A claim for equality of material position can be met only by a
government with totalitarian powers.
F. A. Hayek’s life spanned the twentieth century, and he made his home in
some of the great intellectual
communities of the period.
Born Friedrich August von Hayek
in 1899 to a distinguished family of
Viennese intellectuals, Hayek
attended the University of Vienna,
earning doctorates in 1921 and 1923.
Hayek came to the University at age 19
just after World War I, when it was one

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of the three best places in the world to study economics (the others being
Stockholm and Cambridge).
Like many students of economics then and since, Hayek chose the
subject not for its own sake, but because he wanted to improve social
conditions—the poverty of postwar Vienna serving as a daily reminder of
such a need. Socialism seemed to provide a solution. Then in 1922 Mises
published his Die Gemeinwirtschaft, later translated as Socialism. “To none
of us young men who read the book when it appeared,” Hayek recalled,
“the world was ever the same again.” It was around this time that Hayek
began attending Mises’s famed Privatseminar. For several years the
Privatseminar was the center of the economics community in Vienna.
Later, Hayek became the first of this group to leave Vienna; most of
the others, along with Mises himself, were also gone by the start of World
War II
At the L.S.E. Hayek lectured on Mises’s business-cycle theory, which
he was refining and which, until Keynes’s General Theory came out in 1936,
was rapidly gaining adherents in Britain and the U.S. and was becoming the
preferred explanation of the Depression. Hayek and Keynes had sparred in
the early 1930s in the pages of the Economic Journal, over Keynes’s Treatise
on Money.
https://mises.org/profile/friedrich-hayek

G7 or GROUP OF SEVEN
The Group of Seven (G7) is an informal bloc of industrialized
democracies—Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United
Kingdom, and the United States—that meets annually to discuss issues such
as global economic governance, international security, and energy policy.
Proponents say the forum’s small and relatively homogenous membership
promotes collective decision-making, but critics note that it often lacks
follow-through and excludes important emerging powers.
Russia belonged to the forum from 1998 through 2014, when the bloc
was known as the Group of Eight (G8), but was suspended following its
annexation of Crimea. The G7’s future has been challenged by continued
tensions with Russia, disagreements over trade and climate policies, and
the larger Group of Twenty’s (G20) rise as an alternative forum. Meanwhile,
U.S. President Donald J. Trump has deepened divisions within the bloc,
raising questions over cooperation on various policies.

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G7 GDP
Unlike the United Nations or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO), the G7 is not a formal institution with a charter and a secretariat.
The presidency, which rotates annually among member states, is
responsible for setting the agenda of each year’s summit and arranging
logistics for it. Ministers and envoys, known as sherpas, hammer out policy
initiatives at meetings that precede the gathering of national leaders.
Armed this in 2011, calling the G20 the “premier forum for global
economic coordination.” Many observers note that the forum was most
effective during the 2007–2008 global financial crisis; G20 leaders first met
in Washington in 2008, after the fall of Lehman Brothers.
“The Washington summit in 2008 and the London summit in 2009 did
much to avert a new great depression,” writes the Brookings Institution’s
Thomas Wright. “Unprecedented cooperation between the world’s largest
economies provided liquidity that limited the contagion of the banking
crisis, kept markets open and prevented countries from resorting to
protectionism,
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/g7-and-future-multilateralism

Draft of Code of Conduct of Transnational Company

Decides that the special session of the Commission on Transnational
Corporations should be reconvened at the earliest possible time and that
a decision regarding its date should be taken not later than the
organizational session of the Economic and Social Council for 1988 in the
light of the results of the consultations to be held for the preparation of the
reconvened special session; requests the Chairman of the special session,
together with the Bureau of the special session and the Secretary-General,
to hold intensive consultations with the aim of preparing a draft code of
conduct on transnational corporations for the reconvened special session
of the Commission, taking into account the existing drafts.
https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/156251

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Paul Hirst
Professor Paul Hirst, who has died aged 57 following a stroke and
brain haemorrhage, was one of the most inspiring political and social
thinkers and teachers of his generation. Though he
began as a Marxist, his ideas helped to provide the
intellectual scaffolding for New Labour. His irreverent
approach to conventional political ideas gained him
many admirers who, fired by his spirit, went on to
break new ground of their own. Above all, he was a
fierce egalitarian, an evangelist of honesty and the
enemy of Kant.
Hirst was born just after the end of the second
world war, the only child of
a non-practising Jewish
mother and an RAF officer who had risen through
the ranks. Because of his father's occupation, his
main childhood memory was of a life on the
move - he used to say he could not remember
how many different schools he had gone to. His
best recollection was of running wild with other
forces children on a military base in Germany: he
sported a scar on his cheek which - he claimed -
came from an appropriated Nazi bayonet. His
last school was in Plymouth, where his parents
settled, and where an uncle with a chain of
garages fondly expected him to go into the business.
https://amptheguardiancom.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/amp.theguardian.com/news/200
3/jun/20/guardianobituaries.highereducation?amp_js_v=a2&amp_gsa=1&usqp=mq331A
QEKAFwAQ%3D%3D#aoh=15679381105165&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com
&amp_tf=From%20%251%24s&ampshare=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fne
ws%2F2003%2Fjun%2F20%2Fguardianobituaries.highereducation

Globalization in Question
Hirst and Thompson note that globalization is an important topic, not only
in economics, but also in the social, political and managerial sciences.
There is much talk of the "global village" and it is often argued that a truly
global economy has emerged, or is in the process of emerging. This global
economy, it is further argued, in what might be termed the "globalization
hypothesis", has made domestic economic strategies useless in the face of
the world market, in which a new breed of truly transnational corporations

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are the dominant actors. The authors question the extent to which this
globalization hypothesis is an accurate portrayal of how things actually are,
and whether this is how they ought to be. There is a strong polemical
element to the book.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization_in_Questiion

Grahame Thompson
Thompson was educated at the University of
Birmingham where he obtained his MA in
economics and also has a PhD from the
University of Leicester.
Thompson trained as an economist and was
originally employed by the Economics
Department of the Open University. In 2000 he
transferred to the Government and Politics
department (which later became POLIS). He
has served as Head of Department from 2001
to 2003 and for 2007.
His most notable work has been on
‘globalization’. In his book, Globalization in
Question, written first with Paul Hirst (and in the 2009
new edition with Simon Bromley) he takes a basically skeptical position on
globalization as been something which is substantially new.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grahame_Thompson

Cosmopolitanism as Imperialism
Danilo Zolo
He taught Philosophy of Law at the University of
Florence, where he founded, in 2000, the Center
for the Law of International Law and Global
Policies Jura Gentium. He has been a research
associate and visiting professor at various
universities in the United Kingdom and the United
States (Cambridge, Harvard, Princeton, etc.), as
well as in various branches in Argentina, Brazil and
Mexico. In 1993 he was awarded the Jemolo
Fellowship at the Center for European Studies of
Nuffield College, Oxford.
https://it.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danilo_Zolo

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