1

Mathematics a
o Unit 1

Linear Algebra

The linear system of Equation is called

study of

Linear Algebra

For example there are 3 linear Eg with 3 Variables

ant byte2 d
he Toget solution
en t fy t g z
in t j y t nz l oftheseequations
we use Matriy
 UNIT I Introduction To Matrixes
Tepito thatwhen data is
arranged in a
rectangular
m Rows n colums hire
array of and

Total
am a hi Heineman
L Im mxn
T a
am
a'm
Matrix is written
Ais NameofMatrix Vertical leries are column
mis Numberof rows in
Matrix a Horizontal lines are Rows
his Numberofcolumns in
Matrix
 example Row 2 has elements 92 g arr 92N
Column has elements 912
922
A 32

A m2
few definitions
1 Null Matrix on Eero Matan Matrix
which has all elements Zero

2 Square Matan Matrix which has

equal Number
of Rows and columns
 A3 3 Matrix with 3Mows and 36km

Trace The sum

of Matrix of diagonal elements
of
Square Matrix
1
V

example Principal diagonalofMatrix

2
A3 5 ah aa diagonal elements are
931 932 933 All 9 922 9 933

Here Trace Ant 922 1933

 3 diagonal Mata ASquare Matrix is
Node
diaglabeltdiagldef diagonal Matan f only diagonalelemen
deagfa idbteetg.JO MatniY Me non Zero and rest all
Are Lao
diaglabyxdiagf.def
Example A3 3 912 9,3
okayLad beef 1911
921 Are
923
931 932
diag abc te 933
diagHato'z elements
of mating A is
aij
diaglabej diagonal matrix is
diaglaby
determinant
diaglabed
defined as aij O
if its
aij toy i j
abcdiaglabyn
example A 3 5
a.agqanbr.cn IIE
 4 Scalar Matty if elements
of
diagonal Matrix are of same value
then matrix is called Scalar mata

example
EEE
5 Identity Matan or unit Matty
diagonal Matrix Scalar scalar Matan with all
diagonal
Matrix and Identity elements
equal to 1
Mathy all are Note a AI det III L
IA
Square Matrix In I
I I I
 6 IppetianguleMating Asquare
Mathy where all the elements
below the principal are Zao
diagonal

ga Al l Al L 413

EETE looiiaa.it
Matrix
i I
if elements of Matrix A are a j then aij o if
7 to ngular MataI ASquare

Matrix Where all elements above

elements above principal
diagonal
 are Zeno

B 911 O O

ETFs 194
triangular 93 932 933
922 0

Matrix

So we can
say
that a 0
if
i j

8 SebMatei have matai

if we a

A mxn having m rows and n

columns We can create
any sub
matrix from A mxn
by removing
some
 1
example let Auxs

Note SupposeHelalant
11g
IIIIg
Tofind Number9 Then
Submatrixoforder 151 ft is SubMatri

rxp frombigger
Matrix Amxn then
Principal Sub Matrix is that matey
answer willbe
which is Sub matrix
Mcr xncp
select knowsfrom
of Amain and
meows ofAgpcolumns diagonal Clemente of submatopy are
fromncolumns9A
also diagonal elements
of Amin
 f
I
v
diagonalelements of
example z 3 sub matrix are
y 2 also diagonal
elements
of
Amin So this is
Principal Sub Mating

Addition and Subtraction Of Mating

IopicI
Whenever we want to add or subtract two
matrix for example A and B Thew og operation
can be performed
only when they are of same
order 1 e number
of rows in A and B
 Should be same g number columns in A
of
and B should be same

example Asx Boxy Not Valid

A5 3 t B3xs Not Valid
A5 3 t B5xz Valid

So Amyn t Bmx n is Valid and result is

also a Matrix of same order
A mxn I Bmxn Cmxn
Let aij are elements
of A g bij are
 elements of B and Cij are elements
of C
their ai j big Cij

I I LEI I I
Properties of addition BTA Atb
addition is Commutative

At B Ct B A a
cancellation allowed
Note
Subtraction is neither Commutative non Associative
Iopied Multiplication of Matrices
The product of two Matriy A B is possible only whew
number
of column of A numberof rows in B

Am xn Bnxp Cm
xp
H H H
Order order order
Mxn m
n
xp xp
Note Total number
of
multiplication operation
done in above operation is mxn xp
How to Compute Multiplication will be explained
Properties of Mathy Multiplication

AB t BA it is possible that eve

to
AB exist BA may not exist
if
example Amxn Bnxp Valid
Bnxp Amin Invalid
So Matrix Multiplication is not
commutative

2 A Btc ABT Ac So Matrix

Multiplication is distributive
3 ALBc CAB C g Matrix
multiplication is associative

4 AB Null mating then it doesn't

If
mean A o or B 0 g example

11311181 0

5 A I Ag Ies identitymating

6 Both Right and left cancellations

Valued AB AC B C
BA Be this ubI
 1
Note Multiplication OfConstantwith a mating if A is amatory
with elements then KA Where Kis aconstant Value
aij
will be a matrix with element equal to Kaj
trace A K trace A

trace B trace CBA

trace CATB trace A 1traceB
 Note fromNow
Minor and wfactegrtetai
IopicI mmaw.in iaaseseeae

Matrix

if we want to find minor Mijg

of Matrix Am n

it Is determinant Matan obtained by

of square

removing ithrow andjth column of A matai

example Note determinant

K 1
9am matrix
A
I I It 3 Eba is ad be

t
1331 13
 fofecter Cofactor
of mating
Ci CDi Mj

determinant of a square Mataig

is equal to product element
of of
any now any column with the
corresponding cofactor

f f All 91L 913 914

I hit
i
i can be 1 213 4
 Similarly IAI aijcij
Here j isfixed
j can be 1 43,4

elements
Note if we multiply ofrowkolumn
with Cofactor Of Other Mowkolumn and add
we will get Lao

lie A
All 912 MAK 9141 91242 19,343
if 921 92L 92g
913g I Al Az Cz 1922 Cut AzzCz
931 932 933
But
All Cz t 912 22 t 913 23 0
Note
if determinant
of a Matrix o then it is called

singular Matrix else it is Non Singular

Matrix

Properties of determinantof Matan

1 Det AB det CA del B
detCAn IAIN
2 det Atb not always equal
to def t del B

3 apply operation line

If we

Ri Ri KRI or Ci Got kg
 I
determinant remainunchang
4
if any row column is Zero then

determinant
of the matrix is zero

5
If by doing Rie Ret KRI
or Ci Got Kcp
weget Ri o or G 0

then determinant
Nole of matrixis
Zero
Ri Ri 13
6 Ais nrowed square matrix then
Orci Ci 17
determinant
is Not allowed of KA KntAl here Kisa
constant valve
example A Ako
13g
Is
6 two Rows
if we interchange

Rio RY or two column

co Cj then determinant of
new mating is detCA
 topics Invense greatak 1afnD
adjcadjcn.gg
So ladsCAH IAI
t a
A adjoint gAdjointA factonCADT
a
Note Inverse
92 2
matrix
At Cofactor ADT

IAI
A
Lack A
ad.tl t ab
Note AA A A I identity Matrix
a matrix A gates
Transpose 9
obtained by making Re Ci and ViceVersa

example
13 s L
1St row 1Stcolumn 2nd row 2nd 3rd row 3 dColum
Another Method to find house Matrix
I
of
Gauss Jordan Method

example A Tofind A 1
Iz 4g

New matrix A I here

Step to write a

is Identity matrix 01Same order as that

of Matney A

i D
How step2 Takethiselementandusing elementary
transformation on a Matrix
make all elements abovefbelo
equaltoZero
t
R 2 RoseRsRi
GRE e
24
I
tg
8 III
Now tu this element usingelementary
transformation make elements aboveand below
Zero
R Rz Rz R 5 Rz Rz
2 O 9 I 3 I O
0 I 5 i 2 I 0
e I
0 O 1 I 1
E I
 t
Now take this element and to make elements
try
above and below Zero
Note Elementary RI RI ZR3 og R2 Rz15gRz
transformation or a Mating 0 I 312 Yz 3 2
There are 3 operations

Ri RitKRj
I og II 7,1611g 51,6
o O 1
or
Cis Cit KS
Ri Rj Cis
I
or 5 Rs Rz g 123 46Rs
Ri Kri or Ci Kgo
Ri Rit k

ii iii
Ci
or

or
CixCj
late
transformation
I i L
This matrixis A L
 few properties of Transpose
to determinant A determinant AT

2 A _AT symmetric Matai

3 A AT Skew symmetric Matrix

A AIF djjsmnmaeeiiiemenjaii.fm
i away
Ata
AIT
oanykatrix
an bewrittenas
µ5
Aj is always Skew Symmetric Matrix
sumof symmetric
andskewsymmetric T T
LAB BTAT 7 CKA KAT
matai
Here kis a constant
Note
If Aand Bboth are symmetric then AtBg A B
 9 CAtBJ Att BT
8 LABIT CTBTAT

Impaling equated
t
I LAB B At 4 CAT CAD

2 detCAD Is 5 LAY LADO

IA I
1
3 CABD C B A

Conjugate of a matrix Amin Cai m w

Note then
Am n AI mxn
Simply Conjugate each element
if A is real matrix then A A
if A A then A is completely Imaginary Matrix
Note Some Importanttype
of Matty
L Idempotent Matan 2 Involuntary Matrix 3 Nilpotent Matai
AZ I if An then
AKA A is nilpotentof
Index U
Nshouldbe
minimum value
4 Orthogonal Matrix for which Ako
I lie
ifAT A
AAT I
orthogonal matrix
hasdeterminant
equalto II
if A and B are orthogonal
then BA alsoorthogonal
 T
5 Let A AO g A AO Hermitian Mata
if
AO Skew hermitian Matney
if A
is alwaysHermitian matrix
ALI
ALI is always skew Hermitian Matrix

A matai A canbe written as

At ALI any
Sum
ofHermitian and ShewHermitian
Matrix
element skew hermitian matriy are
diagonal of
either purely imaginary on Zero

diagonal elements of Hermitian matrix is always real

 alsoRemember that
I
0 A CKA E I AO ke'scomples
CAO f Number
D AdtBd d
AftB LAB BOAO

6 unitary Matey
A.AE I AQA AE A 1
fo

Modulus determinant
of 9 unitarymatrixis
unity

Unit 1 ENDS
Unit 2 Rank of a Matn

Whatis Rank
of a Matan
Rank of a Matrix Amin is equalto number r
at least there exist one square submatrix
if of order r r
having non Zero determinant thus all square submatay
of
order rtDX
xD is Zero

Nole rank matrix Amxn is r the w

of
r s min Mon
Methodtofind the Rank of a matrix

1 Slept given Matan Amin so re min moon

let men thus maximum valveof ranh
will be m
Now Seethat ifany square submatrix
Steps
has non Zero determinant then
of order
MXm

answer is rank A m g
if all Square sub

matrixof mxm order have Zero determinant

then do same operation forcmDXenD order
submatrix
 Keep doing these operations until youget
determinant a square Submatniy equal to non
of
Zero

example

A
l so.mn name

autsub
matrix of order 3 3 Ltg

KIKI.li
all have determinant
 Now wewill see for 2 2 submaking
we can see that
f to

So Rank of Matney is 2

But this Method is little lengthy but helpful in

Such cases
1 3 I
Example g find Valueof
3,9
1 Krasnothoftmatai

is 2
Solution Here Since rank matai is 2 thus
of
determinant 3 Submatrix will beZero
of 3

l to
O L O 2 t L K 01 0

2 t K D

K 2
Method 2
TofindRenk of a Matan Echelonform
Method

echelonform all the Zero rows should be at

bottom
ofmatrix
Number Zeros
of before first non
Zero element in a row is less than
number
ofzeroes in next now
Tofind rank of a matrix A g we will concert matrix A
into echelon form by

Step Make an unity

step Now Make all elements of 1st column zero

by
elementary transformation
 Now make an
step unity and using elementary
transformation make all elements 2ndColumn
of
below an equal to Zero
Now repeat process
Step 933gfor ayy and so on

after doing this we will get echelonformof matrixAg

Now rank of matrix is number Nin Zero rows in
of
echelon formof matrix
Note Inabove method wehavedone elementary
rows equaltozero and then we
transformation to make
fendManu of the matrix We can also make columnsequal
tozero and then Hank A Number nonzerocolumns
of
Rank matrix is notelleded
of by elementary
transformation
 of Rank of a Matrix
Properties

1 rank of AT ManhoyA

2 rank of A Number
of linearly IndependentnowHecto
Number
of linearly Independentcolumn
vector
3 rank AB f min rank A g rank BD
4 rank of
diagonalMatrix Number
of nonzero
diagonal elements

5 Nullity of matrix A Number

of columns ga
rank OfA

Hole only Lao Matrix has Zero ranks

 6 rank B E rank A t rank B

UN IT 2 Ends
UNIT 3 System Of Equation

Suppose we have m linear Equations within unknown

All NI t 912 Nz AsnUn by

921Uz t Azz Nc Arn Un b

AnnMn bn
Anzus 1 AnzUu

I A X B
ax
 if B O
Hn v

f B tothew these
then these equations
are equations are non
homogeneous set homogeneous set
equation of of
equation

Case
Of Nonhomogeneous Set Of Equation
Tofind that set linear
given of
is Eq consistent
or not consistent we follow thesesteps

Note Consistent set

ofequation Means havingunique
solution or
infinitelymany Solution
Inconsistent set
of equation means Nosolution
1 Create Augmented matrix
LA B of bb

µ 9h2 an
r Ann bn

2
if rank A rank CA B then Inconsistent
set
of
equation
3
If rank A Ranh A B then
consistent set
y of
equation
since we have n Variable
here we have 2
Cases
if rank A tank A B n then unique solution

if ranh A rank CA B Ln their infinite solutions

So tofind out Solution setof Non homogeneous set
of of
equation
1 Step 1 fend Augmented Matrix LA B
Now Convert augmented matrix into
echelonform and
fend Mannof A and
rank of
ft B if they are same then
system is consistent
else not
Step 2
If system is consistent then f rank ca
Man h A B n then use echelon
fan
of CA B matrix tofend result
and
if ManuCA Mann CA B Cn
then
Example 2Mt 3kt Us is
211 t 2 2 13 3 6
3X t Xz t 2 3 8

I 11 tl 1
b
I f
ca
Tisane L
CA B
L I sg
Thus ran
rana B 3
 test
18ns 5 Ns 5 18
Nz 5h3 3 Mr 29 18
U t 2kt 3 3 G Us 35 18
Remember
Suppose we have M equations and n Variables
then we can have
if m n
Inconsistency g InfiniteSolution9 Uniquesolution
thus all 3 Casesare possible
men then
ifpossible wecan have
only 2 Cases
Infinite solution or noSolution
There is method to Solution
one more
find of
non

homogeneous set of linear equation

The equation is Ax B
We now write A LU where Lts lower triangularMata
is upper triangular
Yatai
Now there are 2options

it to
t
fe.io
131 l 32
foin I
O O

a
I O O Uss
ate 131 lutz
Now tofind Valuesof all Variables we will
use this equation

A LO g as we know A we can2in'd

all variables in Land U

Now since
AX B
Lux B Let UX Y
Ly B Now fend Y and then
using Y we can find X
exempt 2n 13ft2 9

in
f EH
owl t.ie ll d
iii iii
I fi
O

131011
a
13142 throw 131013
a

luck 1U

Ui L 012 3 013 1
121 42 Un 112 Urs 51
131 1 132 7 18
 t
G and a
LEE's

Now Al B LUX B

detox Y LY B

e sii.HH
y _g g yr 3h g Yz 5
iowux
u.EE IlEH III p
 Case set
of Homogeneous of Equations
Here AX O a Bmatrix O
So augmented matrix B
Ag
thus rank A B ranh A thus homogeneous set
ofequation is always Consistent

Here then there will be

if rank A n
only one

solution I e all Zeroes O g this is called

trivial solution
 Note A is nxn matrix then rank
if n means
IAI g thus
when IAI o their trivial
Solution and if IAKO then nontrivial soliton

Here A an then there will be

if rank infinite
solutions Nontrivial solution
Note Here only Mank AD will benumber
of
linearly Independent solutions

UNIT 3 ends
UNITI Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
eigenvalues exist only for square matrix let A is
a square matrix then
eigenvalues d are those
Valve d for which
of

I A XII o ie determinant
IA DI fo
here does variable V
r

Note This solving this we will

Polynomial is get polynomial eq and roots of that
alsocalled eq are eegen Values of A matrix
characteristiceq Remember f A and B are 2 matrix
same order then matrix
of
AB and BA will
ofthe matrix have same characteristic
Properties
of eigenvalues
1 Type of Matrix c property ofeigenvalue
Real Real or inconjugalePains

Real symmetric Real

Real skew symmetric
Imaginary or 0
Hermitian Real
skew Hermitian 0 or
imaginary
Orthogonal
eigenvalues have unit modulus
Idempotent either 0 or I
Involuntary either sort

unitary eigenvalues have unit Modulus

2 If Agen ValvesOf A one dzgdr.dz dw
then eigenvaluesof
t
A du
a
Iggy
AT es DI de dy Aw

KA Kds king Kdw

m m m m
A es de g du g du

CA KI As kg drug dn k

3 Product OfAgen Values ofmatrix is equal to determinant

of that matrix
4 Sunof eigen Values of matrix is equal to trace
of
that matrix
Note Suppose characteristic eq is
a43 t b Y t Cf t d 0

then Sum agen Values

of Ya
product ofAgen values d
la
Generally if coefficientof d is 1

product of eigenvalues
CDn Constant term
sum of agen values C D
coefficientofJ
5 Eigen values diagonal Matrix uppertriangular
of
matrix and lower triangular Matrix is equal to
elements
of diagonal
Now lets holy at eigenvectors

let A is then eegen

a matrix of order nxn

Hector X of order nxs is Such that it

Satisfy this equation
AX d x does eigenvalue
CA J IJ X D Here X Should be a nonzero column
Matrix and it is called eigenvector
correspondingto eigenvalue
Process to
find eigenvector ofa Matty

first of all fend agen Values

ofthematrix let
they are 41 he In

Now eigenvector corresponding10

eigenvaluedes
will be such that it satisfies
A de XI 0 or Axs Is Xs
X1 is column Matrix which is nonzero
Note if X B a non Zero solutionthen K X is also a solution
where he is will be infinite
anyconstant g Sothere
solutions

if neigen Valves of nxn matrix A are distinct them A

will
have in distinct a
linearly independent eigenvectors
LinearIndependent meansthatthese nVectors
cannot bewritten as
Xj cXco or Xj Cdi tax n

Agen Hector of A A g KA g At g adj A are

same
Suppose nxne
matrix A has allergen values equalto
their number
of independent or distinct
agein vector is equal to n rank
of CA AI
Nowlets look at Similar Matrix and Diagonalisation

Aand Ba're two Matney sameorder

B
of theyare Similar
if canbe written as Nole
Twosimilar Matrix
B pt have same
agen values

Remember Pshould be non singular matrix

If A is Similarto B then Be's alsosimilartoA
IfA is Similar to B and B is Similarto C them
A is also similar to C

Suppose De's a diagonal matrix matrix A is called

diagonalisable if Itis similar to adiagonal
matrix
A P IDP
 If A is 3 3 matrix with Agen Valve
91gdigXz and
eigenvectors Xs g Xu Xz them
Here PEs modal matrix g D Xs X2 and
3

D is diagonal matrix g D

Nole A matrix of order nxne is deagonalisable only

if
it has n distinct on
linearly independent agen
Vectors otherwise A is
not dragonalisable
So it is
necessary to have n linearly independent
eigenvectors for A to be
diagonalsable
But it is only sufficient not
in different necessary to have
eigenvalues
Also An P LDnp
Nowlets look Cayley Hamilton theorem

matrix satisfiesits
every square own characteristic
equation

suppose
A DII o aged 1921 t 90 0

Characteristic eg
V
fo in characteristic
J Then Matrix A will also satisfythis
eq we replacedby equation
A then alsothe eq is Thus we can
say that
Valid 1
AsAnya An 90 0
 exatmple

A
IT
ATI o
151 u I E Da D z o

Ch eq is d gd 117 0
Now Caylay Hamilton theorem States that

Al GA 1171 0

A GA HI

using this we can easilyfind A3g A4g As and other

higher power of A interns A and I
of
 wecan alsofind A it in terms
of A and I
as A 9A 1171 0
A GI 117A 2 0

At
9I
Unit 4 Ends
Unit 5 Vector Space

an ordered set N numbers is called n Hector

of
these numbers which are called components avecto
n
of
Canbe written in a horizontal or in a vertical
line
Let Xz Hector I 5 3 7 or Xsvector
Ypg

Suppose we have 4 Vectors XI Xi Xs so now

we can create a whole matrix with 3 rows each
row
corresponding to a vector
Let Xs I 5 3,7 Xi 2,7 I I X5 1447

A
LIE f
or we can create a
3
matrix B with XI
mm
B
Yz
linearly dependent and linearly independent set of
Hector
Let us have rvectors Xs Xc Xz Xr
they all are linearly independent
ofeach other
If KI XI t Kuk t 63 3 Kriz D

here KI g ki g les ler are constant Values

has one Solution trivial solution
only
K O g k _O g kg 0 ter 0

Let Xs axe
L E a X
L
To solve K X t Ku Xu t 43 3 0

write A a L 93
we can
o

For trivial Solution we need rank

of matrix
Should be 3 Or IAHO
So rank
of matrix A Createdby
should
Vectors as
now on column be equal to number
of
Vectors then Vectors are
Linearly independent
So to find that given set of vector are
linearly
independent or not let there are n Vectors

Then
first of all create a matrix A with
vectors as column or row

Now calculate rank A ten

of
11

if r n then tall vectors are distinct and are

linearly
independent

ran them all Vectors are not distinct

if are not linear
independenta leather r Vectors
only are
Independent
linearly
 Hector with
linen n elements

Whatis n Hector space a set

of all possible Vectors with
n elements thus this set will have
symbol Un F
infinite Vectors

Subspace ofan N Vector space in any nonempty sets q

Vectors
of VnCf is called subspace of1464 if
Xzand Xz are memberof S then X ith shouldals
bemember
of S
if X is a member
of S then K X is alsomember

ops
that is Su Se's subspace VnCF it is closed wat
 addition and multiplication with scalar

Note Zero Hector isalways member

ofS
a
Now Suppose a subspace Ses
givento us then
I
Subspace spanned by a set
of vectors
let us assume that a set Hector is
of givento us
then set of vectors which can becreated
from
linear combination vectors in given set
of
Basis of a subspace
A set
of vector is called basisof subspace 9g
Subspace is spanned by the set and the set is
 linearly independent
Nole Set ntt Vector of Vn is always linearly
of
independent
every Set of Hector has a Basis
Connection between Rank and span

X g Xu X n then
Suppose we have n vectors
if
matrix A with rows or
land equalto Vectorg let

rank gthen
of matrix A is if
r

1 U n then Set of Vector span spaceRn

2 if men then Set Vector
of span subspace Rn
 I
orthogonutyof vectors
Two Vectors Xz and Xz are orthogonal
if
XI Xu 0 dot product OfVectors
also XIX O here these are columnvector

Three Vectors XI K X are orthogonal it means

they are
pain wise orthogonal g that is
XI 1 2 0 g X EXs O g XIX D
If we have n Vectors and
they are orthogonal
then they are
linearly independent also theyform
basis for Rn
The Set Vectors is called
orthonormal if they are
of
orthogonal and the Vectors are unit length
of
lengthof Vector means
let X vector a b c

11 11 length
jab a
1