CONCEPT OF AREA OF CONVERGENCE

Submitted to :Nitin Sir Submitted by :SudeepParmar

( Department of ECE ) Section : E6912

ID : 10907092

Roll No : A19

Sub Code :ECE 209

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project is a welcome and challenging experience for us as it took a great deal of hard
work and dedication for its successful completion. It’s our pleasure to take this opportunity to
thank all those who help us directly or indirectly in preparation of this report.I hereby submit
my term paper given to me by my teacher of the subject ‘ECE - 209’ namely ‘Mr.Nitin’. . I
have prepared this term paper under the guidance of my subject teacher. I would thank my
class teacher, my subject teacher and my friends who have helped me to complete the term
paper. I am also highly thankful to all the staff and executives of the esteemed university
namely ‘lovely professional university, Phagwara.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. Modes of convergence
3. Properties of convergence
4. Theorems and notions about convergence
5. Generalizations and applications
6. Computing and technology
7. Convergence of Fourier series
8. Preliminaries
9. Magnitude of Fourier Coefficients
10. Pointwise convergence
11. Uniform Convergence
12. Absolute convergence
13. Norm convergence
14. Convergence almost everywhere
15. References
Convergence
INTRODUCTION
Convergence is the approach toward a definite value, a definite point, a common view or
opinion, or toward a fixed or equilibrium state. In mathematics, it describes limitingbehavior,
particularly of an infinite sequence or series. Convergence, convergent, or converge may
refer to:

Modes of convergence
• Absolute convergence pertains to whether the absolute value of the limit of a series or
integral is finite.
• Uniform convergence, a pointwise convergence where the speed of convergence is
independent of any value in the domain
• Pointwise convergence, the convergence of functions' values at each specific input
individually

Properties of convergence
• Rate of convergence, the "speed" at which a convergent sequence approaches its limit
• Radius of convergence, a non-negative quantity that represents a domain interval over
which a power series converges

Theorems and notions about convergence

• Convergence of random variables, any one of several notions of convergence in
probability theory
• Gromov–Hausdorff convergence pertains to metric spaces and is a generalization of
Hausdorff distance
• Dominated convergence theorem, a theorem by Henri Lebesgue
• Monotone convergence theorem, any one of several such theorems defined over a
monotone sequence of numbers

Generalizations and applications

• Convergence of Fourier series pertains to whether the Fourier series of a periodic
function converges
 • Net (mathematics), or "convergent net", a generalization of a convergent sequence
• Filter (mathematics), or "convergent filter", a generalization of a convergent net
• Convergence of a numerical method, for solving differential equations
• Integral test for convergence , a technique used to test infinite series of nonnegative
terms for convergence

Computing and technology

• Convergence (telecommunications), the combination of multiple services through
lines of telecommunication from a single provider
• Convergence (routing protocol), the updating of routers' topography information
using dynamic protocols
• Converge (programming language)
• Convergence (evolutionary computing), a means of modeling the tendency for genetic
characteristics of populations to stabilize over time
• Premature convergence, an anomaly in evolutionary computation in which the
population evolved to some stable yet sub-optimal state
• Technological convergence, a trend where some technologies having distinct
functionalities evolve to technologies that overlap.

Convergence of Fourier series

In mathematics, the question of whether the Fourier series of a periodic functionconverges

to the given function is researched by a field known as classic harmonic analysis, a branch
of pure mathematics. Convergence is not necessarily a given in the general case, and there are
criteria which need to be met in order for convergence to occur.

Determination of convergence requires the comprehension of pointwise convergence,

uniform convergence, absolute convergence, Lp spaces, summability methods and the Cesàro
mean.

Preliminaries
Consider ƒ an integrable function on the interval [0,2π]. For such anƒ the Fourier
coefficients are defined by the formula

It is common to describe the connection between ƒ and its Fourier series by

The notation ~ here means that the sum represents the function in some sense. In order to
investigate this more carefully, the partial sums need to be defined:

The question we will be interested in is: do the functions SN(f) (which are functions of the
variable t we omitted in the notation) converge to ƒ and in which sense? Are there conditions
on ƒ ensuring this or that type of convergence? This is the main problem discussed in this
article.

Before continuing the Dirichlet's kernel needs to be introduced. Taking the formula for
, inserting it into the formula for SN and doing some algebra will give that

where∗ stands for the periodic convolution and DN is the Dirichlet kernel which has an
explicit formula,

The Dirichlet kernel is not a positive kernel, and in fact, its norm diverges, namely

a fact that will play a crucial role in the discussion. The norm of Dn in L1(T) coincides with
the norm of the convolution operator with Dn, acting on the space C(T) of periodic
continuous functions, or with the norm of the linear functional ƒ → (Snƒ)(0) on C(T). Hence,
this family of linear functionals on C(T) is unbounded, when n → ∞.

Magnitude of Fourier Coefficients

In applications, it is often useful to know the size of the Fourier coefficient.

If f is an absolutely continuous function,

forK a constant that only depends on f.

If f is a bounded variation function,

If

If and f(p) has modulus of continuityωp,

and therefore, if f is in the α-Hölder class

Pointwise convergence

Superposition of sinusoidal wave basis functions (bottom) to form a sawtooth wave (top); the
basis functions have wavelengths λ/k (k=integer) shorter than the wavelength λ of the
sawtooth itself (except for k=1). All basis functions have nodes at the nodes of the sawtooth,
but all but the fundamental have additional nodes. The oscillation about the sawtooth is called
the Gibbs phenomenon

There are many known sufficient conditions for the Fourier series of a function to converge at
a given point x, for example if the function is differentiable at x. Even a jump discontinuity
does not pose a problem: if the function has left and right derivatives at x, then the Fourier
series will converge to the average of the left and right limits (but see Gibbs phenomenon).

The Dirichlet–Dini Criterion states that: if ƒ is 2π–periodic, locally integrable and satisfies

then (Snƒ)(x0) converges to ℓ. This implies that for any function ƒ of any Hölder classα > 0,
the Fourier series converges everywhere to ƒ(x).

It is also known that for any function of bounded variation, the Fourier series converges
everywhere. See also Dini test.

However, the Fourier series of a continuous function need not converge pointwise. Perhaps
the easiest proof uses the non-boundedness of Dirichlet's kernel in L1(T) and the Banach–
Steinhausuniform boundedness principle. As typical for existence arguments invoking the
Baire category theorem, this proof is nonconstructive. It shows that the family of continuous
functions whose Fourier series converges at a given x is of first Baire category, in the Banach
space of continuous functions on the circle. So in some sense pointwise convergence is
atypical, and for most continuous functions the Fourier series does not converge at a given
point. However Carleson's theorem shows that for a given continuous function the Fourier
series converges almost anywhere.

Uniform Convergence
Suppose , and f(p) has modulus of continuity ω (we assume here that ω is also non
decreasing), then the partial sum of the Fourier series converges to the function with the
following speed

for a constant K that does not depend upon f, nor p, nor N.

This theorem, first proved by D Jackson, tells, for example, that if f satisfies the α-Hölder
condition, then

Absolute convergence
A function ƒ has an absolutely converging Fourier series if
Obviously, if this condition holds then (SNf)(t) converges absolutely for every t and on the
other hand, it is enough that (SNf)(t) converges absolutely for even one t, then this condition
will hold. In other words, for absolute convergence there is no issue of where the sum
converges absolutely — if it converges absolutely at one point then it does it everywhere.

The family of all functions with absolutely converging Fourier series is a Banach algebra (the
operation of multiplication in the algebra is a simple multiplication of functions). It is called
the Wiener algebra, after Norbert Wiener, who proved that if ƒ has absolutely converging
Fourier series and is never zero, then 1/ƒ has absolutely converging Fourier series. The
original proof of Wiener's theorem was difficult; a simplification using the theory of Banach
algebras was given by Israel Gelfand. Finally, a short elementary proof was given by Donald
J. Newman in 1975.

If f belongs to a α-Hölder class for α > ½ then

for the constant in the Hölder condition, cα a constant only dependent on α; is

the norm of the Krein algebra. Notice that the ½ here is essential — there are ½-Hölder
functions which do not belong to the Wiener algebra. Besides, this theorem cannot improve
the best known bound on the size of the Fourier coefficient of a α-Hölder function - that is
only O(1 / nα) and then not summable!

If ƒ is of bounded variationand belongs to a α-Hölder class for some α > 0, it belongs to the
Wiener algebra.

Norm convergence
The simplest case is that of L2, which is a direct transcription of general Hilbert space results.
According to the Riesz–Fischer theorem, if ƒ is square-integrable then

i.e.,  SNf converges to ƒ in the norm of L2. It is easy to see that the converse is also true: if the
limit above is zero, ƒ must be in L2. So this is an if and only if condition.

If 2 in the exponents above is replaced with some p, the question becomes much harder. It
turns out that the convergence still holds if 1 <p < ∞. In other words, for ƒ in Lp,  SN(f)
converges to ƒ in the Lp norm. The original proof uses properties of holomorphic functions
and Hardy spaces, and another proof, due to Salomon Bochner relies upon the Riesz–Thorin
interpolation theorem. For p = 1 and infinity, the result is not true. The construction of an
example of divergence in L1 was first done by Andrey Kolmogorov (see below). For infinity,
the result is a more or less trivial corollary of the uniform boundedness principle.
If the partial summation operator SN is replaced by a suitable summability kernel (for example
the Fejér sum obtained by convolution with the Fejér kernel), basic functional analytic
techniques can be applied to show that norm convergence holds for 1 ≤ p < ∞.

Convergence almost everywhere

The problem whether the Fourier series of any continuous function converges almost
everywhere was posed by Nikolai Lusin in the 1920s and remained open until finally
resolved positively in 1966 by LennartCarleson. Indeed, Carleson showed that the Fourier
expansion of any function in L2 converges almost everywhere. This result is now known as
Carleson's theorem. Later on Richard Hunt generalized this to Lp for any p > 1. Despite a
number of attempts at simplifying the proof, it is still one of the most difficult results in
analysis.

Contrariwise, Andrey Kolmogorov, in his very first paper published when he was 21,
constructed an example of a function in L1whose Fourier series diverges almost everywhere
(later improved to divergence everywhere).

It might be interesting to note that Jean-Pierre Kahane and Yitzhak Katznelson proved that
for any given set E of measure zero, there exists a continuous function ƒ such that the Fourier
series of ƒ fails to converge on any point of E.
References

• Wikipedia.org
• Physicstoday.org
• Higher engineering mathematics
• Text book of signal and systems