KENYA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT

DCM 220

WORK BASED ASSIGNMENT

SUBMITTED BY:

WALTER BARONGO NYANDORO

KIM/64099/18

MARCH, 2019
Motivation
Refers to Internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually
interested and committed to a job, role or subject, or to make an effort to attain a goal.
Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors such as the
(1) intensity of desire or need,
(2) incentive or reward value of the goal, and
(3) expectations of the individual and of his or her peers.
These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain way. An example is a student that spends
extra time studying for a test because he or she wants a better grade in the class.

Process Theories
These are psychological and behavioral processes that motivate a person to act in a particular way. In
essence, these theories examine how a person's needs will affect his behavior in order to achieve a goal
related to those needs. These theories are typically used in a workplace context and there are several
theories that examine how employees within an organization can be motivated.
The Expectancy Theory
According to Yale business professor Victor Vroom, motivation is the result of conscious choices
we make that will either maximize pleasure or minimize pain. Vroom theorized that even though
the goals of individuals may differ, they can be motivated to act together toward a common goal
if certain circumstances are put in place.
The Equity Theory
In 1962, behavioral psychologist John Stacey Adams developed his equity theory of motivation.
Adam's theory posits that employees are motivated by fair treatment, which will in turn motivate
them to treat fairly others within the workplace.
The Goal-Setting Theory
Edwin Locke's goal-setting theory states that the setting of goals is linked to performance.
Specific, challenging goals and valid feedback will contribute to better performance. The clearer
the goals, states Locke, the better the performance. Goals should be realistic and challenging,
which will allow the employee to feel a sense of triumph when the task is successfully completed.
In theory, the confidence gained from achieving one goal will be transferred to a person's
performance in attaining her next goal.
The Reinforcement Theory
An outgrowth of the behavior theories of psychologist B.F. Skinner, the reinforcement theory
considers that behavior is shaped by controlling the consequences of that behavior. Any form of
behavior that results in a consequence is called an operant behavior. Reinforcement theory
focuses on the relationship between operant behavior and its consequences. In essence,
reinforcement theory states that behavior that results in a positive outcome will usually be
repeated, while behavior with a negative outcome will not.
Needs Theory of Motivation
Needs theories attempt to identify internal factors that motivate an individual's behavior and are based on
the premise that people are motivated by unfulfilled needs. For example, if you were dissatisfied with
living in your parents' basement at age 40, you might go out and find your own apartment. In doing so,
you will fulfill the need for privacy, independence and the ability to bring a date home without having to
explain why you still live with your parents. Needs are psychological or physiological insufficiencies that
provoke some type of behavioral response. The needs a person has can range from weak to strong and can
vary based on environmental factors, time and place.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory
One of the most popular needs theories is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. Maslow
proposed that motivation is the result of a person's attempt at fulfilling five basic needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. According to Maslow, these needs can
create internal pressures that can influence a person's behavior.
Physiological needs are those needs required for human survival such as air, food, water, shelter,
clothing and sleep. As a manager, you can account for physiological needs of your employees by
providing comfortable working conditions, reasonable work hours and the necessary breaks to
use the bathroom and eat and/or drink.
Safety needs include those needs that provide a person with a sense of security and well-being.
Personal security, financial security, good health and protection from accidents, harm and their
adverse effects are all included in safety needs. As a manager, you can account for the safety
needs of your employees by providing safe working conditions, secure compensation (such as a
salary) and job security, which is especially important in a bad economy.
Social needs, also called love and belonging, refer to the need to feel a sense of belonging and
acceptance. Social needs are important to humans so that they do not feel alone, isolated and
depressed. Friendships, family and intimacy all work to fulfill social needs. As a manager, you
can account for the social needs of your employees by making sure each of your employees know
one another, encouraging cooperative teamwork, being an accessible and kind supervisor and
promoting a good work-life balance.
Esteem needs refer to the need for self-esteem and respect, with self-respect being slightly more
important than gaining respect and admiration from others. As a manager, you can account for the
esteem needs of your employees by offering praise and recognition when the employee does well
and offering promotions and additional responsibility to reflect your belief that they are a valued
employee.
Self-actualization needs describe a person's need to reach his or her full potential. The need to
become what one is capable of is something that is highly personal. While I might have the need
to be a good parent, you might have the need to hold an executive-level position within your
organization. Because this need is individualized, as a manager, you can account for this need by
providing challenging work, inviting employees to participate in decision-making and giving
them flexibility and autonomy in their jobs.
Maslow's Triangle
One of the most popular needs theories is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory.
Maslow proposed that motivation is the result of a person's attempt at fulfilling five basic needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. According to Maslow, these needs
can create internal pressures that can influence a person's behavior.
Maslow believed that these needs exist in a hierarchical order. This progression principle
suggests that lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs. The deficit
principle claims that once a need is satisfied, it is no longer a motivator because an individual
will take action only to satisfy unmet needs. If you look at this triangle you can see how
Maslow's needs are organized with basic physiological needs, such as air, food, water and sleep,
at the bottom and the idea of self-actualization, or when a person reaches the full potential in life,
at the top. Again, according to Maslow, before a person can take action to satisfy a need at any
level on this triangle the needs below it must already be satisfied.

Physiological needs are those needs required for human survival such as air, food, water, shelter,
clothing and sleep. As a manager, you can account for physiological needs of your employees by
providing comfortable working conditions, reasonable work hours and the necessary breaks to
use the bathroom and eat and/or drink.
Safety needs include those needs that provide a person with a sense of security and well-being.
Personal security, financial security, good health and protection from accidents, harm and their
adverse effects are all included in safety needs. Managers can account for the safety needs of
employees by providing safe working conditions, secure compensation (such as a salary) and job
security, which is especially important in a bad economy.
Social needs, also called love and belonging, refer to the need to feel a sense of belonging and
acceptance. Social needs are important to humans so that they do not feel alone, isolated and
depressed. Friendships, family and intimacy all work to fulfill social needs. As a manager, you
can account for the social needs of your employees by making sure each of your employees
know one another, encouraging cooperative teamwork, being an accessible and kind supervisor
and promoting a good work-life balance.
Esteem needs refer to the need for self-esteem and respect, with self-respect being slightly more
important than gaining respect and admiration from others. As a manager, you can account for
the esteem needs of your employees by offering praise and recognition when the employee does
well and offering promotions and additional responsibility to reflect your belief that they are a
valued employee.
Self-actualization needs describe a person's need to reach his or her full potential. The need to
become what one is capable of is something that is highly personal. While I might have the need
to be a good parent, you might have the need to hold an executive-level position within your
organization. Because this need is individualized, as a manager, you can account for this need by
providing challenging work, inviting employees to participate in decision-making and giving
them flexibility and autonomy in their jobs.

Herzbergs Two Factor Theory

This theory, also called the Motivation-Hygiene Theory or the dual-factor theory, was penned
by Frederick Herzberg (1959). He developed the theory that people’s job satisfaction depends on
two kinds of factors. Factors for satisfaction (motivators/satisfiers) and factors
for dissatisfaction (hygiene factors/ dissatisfiers).
Performance, recognition, job status, responsibility and opportunities for growth all fall
under motivators/ satisfiers.
Hygiene factors/dissatisfiers are about salary, secondary working conditions, the relationship
with colleagues, physical work place and the relationship between supervisor and employee.
In his theory, Herzberg claims these factors function on the same plane. In other words,
satisfaction and dissatisfaction aren’t polar opposites. Taking away an employee’s dissatisfaction
– for example by offering a higher salary – doesn’t necessarily mean the employee will then be
satisfied. The employee is just no longer dissatisfied.

4 different combinations can exist at work:

 High hygiene and high motivation: This is the ideal situation. Employees are very

motivated and barely have any complaints.

 High hygiene and low motivation: Employees have few complaints, but they’re not

really motivated, they see their work simply as a pay check.

 Low hygiene and high motivation: Employees are motivated, their job is challenging,

but they have complaints about salary or work conditions.

 Low hygiene and low motivation: This is the worst possible situation, employees are

not motivated and have a lot of complaints.

Vroom's expectancy theory
Assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to
maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Victor
Vroom suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not
as simple as was first imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's
performance is based on individuals’ factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience
and abilities.
The theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals, they can be
motivated if they believe that:

 There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,

 Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
 The reward will satisfy an important need,
 The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.
The theory is based upon the following beliefs:

Valence
Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes [rewards]. The
depth of the want of an employee for extrinsic [money, promotion, time-off, benefits] or intrinsic
[satisfaction] rewards). Management must discover what employees’ value.

Expectancy
Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of
doing. Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision employees need.

Instrumentality
The perception of employees as to whether they will actually get what they desire even if it has
been promised by a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled
and that employees are aware of that.
Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence
interact psychologically to create a motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that
bring pleasure and avoid pain.

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor (1960) formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human
behavior at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees): one of
which is negative, called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called as Theory Y. According
to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on various
assumptions.
Assumptions of Theory X
 An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it whenever
possible.
 Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or warned
with punishment so as to achieve organizational goals. A close supervision is required on
part of managers. The managers adopt a more dictatorial style.
 Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no aspiration/ ambition.
 Employees generally dislike responsibilities.
 Employees resist change.
 An average employee needs formal direction.
Assumptions of Theory Y
 Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical
and mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.
 Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to work, but they
can use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the
organizational objectives.
  If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’ loyalty and
commitment to organization.
 An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In fact, he can
even learn to obtain responsibility.
 The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should be fully
utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative potentiality of the
employees can be utilized to solve organizational problems.
Thus, Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees’ nature and behavior at work, while
Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees’ nature and behavior at work. If correlate
it with Maslow’s theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the assumption that the
employees emphasize on the physiological needs and the safety needs; while Theory X is based
on the assumption that the social needs, esteem needs and the self-actualization needs dominate
the employees.
Therefore, Theory Y is more valid and reasonable than Theory X and it encourages cordial team
relations, responsible and stimulating jobs, and participation of all in decision-making process.

Implications of Theory X and Theory Y

Quite a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X encourages use of tight control and
supervision. It implies that employees are reluctant to organizational changes. Thus, it does not
encourage innovation.
Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y implies that the managers should
create and encourage a work environment which provides opportunities to employees to take
initiative and self-direction. Employees should be given opportunities to contribute to
organizational well-being. Theory Y encourages decentralization of authority, teamwork and
participative decision making in an organization. Theory Y searches and discovers the ways in
which an employee can make significant contributions in an organization. It harmonizes and
matches employees’ needs and aspirations with organizational needs and aspirations.
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