Fuel 89 (2010) 992–996

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Fuel
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Factors affecting the suitability of fly ash as source material for geopolymers

E.I. Diaz a,1, E.N. Allouche b,*, S. Eklund c,2
a
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Science, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA, USA
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272-0046, USA
c
Department of Chemistry, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The suitability of fly ash stock piles for geopolymer manufacturing was studied. The results of chemical
Received 12 March 2009 analyses, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and particle size distribution (PSD) of five sources of fly ash obtained
Received in revised form 12 August 2009 from coal-fired power generating plants in the US are presented. Geopolymer paste and concrete speci-
Accepted 14 September 2009
mens were prepared from each stock pile. The specimens were subjected to an array of chemical and
Available online 30 September 2009
mechanical tests including XRD, RAMAN spectroscopy, setting time and compressive strength. A correla-
tion study was undertaken comparing the fly ash precursor chemical and crystallographic compositions
Keyword:
as well as particle size distribution, with the mechanical and chemical characteristics of the resulting geo-
Fly ash
Geopolymer
polymer. Factors inherent to the fly ash stockpile such as particle size distribution, degree of vitrification
Characterization and location of the glass diffraction maximum were found to play an important role in the fresh and hard-
ened properties of the resulting geopolymer.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and construction communities. This study is aimed at gaining bet-

According to a survey released by the American Coal Ash Asso-
ciation (ACAA) [1], the US produced approximately 71.7 million
tons of fly ash in 2006 as a by-product of coal combustion for en-
ergy production. Only 31 of the 71.7 million tons of fly ash were re-
used in various applications, with the balance disposed in landfills
and storage lagoons at significant cost, posing potential risk to local
aquifers due to possible leaching of heavy metals. The develop-
ment of geopolymer concrete technology could contribute to
reducing CO2 emissions with no economic sacrifices, while at the
same time converting a potentially hazardous by-product to a
valuable construction material. An added benefit is the conserva-
tion of landfill space and reduced requirements for storage lagoons,
such as the one that failed in Kingston, Tennessee on Dec. 22, 2008.
Also, many operators of coal-burning operations are interested in
converting their fly ash waste streams into a revenue generating
commodity.
However, variations in the combustion process and inconsistent
chemical composition of coal sources result in variability in the
chemical and physical characteristics of the resulting fly ash. These
variations could impact the properties of fresh and hardened geo-
polymer, hindering its acceptance by the civil engineering design
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +1 318 257 2852.
E-mail addresses: eid002@latech.edu (E.I. Diaz), allouche@latech.edu (E.N.
Allouche), seklund@latech.edu (S. Eklund).
1
Tel.: +1 318 257 4072; fax: +1 318 257 2777.
2
Tel.: +1 318 257 4214; fax: +1 318 257 5104.
ter understanding of fly ash as geopolymer precursor by analyzing
several fly ashes with distinct characteristics and correlating those
characteristics with the properties of the resulting geopolymers.
Establishing a relationship between the physical, chemical and
crystallographic characteristics of the fly ash and the mechanical
properties of the resulting geopolymer is an important step to-
wards producing large quantities of geopolymer concrete with rea-
sonably consistent and predictive engineering properties.
1.1. Background
Several authors have reported the formation of a strong binder
by combining a source material rich in silica and alumina, such as
certain clays and fly ashes, with a highly alkaline solution and sol-
uble silicates (in most cases) under slightly elevated temperature
[2–5]. These binders have been named alkaline activated cements
(AAC) or geopolymers [3,5]. While researchers still debate the reac-
tion mechanism taking place during geopolymerization, many
agree the reaction can be divided into three main stages: (1) Disso-
lution of species from the source material; (2) Transportation of
species, coagulation/gelation; and, (3) Condensation forming a 3
dimensional network of silico-aluminates [6–8]. This 3D network
that binds geopolymer together gives it a set of mechanical and
chemical properties that are equivalent, or even superior to those
of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete. Enhanced properties
include elevated acid and sulphate resistance, low shrinkage, supe-
rior fire resistance, high rate of strength gain and high compressive
and flexural strengths [9].

0016-2361/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2009.09.012
 E.I. Diaz et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 992–996 993

The suitability of geopolymers manufactured from silica and
alumina-rich materials, such as certain clays and fly ashes, has
been studied by several investigators around the world [10–17].
The amount of analytical calcium oxide contained in the fly ash
precursor was found to have significant impact on the resulting
geopolymer hardened paste, forming hydrated products such as
calcium silicate hydrates (CSH), along with the silico-aluminate
geopolymer network [18–21]. A significant percentage of the coal
reserves in the US produce fly ash that contain considerable
amounts of calcium that would be expected to affect geopolymer
formation. Although fly ash with relatively low analytical calcium
content is usually classified as type F according to ASTM C-618
[22], it can still have a considerable impact on the resulting geo-
polymer products; thus, it was considered important to include
fly ashes with different calcium contents in this study.
mixing sequence was chosen to promote the first phase of geopo-
lymerization (dissolution of silicate and aluminate species). The
mixing was carried out as follows: (1) fly ash and NaOH solution
were mixed for 30 s; (2) sodium silicate was added and mixed
for 30 s; (3) sand was added and mixed for 60 s; (4) gravel was
added and mixed for an extra 120 s. Due to BY’s short setting time,
mixing times were shortened somewhat to allow casting and form-
ing of the specimens. The samples were poured into 75  150 mm
cylinders and their compressive strength was determined follow-
ing ASTM C-39 [24]. Setting time measurements of fresh geopoly-
mer paste were taken using a standard Vicat needle. All samples
were cured for 3 days at 60 °C prior to been taken out of the oven
and let to cool down at room temperature for 24 h prior to testing.
3. Results

2. Materials and methods 3.1. Fly ash chemical composition

This paper presents the analysis of two class F fly ash stockpiles The chemical composition of the fly ash samples is summarized
and three class C obtained from power plants around the US as po- in Table 1. The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio ranges between 1.92 and 2.93 and
tential source material for geopolymer concrete. Chemical, XRD the silica plus alumina content ranges from 56.90% to 83.68%, with
and particle size distribution (PSD) analyses were performed on BY having the lowest concentration and OH the highest. These are
the fly ash samples. Geopolymer paste was analyzed using XRD the basic ingredients of the geopolymeric reaction and they are
and Raman spectroscopy. In addition, setting time and compres- within the range of values reported by others [3,5]. CaO, in the case
sive strength tests were performed on geopolymer concrete of BY, MO and ML, is the third most abundant oxide in the fly ash
specimens. samples ranging from 12.93% to 22.45%. Smaller amounts were
Four of the five fly ash samples were collected from lignite-fired found for OH and DH (1.97% and 5.00%, respectively). Calcium con-
power plants located in the Louisiana – eastern Texas area. The tent has been reported to have significant influence on the proper-
class F fly ash obtained from Dollet Hills Power Generating Station ties of the fresh mixture as well as the properties of the final
(PGS) in Mansfield, Louisiana is designated herein as DH; the class hardened product [12,13]. Fe2O3 is the fourth most important com-
C fly ash from Monticello PGS in Mount Pleasant, Texas as MO; the pound ranging from 4.52%, in the case of MO, to 9.43% in the case of
class C fly ash from Martin Lake PGS in Tatum, Texas as ML, and the DH. Loss on ignition (LOI) for the BY, MO, DH and ML samples was
class C recovered from Rodemacher PGS in Boyce, Louisiana, is re- below 0.50%, while a value of 1.82% was found in the case of OH.
ferred to as BY. An additional class F fly ash sample (OH) was col- LOI is a critical factor when assessing the geopolymerization po-
lected from a bituminous coal-burning PGS in Avon Lake, Ohio. tential for a given fly ash. Unburned carbon absorbs the activator
Chemical analysis of the fly ash stockpiles was performed via X- solution, and thus obtaining a workable mixture requires a volume
ray Fluorescence (XRF) following ASTM D-4326 [23]. PSD analysis of activator solution well beyond that needed to merely activate
was conducted using a Microtrac S3500 laser-based equipment the source material. This results in lower mechanical strength
with a measuring range between 0.024 lm and 2816 lm. Samples and higher costs.
were suspended in Isopropyl alcohol and went through the neces-
sary cycles of reading and dispersing using ultrasound, to obtain a 3.2. Fly ash PSD
realistic analysis.
XRD data was obtained using a Bragg–Brentano geometry pow- PSD curves showing cumulative values for the five fly ash sam-
der diffractometer using a copper anode at 40 kV. Data was col- ples are presented in Fig. 1. The BY sample had the greatest per-
lected between 10 and 65° of two theta angle, with a step size of centage of particles passing 45 lm followed by DH, OH, ML and
0.05° and a count time of 5 s per step. Samples were further ana- MO. ML and BY fly ash samples were found to contain a significant
lyzed using Rietveld phase quantification method to determine
the amount of crystalline and amorphous components.
Geopolymer paste samples were also analyzed using Raman Table 1
Chemical composition of fly ash stockpiles.
spectroscopy. Spectra from 200 to 2700 cm 1 were collected on
an R-3000-HR Raman spectrometer from Raman Systems using a BY (%) MO (%) DH (%) ML (%) OH (%)
785 nm diode laser operating at 290 mW through a fiber optic SiO2 37.77 55.61 58.52 48.70 55.07
probe. Al2O3 19.13 19.87 20.61 16.60 28.61
The mix design was chosen based on previous studies from SiO2/Al2O3 1.97 2.80 2.84 2.93 1.92
SiO2 + Al2O3 56.90 75.48 79.13 65.30 83.68
Hardjito and Rangan [2]. However, preliminary tests were carried CaO 22.45 12.93 5.00 18.72 1.97
out to obtain a formulation suitable to withstand changes in the Fe2O3 7.33 4.52 9.43 6.93 6.22
fresh mix behavior caused by the different characteristics that each MgO 4.81 2.49 1.86 3.91 1.08
fly ash exhibit. The activator solution used in the geopolymer con- SO3 1.56 0.49 0.49 0.85 0.19
Na2O 1.80 0.67 0.52 – 0.38
crete specimens was composed of a 14 M NaOH solution and So-
K2O – 0.86 – – 2.63
dium Silicate (45% by weight and SiO2 to Na2O ratio of 2:1) with
Mca 0.12 0.02 0.14 0.12 0.12
a 1:1 ratio. The fly ash to activator solution ratio was adjusted
LOIb 0.17 0.22 0.05 0.49 1.82
depending on the fly ash source to obtain a uniform consistency.
Total 93.05 95.91 96.43 95.71 96.15
Well graded sand and ‘‘pea gravel” (1 cm diameter) acted as fine
and coarse aggregate, respectively. The fly ash to aggregate ratio a
Mc = moisture content.
b
was 1:3 and the coarse to fine aggregate ratio was 1.4. The present LOI = loss on ignition.
994 E.I. Diaz et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 992–996

CaO is typical of a siliceous glass structure (2h values of 22.7°–

27.5°). For fly ash stockpiles with analytical CaO contents above
20% the location of the GDM remains around 32° 2h, a value typical
of calcium aluminate glass structure that is significantly more
reactive with water compared with the siliceous glass structure
[25]. This leads to the formation of calcium silicate hydrate com-
pounds additional to the geopolymerization products, augmenting
the mechanical strength of the hardened matrix.

3.4. Raman spectroscopy analysis

Raman patterns for geopolymer paste are shown in Fig. 3. Broad

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curves.
amount of particles below 1 lm (around 34%). OH, MO and DH
were found to have lower fraction of extra fine particles, however,
this was compensated by a larger fraction of particles ranging from
4 to 20 lm. PSD is among the most important physical properties
impacting the reactivity of fly ash and the resulting geopolymer
product [13]. Because a significant part of the reaction occurs at
the particle–liquid interface, the finer the particles the greater is
the surface area and the more reactive is the fly ash.
Raman shifts can be detected peaking around 355 cm 1 for geo-
polymer pastes prepared using BY, ML, DH and MO fly ash stock-
piles. For geopolymer pastes made with BY and ML ashes an
additional shift can be detected at 1000 cm 1. OH shows no Raman
shifts at 355 cm 1 on the analysis. The formation of calcium
hydroxide can be monitored using Raman spectroscopy due to
hydroxide vibration observed around 355 cm 1 [26]. Raman spec-
troscopy was introduced to this research as a useful method for
detecting calcium activity in geopolymer paste samples and as a
mean of corroborating the calcium content reported by the chem-
ical and XRD analyses.

3.3. XRD analysis 3.5. Setting time and compressive strength

XRD patterns for fly ash and hardened geopolymer paste are
shown in Fig. 2. The samples are mostly composed by a vitreous
phase. Quartz is found in small amounts and in some cases mullite,
merwinite, calcite and traces of other crystalline phases are found
as well. The patterns also show that crystalline phases still remain
after the fly ash activation, although in smaller amounts. Amor-
phous compounds are easier to dissolve than crystalline com-
pounds during the first step of geopolymerization (dissolution of
species), yielding higher amounts of reactive SiO2 and Al2O3 to
combine during the transportation/coagulation phase of the geo-
polymeric reaction, therefore resulting in a higher degree of geopo-
lymerization and consequently higher mechanical strength [13–
15]. Another important crystallographic factor to consider when
working with relatively high calcium fly ash is the location of the
Table 2 summarizes the mechanical properties of the resulting
geopolymer concretes. BY had the shortest setting time with only
1.5 min, followed by ML with 17 min and MO with 25 min. DH
set after 3 h and OH did not set after 5 h at room temperature, thus
a slight increase in temperature was required to kick start the geo-
polymerization reaction. The compressive strength tests also re-
vealed a wide range of performance from 40 MPa (DH) to 80 MPa
(ML). It is worth noting that typical construction applications re-
quire a 28-day compressive strength of 25–40 MPa.
1000
ML
BY
800
MO
Intensity counts

glass diffraction maximum (GDM), the highest point in the broad DH

600
elevation in the X-ray pattern forming a bump instead of a normal OH
sharp peak. Previous studies have shown that the location of the
GDM in fly ash stockpiles containing up to about 20% analytical 400

200
Q
Q Quartz
0
M Mullite 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
W Merwinite
C Calcite Wavenumber (cm-1)
M
M Q M MM MM Fig. 3. Raman spectroscopy patterns for hardened geopolymer paste.
Q Q Q M OHGP
OHFA
Q Q Q Q DHGP
Table 2
W DHFA
Summary of results and factors that influence the compressive strength.
BYGP
C BYFA ML BY MO OH DH
MLGP
MLFA Compressive strength (MPa) 80 60 56 47 40
MOGP Setting time (min) 17 1.5 25 300 180
MOFA CaO 2 1 3 5 4
10 30 40 50 60 Total glass 2 4 1 3 5
20
Particles passing 45 lm 4 1 5 3 2
2 Theta (degrees) Total 8 6 9 11 11

Fig. 2. XRD patterns of fly ash stockpiles and hardened geopolymer paste (suffix FA 1 = Highest content relative to the rest of the fly ashes.
and GP, respectively). 5 = Lowest content relative to the rest of the fly ashes.
 E.I. Diaz et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 992–996 995

4. Discussion 34
Diaz et. al.
32 S. Diamond

GDM Location (degrees)

Although there are several mix design parameters that can be
modified to increase or decrease the mechanical strength of geo-
30
polymer such as NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio and activator solution to fly
ash ratio, there are many others that are inherent to the fly ash pre-
28
cursor and dictate the behavior of the fresh mixture and the resul-
tant mechanical properties of the hardened matrix. The main three
26
factors are the chemical, crystallographic and physical properties
of the fly ash. 24
Although silica and alumina are the main precursors for the
geopolymeric reaction, other factors seem to also play a significant 22
role in the resultant compressive strength. For example, OH has the 0 10 20 30
greatest amount of silica + alumina (83.68%), however it yielded
Analytical CaO (%)
the second lowest compressive strength. BY and ML have the low-
est silica + alumina contents, but exhibited the highest compres- Fig. 5. Correlation between analytical CaO% and the location of the GDM.
sive strengths. This can be attributed to the high CaO content
and high percentage of fine particles below 5 lm. The calcium
activity is corroborated by the RAMAN Spectroscopy analysis. An 90 400
examination of Fig. 3 reveals that BY, ML, MO and DH show a broad 350

Compressive Strength

Setting Time (minutes)

peak at 355 cm 1, characteristic of calcium hydroxide activity 80
300
whereas OH show little disturbance in the spectrum, which corre-
70
lates well with low-calcium content. 250

(MPa)
The location of the GDM for different fly ash stockpiles is shown 60 200
in Fig. 4. For OH, DH, ML, and MO fly ash sources the GDM is char-
150
acteristic of a siliceous glass structure, although allowing some cal- 50
cium silicate glass in the system. Despite migration of the GDM to 100
40
the right as calcium content increases, the structure remains pri- 50
marily siliceous glass. However, the BY stockpile shows a GDM 30 0
indicative of a dominant calcium silicate glass structure which is 0 5 10 15 20 25
more reactive with water and tend to form calcium silicate hy-
Analytical CaO (%)
drated compounds that boost the mechanical strength values of
the resultant geopolymer. Although the analytical CaO content Setting Time Compressive Strength
does not represent all of the CaO in the glass phase (a small amount Fig. 6. Correlation between analytical CaO%, compressive strength and setting time
of calcium is contained in the crystalline phases), there is a strong of geopolymer concrete.
correlation between the analytical CaO content and the location of
the GDM. Fig. 5 shows this correlation, and to support its validity Although increasing CaO content in fly ash appears to have a po-
for other fly ash sources, data reported by Diamond [25] from 16 sitive influence on the compressive strength of the resulting geo-
fly ash stockpiles was also included. The setting time of fly ash- polymer, fly ash stockpiles with analytical CaO content higher
based geopolymer seems to be governed by the type of glass struc- than 20% will exhibit very rapid setting (less than 3 min), thus they
ture prevailing in the fly ash. Given the higher reactivity of calcium are not recommended as source material for geopolymer.
silicate glass with water compared to siliceous glass, it is expected The total amount of glass phase is closely related to the cooling
that as the fraction of calcium silicate glass increases the setting rate of fly ash after the combustion process. Slow cooling rates will
time decreases, and at the same time the compressive strength in- allow higher degree of crystal formation, resulting in less glass
creases. This correlation, presented in terms of analytical CaO con- phase and vice versa. The total glass phase in the fly ash is also a
tent versus setting time and compressive strength is shown in factor affecting geopolymerization since glass phase is easier to
Fig. 6. dissolve by the alkaline activator, therefore releasing more geo-
polymer precursor species into the system. Fig. 7 shows the distri-

23°
Quartz Mullite Other Amorphous
OHFA
100%
24.7°
DHFA 75%
32°
50%
BYFA

27° 25%
MLFA
26.2° 0%
MOFA
P

P
P
A

FA
P
P
FA
FA

G
G
F
G
G

H
Y

H
BY
L
O

H
L
O

O
M

O
M

10 20 30 40
2 Theta (degrees) Sample
Fig. 4. Glass diffraction maximum of fly ash stockpiles. Fig. 7. Total glass phase for fly ash stockpiles and hardened geopolymer paste.
996 E.I. Diaz et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 992–996
bution of glass and crystalline phases in the fly ash and the resul-
tant geopolymer. It can be seen that in all cases the amount of glass
phase is higher in the geopolymer than in its fly ash precursor;
however, the change in glass phase between the fly ash precursor
and the resultant geopolymer paste varies significantly among the
different stockpiles. This could be attributed to the fraction of crys-
talline phases dissolved during the activation process and trans-
formed to amorphous geopolymer.
The relatively high LOI (indicating mainly unburned coal) of OH
stockpile resulted in a more hygroscopic mixture, thus additional
activator solution was needed to obtain the desired consistency.
The lower compressive strength of the OH geopolymer could be
attributed, at least partially, to this factor.
Table 2 presents a summary of the factors, inherent to the fly
ash, that affect the mechanical strength of the resultant geopoly-
mer. Values 1–5 were assigned to the fly ashes for each factor, 1
indicates the highest rank with respect to the value of a particular
factor (e.g. CaO content) compared with those of the fly ashes and 5
the lowest. The ranks of each fly ash precursor for these three cat-
egories were summed to give an overall score. It can be seen that a
correlation exists between the fly ash precursor CaO content, PSD
and percentage of total glass phase, and the compressive strength
of the resulting geopolymer.
5. Conclusions
Factors inherent to the fly ash stockpiles tested during this
investigation that have more pronounced effects on the mechani-
cal strength of the hardened paste and behavior of the fresh mix-
ture are the location of the GDM (which is related to the
analytical CaO content), the total glass phase content in the fly
ash and the particle size distribution. The setting time increases
exponentially as the CaO content decreases below 20%, however
the decrease in CaO was accompanied by a decline in the compres-
sive strength of the resulting geopolymer. Based on the fly ash
stockpiles tested in this work a CaO content range of 5–15% might
be considered desirable for many applications. The data suggest
that the differentiation between classes C and F, as defined by
ASTM C-618 might need to be reviewed and potentially modified
in the context of geopolymers. For geopolymer manufacturing an
upper threshold at 20% of analytical CaO related to the dominant
amorphous phase and setting time, could be said to exist.
The degree of vitrification during cooling of the fly ash plays an
important role in geopolymerization. Fly ash with high content of
glass phase will lead to higher degree of geopolymerization, there-
fore higher compressive strength. The cooling rate of the fly ash
can be controlled at the power plant, thus increasing the suitability
of the fly ash to geopolymerization. Particle size distribution has a
significant impact in the reactivity of fly ash. Higher amount of fine
particles will result in higher surface area, and therefore higher
reactivity, resulting in higher compressive strength. Thus, grinding
of fly ash might be under taken to enhance its suitability to geopo-
lymerization. The utilization of higher combustion temperatures
also supports a finer grain size distribution.
The presence of unburned coal in fly ash, even in relatively
small amounts, will require higher activator solution to fly ash ra-
tio, which results in an adverse effect on the compressive strength
of the hardened geopolymer paste as well as economic disadvan-
tage in the manufacturing of the geopolymer concrete (i.e. activa-
tor solution represents a major cost item in the production of
geopolymer concrete). Similar to PSD, LOI is also a function of
the efficiency of the combustion process.
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