APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE IN POWER
SYSTEMS
 Artificial intelligence
 Artificial intelligence is the branch of Computer
Science concerned with making computer behave
like humans.
 The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
 Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited
by machines.

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 Artificial intelligence
 In Computer Science, an ideal "intelligent" machine is a
flexible rational agent that perceives its environment
and takes actions that maximize its chance of success
at some goal.
 The term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a
machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans
associate with other human minds, such as "learning"
and "problem solving”.

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 Artificial intelligence...
 As machines become increasingly capable, facilities
once thought to require intelligence are removed
from the definition.
 For example, optical character recognition is no
longer perceived as an exemplar of "artificial
intelligence" having become a routine technology.
 Capabilities currently classified as AI include
successfully understanding human speech,
competing at a high level in strategic game systems
(such as Chess ), self-driving cars, and interpreting
complex data.
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 Artificial intelligence...
 The central problems (or goals) of AI research
include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural
language processing (communication), perception and the
ability to move and manipulate objects.
 AI approaches include statistical methods, computational
intelligence, soft computing (e.g. machine learning),
and traditional symbolic AI. Many tools are used in AI,
including versions of search and mathematical
optimization, logic, methods based on probability and
economics.
 The Artificial intelligence field is concerned with computer
science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, ne
uroscience and artificial psychology.
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What is Neural Network?
 Neural network is a system composed of many
simple processing elements, called neurons.
 These neurons operate in parallel and their
function is determined by network structure,
connection strength, and processing performed
at computing elements.
Artificial Neural Network
– A system works on the similar principle as neural
system of living things.
– It is also called parallel distributed processing or
connectionist model.
 Mankind is keen to develop machines which can
perform the difficult task in precise and faster
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way.
• In some case people are faster than machine (?),
however, in most cases computers outperform.
• ANN is promising new generation information
processing network.
• ANN’s ability to perform computations is based on
hope that we can reproduce the flexibility & power
of human brain by artificial means.
• The first simplified model was given by McCulloh &
Pitts in 1943.
• Learning law proposed by Hebb in 1949 gave the
beginning of ANN training algorithms.
• During 1950s, the first neuro-computer was built
and tested by Minsky (1954).
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• The neurons like elements called perceptron was invented
by Frank Rosenblatt in 1959.

• In early 1960s, a device called ADALINE (ADAptive LINEar

combiner) was introduced and a new powerful learning rule
called Widrow-Hoff learning rule was developed.

• Application of ADALINE and MADALINE (Many ADALINE)

which are single layer ANN were used in weather
forecasting, ECG analysis, etc.

• 1970s, ANN got setback when Minsky et al proved that

single layer perceptron models are incapable of solving
simple problems such as function performed by Exclusive
OR gate.
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• Efforts of other researchers in 1970s and 1980s
(Kohonen, Grossberg & Anderson) proposed new
Multi Layer Perceptron model of ANN.

• Now applications of ANN are increasing. There are

nodes (called neurons) and connections.
• Neurons
– Performs as summing and nonlinear mappings
– Operates in parallel
– Configured as regular architecture
– Organized in layers

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Human Brain & Biological Neurons
 Since basic inspiration for ANN comes from the biological
neuron’s model, it will be helpful to have a look at human
brain and biological neural system.
 There are very little knowledge of brain’s overall
functioning but modest emulations have been achieved
that gives good results.
 A human brain consists of approx. 1011 computing
elements called neurons.
 They have 1015 interconnections and transmission path
may range from few millimeter to a meter or more.
 Brain occupies 2% of body mass, consumes 20% of the
body’s oxygen and consumes 20 watt of power.
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Biological Neurons
– Special cell having unique
characteristic of receiving,
processing and transmitting
electro-chemical signals over
neural paths.
– It receives signals by way of
specialized structure called
Synapse.
– Input signal enters the cell
body through dendrites.
– Neurons fires if internal
potential exceed the threshold.
– The output of neuron is passed
to other neurons through axon. Fig.1 Biological Neurons
– Synapse can be excitatory
(most likely) or inhibitory. 11
Artificial Neural Networks

ANN has been developed to mimic

human brain in several ways such
as storage of information, control
of systems etc.
Biological Replaced Artificial
Neurons by Neurons Fig.1 Biological Neurons
Neurons Processing
elements
Dendrites Wires
/ axon
Synapse Weights

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Fig. 2 Artificial Neural Network
Artificial Neural Networks…

 Processing elements or artificial neurons can interact

in many ways.
 The processing elements sum and fire (or give output)
when it exceeds the threshold limit.
 The number and nature of interconnections of
neurons depend on the model or architecture used to
construct the ANN.

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Characteristics of Artificial Neural Networks
 ANN for computation are not programmed in the conventional
sense, rather they learn to solve problem through
interconnections with environment.
 Very little computation is carried out at the site of individual
neuron (node).
 There is no explicit memory or processing locations in neural
network but are implicit in the connections between neurons.
 Not all the sources of input feeding a neuron are of equal
importance.
 It all depends on weight which can be negative or positive.
 Inputs arriving at a neuron are transformed according to
neuron’s activation function.

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Characteristics of Artificial Neural Networks…

 Normally sigmoidal function (nonlinear and continuous) is

used.
 With linear function, the advantage of having multiple layers
are lost.
 ANN with suitable representation can model any degree of
non-linearity and thus are useful in solving the non-linear
problems.
 ANN does not require any apriori knowledge of system model.
 ANNs are used where statistical character is involved like
load forecasting, weather forecasting, and large computation
is involved like contingency analysis
 ANNs are capable of handling situations of incomplete
information, corrupt data and they are fault tolerant.
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 How Neural Networks Learn?

 Artificial neural networks are composed of interconnected

“neurons”.
 The function of the synapse is modeled by a modifiable
weight, which is associated with each connection.
 Each neuron converts the pattern of incoming activities into
a single outgoing activity that it fans out to other neurons. It
performs this conversion in two stages:
• It multiplies each incoming activity by the weight on the
connection and adds together all these weighted inputs to
get a quantity called the net input.
• A neuron uses an input-output function (activation
function) that transforms the total input into the outgoing
activity.
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Activation Function
 The behaviour of an ANN (Artificial Neural Network)
depends on both the weights and the input-output function
(transfer function) that is specified for the neurons.
 The activation function transforms neuron’s input into
output.
 It prevents accelerating growth of activation levels through
the network.
 The transfer function typically falls into one of three
categories:
• Linear
• Threshold
• Sigmoid

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 Activation Function…
 In Linear activation function, the output is
proportional to the total weighted output.
 In Threshold activation function, the output is set
at one of two levels, depending on whether the total
input is greater than or less than some threshold
value.

Fig. 3 Linear activation function Fig. 4 Threshold activation function

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Activation Function…
 In sigmoid activation function, the output varies
continuously but not linearly as the input changes.
 Other activation functions are step, ramp and Gaussian
function.

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Classification of ANN
 ANNs can be classified in several ways
a) Based on the layer of ANN
– Single Layer ANN
• Perceptron Model (suggested by Rosenblat, 1959)
• ADALINE (by Widrow & Hoff, 1960)
– Multi-Layer ANN
b) Based on the Neuron interactions
– Feed forward NN
– Feed Backward NN

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c) Based on the learning
– Supervised Learning
– Unsupervised Learning
– Reinforcement Learning
d) Based on the Neuron structures
– Multilayer perceptron model
– Boltzman machine
– Cauchy Machine
– Kohonen self-organising maps
– Bidirectional associatable memories
– Adaptive resonance Theory-I (ART-1)
– Adaptive resonance Theory-2 (ART-2)
– Counter propagation ANN
e) Special ANN
– Parallel self-organizing hierarchical NN
– Radial Basis function NN
– Knowledge based NN
– Hybrid NN
– Support Vector Machine 21
 Perceptron Model
 It may consists of one or more neurons, each of which is
connected with a weighing factor to all the inputs.

x1 x1
ω1
y1
x2
ω2 y .
.
x2 x3
θ= ω0 . ym
.
.
+1= x0 .
Bias function xn

 The output is formed by the activation function (linear or non-

linear) of the output neuron.
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  2 
y = f  ∑ xiωi + θ 
 i =1 

If Activation function is threshold (or sign function) find bipolar

binary function.

 + 1 if s > 0 +1

f (s) = 
− 1 otherwise
s
-1

if ω1 x1 + ω2 x2 + θ > 0 ⇒ o / p → +1
< 0 ⇒ o / p → −1

ω1 x1 + ω2 x2 + θ = 0 → seprate two type of o/p called discriminant function

(it is linear here) 23
 ω1 θ
x2 = − x1 −
ω2 ω2
x2
Observations:
 Weights determine slope.
 Bias determines the offset.
 Weight vector is always
perpendicular to the
discriminant function. x1
θ
 Weight can be plotted in I/P ω
space.

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 During training, both the weights and bias is updated as:
ωi (t + 1) = ωi (t ) + ∆ωi (t )
θ (t + 1) = θ (t ) + ∆θ (t )

Perceptron learning rule

Steps
1- Start with random weights for the connections.
−
2- Select an Input vector x from training set.
3- Ify ≠ d (x), i.e. desired output, modify all the connection
weights ωi according to −
∆ω i = η d ( x) xi
Modify the bias according to ∆θ = 0 −if perception respond correctly
 d ( x ) otherwise
4-Go to Step 2. 25
 Limitation of Perceptron Model

 It can handle classification of only those inputs

which are linearly separable.
 It is difficult to say whether a given function is
linearly separable or not.
 It is not predictable how long it will take time to
train the network.
 It is not good in generalization.
 Perceptrons have not shown the strength in
learning to recognize relationship between
various inputs.
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Multi Layer Perceptron

Input Hidden Output

Layer w11 Layer v11 Layer
x1 w12 K v12 y1
w13 v13
x2 y2
: :
xm yn

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A multi-layer feedforward
neural network

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Multi Layer Perceptron (Types of Layers)

• Input Layer
- Introduces input values into the network.
- No activation function or other processing.
• Hidden Layer(s)
- Performs classification of features.
- Two hidden layers are sufficient to solve any problem.
• Output Layer
- Functionally just like the hidden layers.
- Outputs are passed on to the world outside the ANN.

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Training Algorithm

 Back propagation learning algorithm is used to

train the MLP Model either on-line (single
pattern) mode or batch mode to
 adjust interconnection weights to map inputs
to outputs.
 use a set of sample patterns or training
patterns, where the desired outputs for the
given inputs are known.

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 Back Propagation Learning Algorithm
(Batch Mode)
1. Initialize the connection weights wjh between output layer neurons and
hidden layer neurons, and whi between hidden layer neurons and input
layer neurons.
2. Initialize the iteration count K.
3. Read an input pattern( training pattern) p.
4. Starting from the neuron in first hidden layer, calculate the neuron
output using equations

Neth,p = ∑wi
h ,i xi , p + θ i (1)

Where i =neuron in the input layer, h=neuron in the hidden layer

θi = Bias in the input layer.
Neth,p = net input ( inner product) of neuron j
xi,p = input of neuron i in the input layer.
whi = connection weight from neuron h to neuron i. 31
Back Propagation Learning Algorithm (Batch Mode)…
 The output of the hidden layer neuron is given by
1
Oh,p = f(Neth,p) = (2)
− Net h , p
(1 + e )
 Using the output of hidden layer neurons and the connected weights between
output layer and hidden layer neurons, compute net input and the output of the
output layer neurons as:

Netj,p = ∑w
i
j ,h Oh , p + θ h (3)
1
− Net j , p
Oj,p = f(Netj,p) = (1 + e ) (4)

Where, j = neuron in the output layer

Netj,p = net input ( inner product) of output layer neuron j
Oj,p = output of neuron j
wj,h = connection weight from output layer neuron j to hidden layer neuron h
5. Calculate the error (squared error ) for the pattern p using the equation
1
Ep =
2 ∑ j, p j, p
(
j
T − O ) 2 (5)
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Back Propagation Learning Algorithm (Batch Mode)…

6. Repeat step 3 to 5, until all patterns in the training

set have been considered (p = P).
7. Compute the error function E(K) for the present
iteration (K) using the equation .

∑ (T
P P

E(K) = ∑ Ep =
p =1
∑
p =1
1 j, p − O j, p )2 (6)
2 j

8. Calculate the average sum squared error value by

dividing total error E(K) by the number of patterns.
E0(K) = E(K)/P (7)

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Back Propagation Learning Algorithm (Batch mode)…
9. If E0(K) < E0 ( a small given value) go to Step no. 11.
Otherwise go to step 10.
10. Update the connection weights between output layer neurons
and hidden layer neurons as

wj,h(K+1) = wj,h(K) + Δwj,h(K) (8)

and the connection weights between hidden layer neurons and

input layer neurons as

wh,i(K+1) = wh,i(K) + Δ wh,i (K) (9)

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Back Propagation Learning Algorithm (Batch Mode)…

where
∆w j ,h ( K ) = ηδ j , K Oh ,k + α∆w j ,h ( K − 1) (10)
∆wh ,i ( K ) = ηδ h , K Oi ,k + α∆wh ,i ( K − 1) (11)

Where, for output nodes P

δ j,K = ∑ ( Net j , p ).((T j , p − O j , p )

f '

p =1
(12)

for hidden nodes P

δ h,K = ∑ f '
( Neth, p ).(∑ δ j , K .w j ,h ( K ))
p =1 j
(13)

and increase the iteration count by 1.

10. Go to step 3
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11. Stop, Print out weights wj,h and wh,i.
 Applications of ANN
Function approximation, or regression
analysis, including time series prediction,
fitness approximation and modeling.
Classification, including pattern and sequence
recognition, novelty detection and sequential
decision making.
Data processing, including filtering, clustering,
blind source separation and compression.
Robotics, including directing manipulators,
Computer numerical control. 36
 Applications…
 Application areas include system identification and
control (vehicle control, process control)
 quantum chemistry
 game-playing and decision making (chess, racing)
 pattern recognition (radar systems, face
identification, object recognition and more)
 sequence recognition (gesture, speech, handwritten
text recognition)

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Applications…
medical diagnosis
 Forecasting
 Optimization
 Memory
financial applications (automated trading
systems)
data mining (or knowledge discovery in
databases, "KDD")
visualization and e-mail spam filtering.
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----------------
 ANN APPLICATIONS TO POWER
SYSTEM
1. Load Forecasting :
 Most suitable area for ANN application
 Unsupervised /Supervised learning for STLF
 Unsupervised learning for clustering the input
patterns
 Supervised learning within cluster
 MLP with BP/modified BP algorithm
 RBF for STLF, RBF superior to BP model
 RNN by Hayashi et. al for long term load
forecasting
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 2. Fault Diagnosis :

 MLP model applied by in a no. of researchers.

 Status of C.B. and relays as input to ANN
 Output pattern fault state
 Voltage and current as input in some ref.
 RBF and BP models developed by Ranaweera
 BP superior in performance, training of RBF
faster

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 3. Dynamic Stability Analysis :

MLP models for voltage stability analysis

For Transient stability, MLP with BP/
modified BP in most of the references.
Kottick, better results with 50%
connectivity
SOFM for Transient stability assessment

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 4. P.S. Static Security Assessment :
 Unsupervised/ Supervised learning by
Djukanovick et. al
MLP applied in some references.

5. Economic Load Dispatch :

 Hopfield model applied in references.
ANN based approach much simpler & close to
numerical results.

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 6.Hydroelectric Generation Scheduling
Clustering ANN to identify days with
similar input pattern
 Separate ANN trained for each day type

7. Power System Stabiliser Design :

MLP based PSS proposed in some
references.
Fuzzy technique & NN based method for
PSS control.
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 8. Load Flow Studies :
 MLP applied in references.
 Dynamic ANN with feedback used in some
references for L.F.

9.Voltage and Reactive Power Control :

 Kojima et. al proposed RNN based algorithm for
VQ control
 Neuro VQ control more stable and able to control
P.S. more accurately

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Difficulties with ANN Implementation
1.Design of ANN :
(a) Input Feature Selection :
 For optimum feature selection a trial & error and some
heuristic required
 Principal component analysis method , entropy reduction
method & angular distance based clustering for feature
selection
(b) Selection of Hidden layer & hidden nodes :
 No set rule for no. of hidden layers and hidden nodes in
MLP model.
 Empirical formula for hidden nodes available
 Dynamically designing of hidden layer proposed

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2. Training Set Generation & Number of Training
Set
 No efficient way of generating exhaustive & complete training
set.
 Field trials using actual data necessary for effective ANN.
 Approach to minimise the training patterns proposed.

3. Selection of Training Parameters (η and α ) :

 No fixed rule for selection of η and α.
 BP algorithm can be made faster using Adaptive learning
algorithm, Conjugate gradient method, Newton’s method and
Second order BP algorithm.

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4. Weight Initialisation :
 No systematic procedure for selection of initial
weights.
 Use of some function is proposed for weight
initialisation to speed up the training of MLP model.

5. End -User Factor :

 ANN implementation lacks to interact with the end-
user.
 Hybrid system combining ANN and Expert System
able to solve this problem.
 Various models evolving the synergism of ANN &
Expert System reported in some references.

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Conclusion
 In decision making, especially in planning
and off-line diagnosis, an AI system is
required to interact with the end-user.
 The Expert System implementation put a
heavy emphasis on user interface design,
while ANN implementations suffer from a lack
of this features presently.
 Hybrid system combining the individuals
strength of ESs and ANNs seem to have a
good potential in solving this problem.
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